PG Winter Term 2018 Script PDF

Practical Grammar_1 winter term topic 1: BASIC CONCEPTS
1.1 Metalanguage and language awareness

1. TERMINOLOGY. Match the expressions and the grammatical terms.
1. better a. noun
2. the b. modal auxiliary
3. house c. preposition
4. quickly d. definite article
5. can e. superlative
6. does f. tag
7. on, at, during g. auxiliary
8. cheapest h. adjective
9. wasn’t it i. possessive pronoun
10. white j. past participle
11. although k. adverb
12. chosen l. passive
13. were told m. relative pronoun
14. whose n. conjunction
15. hers
o. comparative
2. TERMINOLOGY. Give another example of the following categories.
noun ........................................................................
verb .........................................................................
adjective ..................................................................
adverb .....................................................................
preposition ..............................................................
pronoun ...................................................................
conjunction .............................................................
3. LANGUAGE AWARENESS. Why do those nonsense sentences seem acceptable?
(a) He crattled his splot and scrot out a neelying groal.
(b) They strentered folicly until a magan veened to famble them.
1.2 Basic terminology
1. PHRASES. Say to which class of phrases each of the following belongs. Hint: identify the
heads.
(a) is going to return .................................................................................................................................

(b) wonderful films by Fellini .....................................................................................................................
(c) very good at languages .......................................................................................................................
(d) more fluently than before ....................................................................................................................
(e) in spite of the problems .......................................................................................................................
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2. TYPES OF VERBS. Look at the underlined fragments; are the verbs

TRANSITIVE or INTRANSITIVE? Identify the objects: Od (direct object), Oi (indirect object).
He fell. Please sing me that song again.

Don’t break the cup. They sent the message to their family by e-mail.
She broke her glasses. They painted the door blue.
John gave me the letter. They appointed Mary chairperson of the meeting.
3. TERMINOLOGY. Basic sentence functions.
Od: can become subject in the Passive

Oi: can be mediated by a to-preposition
Op: is always introduced by a preposition
Cs: follows a link verb, eg. be, become, seem, get, grow, turn, sound, smell, look, etc.
Co: specifies some characteristic of the object, after such verbs as: find, appoint, make, consider,
elect, etc.
Cp: appears after the following classes of verbs:
- relational: have, possess, lack, contain, fit, suit
- measurement: cost, take, measure, weigh
- equal reciprocity: resemble, marry
- expressing movement: creep, slip, slide, crawl
- others: complain, wish, wonder, bother
ADJUNCT (Adj): modifies the verb phase
DISJUNCT (Dis): adds a comment about the whole clause
- STYLISTIC (comments on the form of what is said): seriously, personally, strictly speaking
- ATTITUDINAL (comments on the content of what is said): hopefully, fortunately, to my
surprise, of course, obviously
CONJUNCT (Con): shows the semantic connection between clauses / utterances
e.g. furthermore, nonetheless, consequently, last but not least, etc.
4. SENTENCE ANALYSIS. Sentence functions can be realized either by phrases or clauses.

(a) All I want is a holiday. Subject (S)
(b) That is what I always wanted. Subject complement (Cs)
(c) I’ll see you when I she comes. Adjunct of time (Adj)
CLAUSE (def.): …………………………………………………………………………………………………
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5. CLAUSES. Identify the functions of the underlined clauses in the following sentences.
(a) That we need more equipment is obvious. …………..

(b) I know that we need more equipment. …………..
(c) The point is that we need more equipment. …………..
(d) I gave whoever it was a cup of tea. …………..
(e) I imagined him overcome with grief. …………..
(f) When we meet, I shall explain everything. …………..
(g) To be honest, I’ve never liked him. …………..
(h) What is more, he has lost the friends he had. …………..
6. Look at the following sentences and identify two types of clauses: independent and
dependent. What is special about the form of the dependent clauses in sentences (d) – (i)?
7. CLAUSES. Some terminology to describe multi-clausal sentences.
8. CLAUSES. Mark the sentences below as simple, compound or complex.
(a) The instrument was bought by my father many years ago.

(b) Recently, one of the visitors tried to play it.
(c) She struck the keys too hard and two of the strings were broken.
(d) It is being repaired by a friend of my father’s.
(e) Fishermen and sailors sometimes claim to have seen monsters in the sea.
(f) That dog with a long tail must have been taken away by the children.
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9. CLAUSES. Types of clauses – revision
(a) What is the difference between the term clause and sentence? Is ‘zdanie podrzędne’ a type of
clause or a type of sentence?
(b) Why cannot we use the term complex sentence as the equivalent of the Polish term ‘zdanie
złożone’?
(c) Why should we think of relative clauses as separate from the other types of clauses (i.e. main,
coordinate, and dependent)?
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Practical Grammar_1 winter term topic 1: TENSE AND ASPECT
1.1.Typology of verbs
1. TYPES OF VERBS. Look at the following classification of verbs. Why do we say that
the class of auxiliaries is an exception within open class items?
Periphrastic: do
Primary auxiliaries
Aspectual
Passive: have, be
Auxiliary verbs
Modal auxiliaries: can, may, shall, will, could,
might, might, should, ought to, would, used to,
must
Verbs Semi modals: need, dare
Lexico-modal auxiliaries: have to, be about to, be bound to, etc.
Lexical verbs: walk, play, learn, etc.
3. TYPES OF VERBS. Look at the following sentences.

[adapted from Kaznowski & Mioduszewska.]
a) Identify auxiliary and lexical verbs (mark them as A or L).

b) Identify primary and modal auxiliaries (mark them as P or M).
1. The students needn’t [ ] attend [ ] the lectures if they don’t [ ] want to [ ].
2. Their knowledge will [ ] have [ ] been [ ] checked [ ] by the end of the academic
year.
3. In the meantime they ought to [ ] work [ ] and study [ ] on their own.
4. Those who have [ ] failed [ ] the examinations must [ ] have [ ] neglected [ ] the
requirements.
5. They still have [ ] a chance of passing the exams if they are [ ] willing [ ] to.
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1.2. Introduction to mood, tense and aspect

1. VERB FORMS. Look at the following features of finite and non-finite verb
forms. Identify the verb forms in bold in the text below.
Finite verb forms:

1. have tense distinction (present and past)
2. can occur as the predicator of the main clause
3. remain in the person and number concord with the subject of the clause
4. have mood
- unmarked – the indicative mood
- marked – the imperative, the interrogative, or the subjunctive mood
Non-finite verb forms:
1. have no tense distinction
2. have no mood
3. cannot directly follow the subject of the main clause
There are a lot of kitchen companies out there, offering you all sorts of deals. But we at Wilson
& Glick are not among them. Compared with our rivals, our kitchens are built from better
materials. They have adjustable legs and wall brackets to ensure a perfect fit. Yet, as
displayed in our showroom, our kitchens, cost far less than those of our rivals. What we
have to offer comes in about half the price of more commonplace kitchens. So if you are
interested in higher quality, but you’re looking for a lower price, call us.
Finite Non-finite
2. MOOD. Look at the following categorization of clauses. Try to give two examples.
Mood Type of speech act Example
1.
Declarative making a statement
2.
1.
Interrogative asking a question
2.
1.
Imperative giving a directive
2.
1.
Exclamative expressing an exclamation
2.
a) Which verb form (finite or non-finite) is requited in the Declarative mood?

b) Which verb form (finite or non-finite) is requited in the Interrogative
mood?
c) Which mood does not require the use of the Subject?
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3. TENSE AND FUNCTION. Comment on these statements [adopted from: Discover English]
(a) The simple past is always used for completed actions.
(b) The most common use for the present continuous is to express the immediate
present.
(c) The future tense is formed with will or shall + infinitive.
(d) The past perfect tense is used to express the distant past.
(e) Past and present tenses should not be used in the same sentence.
4. TENSE AND TIME. Look at the following three groups of sentences.

a) How many tenses do we have in English?
b) Is there a difference between tense and time?
c) Is there a straightforward correspondence between tense and time in English?
A C
1. I live/ am living in Warsaw. 1. I’ll go to Paris some day.
2. For generations, Nepal has produced 2. When are you going to get married?
brilliant mountaineers.
3. She’s going to have a baby.
3. He says he has been seeing our
4. The President is coming to the UN this
daughter for some time!
week.
5. What will you say if I marry my boss?
B 6. The guests will be drunk before they
1. For generations, Sparta produced/ was leave.
producing fearless warriors. 7. When is high tide?
2. He says that he saw the meteor last
8. He’ll do/ be doing his best.
night.
3. The girl drowned/ was drowning in the
lake.
past present future
‘yesterday’ ‘’today’ ‘tomorrow’
And now a surprise set of sentences:

a) And suddenly yesterday my landlord tells me the rent’s going up.
b) And today I woke with a splitting headache.
c) Tomorrow I fly to London for a big meeting.
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5a.TENSE AND ASPECT. Here are some extracts from the TV commentary of a football
match – the Netherlands – West Germany game in the 1990 World Cup. Each one uses
a different tense. Write the names of the tenses on the lines. [Adapted from Naked Verb]
Well, they’re lining up for Littbarski’s free kick. .........................................................................

That’s the first time I’ve ever seen him lose his temper. ...........................................................
… and tonight he was really looking forward to this game. ......................................................
He’d been working so hard for that chance. .............................................................................
West Germany go ahead with a goal by Klinsmann! ................................................................
The Dutch have been taking refreshment during the stoppage. ...............................................
… it was Ruud Guillit who got above them all, and a very good header away… ......................
… but the whistle had gone for a foul on the Dutchman. ..........................................................
Note, that although you have noted down eight names of tenses, they are made up
of only five different words: …………………, …………………, …………………,
………………… and
………………….
5b. Look at the verb phrases in the table below.

a) Tick the words which apply to each verb phrase. The first one has been done
for you.
b) What do you notice when you cover the part of the table in gray?
past perfect progressive simple present
they’re lining up V V
I’ve never seen him
he was looking forward
He’d been working
West Germany go ahead
The Dutch have been taking
Ruud Guillit got
the whistle had gone
6. TENSE AND ASPECT. Compositionality.
Look at the graph below. The circles represent the interaction of the three elements:
the past, the perfect and the progressive. See if you can name the tenses each are of the
graph represents.
PA ST
PERFECT PROG RESSIVE

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7. TENSE AND ASPECT. Now, try to complete the definitions below.
1. TIME is ……………………….. of language and common to all human beings.
2. TENSE can be defined as a linguistic expression of ………………………. relations when

they are realized by ………………………….. forms.
3. ASPECT refers to the ………………………. in which the verb action is reported or

experienced by the speaker.
4. English has …………………….. tenses: …………………….. and ………………………., and

……………………… aspects: …………………….. and ………………………. .
5. ……………………… and …………………… categories can be combined in various ways

so that we get a system of contrasts in the complex verb patterns.
6. There is no obvious …………………………. tense in English corresponding to the

time/tense parallel for present and past. There are a number of possibilities of denoting
…………………………….. by means of modality, present tense and aspects.
1.3. The PRESENT. The meaning of the PROGRESSIVE.

1. MEANING. Answer the questions about following sentences.
1. I start at six o’clock.
Do we know who is speaking?
2. I get up at eight. Do we know the meaning of the words?
Do we know the time reference?
3. I see her.
2. Look at the following examples of the use of the present simple. What is special
about them?
A B
1. Now, I put the mixture into the oven. 1. I’d better get some sleep. I get up at eight tomorrow.
2. The Ferrari crosses the finishing line. 2. I can’t come. I see the dentist in the afternoon.
3. The series starts on W ednesday night at 10o’clock on Channel 4.
C
1. ... but my father writes that he’s already sent the money to W ashington to start the procedure.
2. Shocked hippo dies
3. Archie: Hello, Wendy. Had a good day?
Wendy: I spend the morning trying to get the waste-disposal man to come, have lunch with
Marjorie who takes up the entire meal complaining about her husband and I have to play three
rubbers with Philippa and I come back here and Sanderson’s have sent the wrong flowers.
Archie: Oh, no! would you like some tea?
3. MEANING OF PRESENT SIMPLE. Now try to conclude about the present simple.
If all the grammatical meaning of verb tenses comes from the three elements,
and the present simple is unaffected by any element,
then........................................................................................................................................
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4. MEANING OF THE PROGRESSIVE. What happens to the verbs in these examples?

Can we find a common element?
Progressive longer: ...............................................................................................................
Progressive shorter: .............................................................................................................
1a) She lives in a villa near Florence.

1b) She is living in a villa near Florence.
2a) ... and Kubica passes Hamilton...
2b) ... and Kubica is passing Hamilton...
3a) Her husband works for Mitsubishi.
3b) Her husband is working for Mitsubishi.
4a) Fred plays the guitar quite well.
4b) Fred's playing the guitar quite well.
5a) Now I put the mixture into the oven.
5b) Now I'm putting the mixture into the oven.
6a) Ronaldinho runs on towards an open goal.
6b) Ronaldinho is running on towards an open goal
5. MEANING OF THE PROGRESSIVE. Does this concept apply to the verbs below?
Are they ‘stretched’ or ‘limited’?
1. As the doctor enters the room, Lorna coughs. 1. As the doctor enters the room, Lorna is coughing.
2. The lightning flashes as Miguel reaches the 2. The lightning is flashing as Miguel reaches the
front door. front door.
3. A gun fires in the distance. Henderson looks up. 3. A gun is firing in the distance. Henderson looks up
6. TIME REFERENCE WITH THE PROGRESSIVE. Does the common element account
for the following examples? What ‘type’ of verb is represented?
Now, tick one of the sentences which you think is right.

1. Alan may be painting his living room but Julie isn’t painting hers.
2. Julie may be painting her living room but Alan isn’t painting his.
3. Both Alan and Julie may be painting their living rooms.
4. Neither Alan nor Julie are painting their living rooms.
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7. Which of these examples were invented and which are real? Why are the invented
ones strange?
1 ‘I’m catching an early train to Grimble tomorrow,’ I warned Hilda.

2 ‘The doctor said Mrs Polanski’s probably dying soon.’
3 ‘We could meet somewhere. They’re letting me out on Friday.’
4 ‘… and apart from anything else I think it’s raining tomorrow.’
5 ‘When do you have the exam?’ Freda asked. ‘On Friday. I’m pretty sure I’m passing it.’
6 ‘We’re moving out soon. We’ve got to be at full strength.’
8A. TIME REFERENCE. Does the basic meaning of the progressive apply also to the
following cases? Why can the present progressive refer to the future?
A. Tick the answer you think is correct:
The man has got on the wrong plane.
The speaker is talking about an action in the future.
B. What is implied by the following statements? Can we interpret this use of

progressive in terms of limited duration and the time frame?
1 Mr Crosbie is seeing the dentist tomorrow.

2 He’s playing for Inter Milan next season.
3 Elena’s taking me out to lunch on Friday.
4 The boss is retiring at the end of the next year.
9. Can basic meaning of the progressive help in understanding the following cases?
1a) Tom’s always coming late on Fridays. 1b) Tom always comes late on Fridays.
2a) I wish Dick would give up skiing. He’s always 2b) I wish Dick would give up skiing. He always
getting hurt. gets hurt.
3a) You’d better check Harry’s going to be here – 3b) You’d better check Harry’s going to be here –
he’s always going away for the weekend. he always goes away for the weekend.
[Clue: what is the meaning of ‘always’ in the progressive sentences? Can you think of similar
Polish uses of words like ‘zawsze’, ‘nigdy’, ‘wiecznie’?]
10. Here are some sentences taken from real conversations. What other emotions are
expressed?
a) He’s always giving people small presents.
b) I hate those cartoons where Tom is always chasing Gerry.
c) My wife’s always buying new products.
d) Someone is always giving a party in one of those houses.
e) That old bitch is always making up stories about people.
f) I’m always getting good marks for my essays.
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11. GRAMMATICAL vs. LEXICAL ASPECT. Look at yet another classification of verbs.
Verbs
Stative Dynamic
Punctual Durative
Cognition Relations Acts Activities Processes

believe be hit eat become
hate belong jump run change
know contain kick swim flow
like have stab walk grow
understand own strike work harden
want resemble throw write learn
Explain the difference in meaning of the sentences below.

1 5
1a) They taste delicious. a) What do you want?
1b) They are tasting delicious things. b) What are you wanting?
2 6
a) He imagines that he is a leader. a) He is being a teacher.
b) He is imagining things. b) He is a teacher.
3 7
a) I hope that you’ll be in our city soon. a) She is having a baby.
b) I am hoping that you’ll be able to lend me b) She has a baby.
this book.
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a) He is forgetting things as the years go by.
b) He forgets about his duties.
12. These verbs are commonly listed as stative in English and thus incompatible with
the progressive aspect:
appear, believe, belong, contain, dislike, feel, hate, hear, know, like, love, mean, owe, own,
realize, recognize, remember, see, seem, smell, sound, suppose, taste, think, understand,
want, wish.
Discuss the choice of the appropriate verb form:
1. I (have) a great time.
2. She (appear) to have a problem.
3. It (look) as if it’s going to rain.
4. I (see) the manager this afternoon.
5. What (you think) about?
6. I (feel) she’s making a mistake.
13. Look at the following examples. Why is the progressive more appropriate on some
occasions?
1a) I am hoping that you will take the part of Hamlet.
1b) I hope that you will take the part of Hamlet.
2a) I hope you will visit us soon.
2b) I am hoping you will visit us soon.
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1.4.The meaning contribution of the PERFECTIVE

1. TIME REFERENCE. Look at this cartoon.
2. TIME REFERENCE. Yet, the Present Perfect is a PRESENT tense (not a Past tense), so
it should be able to relate events not just to the immediate present, but to other areas of
non-past time as well. Decide whether the following sentences refer to:
(G) general time
(F) future time
3. MEANING.The common meaning of the perfective element. All the sentences below
have a future time reference. What difference does adding the PERFECTIVE make?
1. (a) When I visit Barcelona, I'll speak to her.
(b) When I've visited Barcelona, I'll speak to her.
2. (a) I'll speak to him when I finish this letter.

(b) I'll speak to him when I've finished this letter.
3. (a) Jimmy always drinks tea when he has his dinner.

(b) Jimmy always drinks tea when he has had his dinner.
Sub-conclusion:
The perfective element seems to mean two things:
"relevance" "before"
for Past time relating to Now for General time and Future time
Why is it so? Consider the same examples again:

when talking about Past time: when talking about Future time:
(i) You left his watch on.  (i) * When I visited Barcelona, I'll see her.
…………………… (ii) When I've visited Barcelona, I'll see her.
(ii) You've left his watch on. 
……………………
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4. MEANING. For each of these sentences write another with nearly the same meaning,
using the present perfect simple or continuous. Follow the example.
[adopted from: Advance Your English]

e.g. They are at home now They have come back home.
1. Your children look bigger. ....................................................................................................
2. He isn't here. .......................................................................................................................
3. I can't remember the phone number. ...................................................................................
4. The dishes are still dirty. ......................................................................................................
5. You look in good shape. ......................................................................................................
6. Your hair looks shorter. ......................................................................................................
7. It's wet outside. ....................................................................................................................
8. The cat is hungry. ................................................................................................................
9. The TV still doesn't work. .....................................................................................................
10. You sound breathless. .......................................................................................................
5. PERFECTIVE + PROGRESSIVE What is the difference in meaning?
1a) What have you done with the 1b) What have you been doing with
breadknife? the breadknife?
2a) I’ve fed the chickens. 2b) I’ve been feeding the chickens.
3a) I’ve thought of your suggestion. 3b) I’ve been thinking of your suggestion.
4a) What has happened here? 4b) What has been happening here?
5a) I’ve spoken to Kevin. 5b) I’ve been speaking to Kevin.
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6. PERFECTIVE + PROGRESSIVE. Look at the examples below. Then complete the rules
with the names of the verb tenses: present perfect simple and present perfect
progressive.
I’ve been reading your book; I’m enjoying it.

I’ve read your book. (=I’ve finished it.)
The ..................................................... looks at the continuing situation itself;

The .....................................................says that something is completed, achieved.
I’ve played tennis three times this week.

I’ve been playing a lot of tennis recently.
We use the .....................................................to say how often something has happened

(because of the idea of completion).
He’s been living in Doncaster for the last few months.

I’ve lived here all my life.
We prefer the .....................................................to talk about permanent or very long-lasting

situations.
Remember that some verbs are not used in progressive forms even if the meaning is
one for which a progressive form is more suitable
He’s only known her for two days. (NOT He’s only been knowing her…)
How long have you had that cold? (NOT …have you been having…?)
1.5 The meaning contribution of the PAST

1. TIME REFERENCE. Now look at the examples below. Divide the sentences below
into two groups. What do you base your choice on?
1. She was here a couple of minutes ago.
2. If only he wasn’t so busy these days.
3. I borrowed his car last Thursday.
4. If you knew the answer, why didn’t you tell me?
5. It’s 12 o’clock – time we finished.
6. He wasn’t so busy last year.
7. I’d rather you spoke to him tonight.
8. I wish she was here now.
9. We finished just before lunch yesterday.
10. I’d tell you now if I knew the answer.
11. I spoke to him last night.
12. Would you mind if I borrowed your car?
Group 1: ..................................................................................................................................
Group 2: ..................................................................................................................................
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2. MEANING. Are the following past forms ‘real past time’ or ‘unreal’ non-past time?
[HINT: Try to provide contexts.]
1. ... you came in on time ...
2. ... I was a bit late on Monday ...
3. ... they gave you the Sales Manager’s post ...
4. ... you understood the importance of that sort of thing ...
4. MEANING. What is special about the past simple?
UNREAL NON-PAST TIME
remote in reality/ possibility

remote in time
REAL PAST TIME THE SPEAKER’S PERSPECTIVE
3. MEANING. Now try to conclude about the past simple.

1. Can we easily distinguish if the speaker is talking about the past or about the non-past time?
2. Does the past simple tell us the time of the action?
3. Is the action in the past simple close in time and in reality to the moment of speaking?
4. Change these sentences by adding the PROGRESSIVE element. Does the meaning
change?
1. He ran away when I saw him.
2. Eric cut himself with the breadknife.
3. She lived in a small flat in Coventry.
4. Goran left for Belgrade.
5. Harry constantly asked questions.
6. I wondered … could you cash me a cheque?
7. Imagine we walked through a jungle and suddenly a lion stood there. How would you react?
5. Look at the examples. Which of rules mentioned gives the best explanation for the use
of the past perfect in 1-4?
1. When I got to the car park I realized that I had lost my keys.
2. She told me she had worked in France and Germany.
3. He arrived late; he hadn’t realized the roads would be so icy.
4. She was upset because Andrew hadn’t telephoned.
Do we use the past perfect:

- mostly in indirect speech?
- to show that a past action was completed?
- when we are already talking about the past, and want to talk about an earlier past for a
moment?
- to talk about things that happened a very long time ago?
- to say why something happened?
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11. Interpret the sentences the basis of what you know about the PAST and the
PERFECTIVE element.
A. He left when the police arrived.
B. He left before the police arrived.
C. He had left when the police arrived.
12. The past element signals either real past time or unreal non-past time. Does this
fact affect past perfect?
1. The police had moved us from

the bridge so we decided to go
down to Brighton and sleep on
the beach.
2. Erhart von Csumlay was
dressed in black, not because
his wife had recently died but
because black is a serious
colour.
3. It would have been a great deal
better if you’d been here.
4. It’s so much more difficult to do
anything about it now. I’d much
rather she’d said something when
it all started.
5. He was married now, to a
fellow graduate, they’d just
had their first child…
6. They were far too worried about
defending. I wish they’d just gone
out and played to win.
13. Basing on the diagram below, match the sentences with appropriate letters.
(i) I knew the answer.

(ii) I wish I knew the answer.
(iii) I know the answer.
(iv) I wish I had known the answer.
(v) It would have been a great deal
better if you’d known the answer.
(vi) I assured him I had known the
answer.
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14. Put in the simple past or past perfect.

1. I............................ (be) sorry that I ............................... (not be) nicer to him.
2. Nobody ......................... (come) to the meeting because Angela ......................... (forget)
to tell people about it.
3. I ......................... (see) her before somewhere- I ......................... (know).
4. Because he ......................... (not check) the oil for so long, the car .........................
......................... (break) down.
5. She couldn’t find the book that I ......................... (lend) her.
6. All the people we ......................... (invite) turned up, and some that we .........................
(not invite).
7. They........................... (never find) where he ................................. (hide) the money.
8. It was a firm that I ......................................... (never hear) of.
15. Choose the correct tense (simple past or past perfect).

When I ......................... (1 go) to Paris last spring for a job interview, I .................................
(2 not be) there for five years. I ......................... (3 arrive) the evening before the interview,
and ......................... (4 spend) a happy hour walking round thinking about the good times I
............................. (5 have) there as a student.
As I was strolling by the Seine, I suddenly ......................... (6 see) a familiar face- it was
Nedjma, the woman I ......................... (7 share) a flat with when I was a student, and whose
address I ......................... (8 lose) after leaving Paris. I could tell she ......................... (9 not
see) me, so I ......................... (10 call) her name and she ......................... (11 look) up. As
she ......................... (12 turn) towards me, I ......................... (13 realise) that she
......................... (14 have) and ugly scar on the side of her face. She .................................
(15 see) the shock in my eyes, and her hand ......................... (16 go) up to touch the scar;
she ......................... (17 explain) that she ......................... (18 get) it when she was a
journalist reporting on a war in Africa.
She ......................... (19 not be) uncomfortable telling me this; we ......................... (20 feel)
as if the years .................................. (21 not pass), as if we ......................... (22 say) goodbye
the week before. She .................................................. (23 arrive) in Paris that morning, and
she ......................... (24 have) a hospital appointment the next day. The doctors
......................... (25 think) that they could remove the scar, but she would have to stay in
Paris for several months. Both of us ......................... (26 have) the idea at the same time: if I
......................... (27 get) the job, we could share a flat again. And we could start by having a
coffee while we ......................... (28 begin) to tell one another everything that .........................
(29 happen) to us in the past five years.
6
16. What follows is part of the conversation that took place between the spacecraft
and mission control at Houston, Texas. All the verbs in brackets were used in the
Present Simple or Present Progressive, or the Past Simple or Past Progressive.
Put the verbs in the most suitable of these forms, using the short forms of the
auxiliary verbs where appropriate.
At 04.04, British Summer Time, Captain Lovell ..................... (report): ‘Hey! We’ve got a
problem here.’
Twenty-one minutes later he ....................... (tell) mission control: ‘It .............................(look)

to me, looking out the hatch, like we .......................(vent) something into space. It
................... (be) gas of some kind.’
Mission control ....................... (ask): ‘Can you tell us anything about the venting?
...................................................... (where it come) from; what window ..............................
(you see) it at?’
Spacecraft: ‘It .............................. (come) out of window one right now Jack. Something
............................. (give) us a breach, Jack, both in pitch and roll so I ........................
(suspect) that maybe it ......................... (be) whatever it .................... (be) that
............................. (spin) back there.’
Later, during the first critical hours when mission control ............................... (work)
desperately but calmly towards a solution that would give the three astronauts a chance of
survival, ......................... (come) this agitated message from the spacecraft: ‘I .......................
(transmit). I ................... (not have) any current now. Hey, it ................... (be) off. It
................... (be) dead.’
For three hours, one of the three fuel-cells ................... (keep—passive) working on the
command module. But at 05.40, B.S.T., Fred Haise ................... (report) that cabin oxygen
pressure ................... (fall). Mission control ................... (order) the emergency batteries to
be activated.
The spacecraft .......................................... (report): ‘Jack, it ................... (look) like O2

pressure ................... (be) just a hair over 200.’
MC: ‘We ................... (confirm) that here and the temperature also ................... (confirm) it.’
SC: ‘Okay. ..................... ................... (it look) like it .............................. (still go) down?’
MC: ‘It ................................. (slowly go) down to zero and we ........................ (start) to think
about the EM (lunar module) lifeboat.’
SC: ‘Yes, that ................... (be) something we ................... (think) about too.’
(from The Times, 18 April 1970)
7
Practical Grammar_1 winter term topic 4: PASSIVE VOICE
4. Passive Voice
1. INTRODUCTION. Choose the correct or best sentence (a or b) in each pair.

[adopted from Foley and Hall]
1 a Twenty per cent of the world's oil is owned by Saudi Arabia.
b Twenty per cent of the world's oil gets owned by Saudi Arabia.
2 a Some people think The Tempest is Shakespeare's final play.

b The Tempest is thought to be Shakespeare's final play.
3 a A famous actress is resembled by my sister.

b My sister resembles a famous actress.
4 a That political party wants to increase its membership.

b Membership wants to be increased by that political party.
5 a The Golden Gate Bridge is a marvel of American technology. It was designed by Joseph
B Strauss in the 1930s.
b The Golden Gate Bridge is a marvel of American technology. In the 1930s Joseph B
Strauss designed it.
6 a The interviewers will interview the candidates in alphabetical order.

b The candidates will be interviewed in alphabetical order.
7 a The post has arrived at last.

b The post has been arrived at last.
2. INTRODUCTION. Passive with and without the Agent. Put each verb in brackets into
the passive in an appropriate tense. Why is the Agent silenced in all cases?
[adapted from: Vince ex.4 and 5, p.33].
1. The cathedral ……………………… (build) in the 14th c.

2. All main courses ……………………… (serve) with vegetables or salad.
3. I'm afraid the next week's meeting ……………………… (cancel).
Is the underlined Agent necessary or not? Think of the different meanings.

4. My jewellery has been stolen by a thief.
5. It has been decided by the school that Wednesday will be a school holiday.
6. I was told by someone that they have a vacancy for a computer operator.
7. The letter was sent by post(*) on the 21st last month.
(*) not necessarily the Agent
1
3. INTRODUCTION. Try to passivize the sentences below. Try to find conditions,

or constraints on passivization.
category I: passivize easily

TYPE: …………………………………
Ted hit Bill.
An avalanche burried the climbers.
TYPE: …………………………………
Beethoven painted this picture.
TYPE: …………………………………
The parents will give the children some sweets.
Have you paid the taxi-driver the right amount?
They granted bail to the accused.
We shall give the unemployment problem priority.
TYPE: …………………………………
The news pleased us.
The success delighted us.
TYPE: …………………………………
People know that he is a genius.
Everybody believes he has stolen the goods.
category II: do not passivize

TYPE: …………………………………
The man weighs 100 kg.
He ran three miles.
The book costs $ 40,000.
TYPE: …………………………………
Fiona resembles her dog.
The results depend on you.
The book consists of three chapters.
The car belongs to the president.
The rule applies to all the cases.
4. INTRODUCTION. Passive – further exceptions. Try to passivize the sentences

below so that the underlined object becomes a subject. Is it possible?
[from: Kaznowski and Mioduszewska ex.C.21, p.147].
TYPE: …………………………………
George watched himself in the mirror.
They killed themselves in the car accident.
She heard herself on the tape, which made her angry.
TYPE: …………………………………
They truly like each other.
You can help one another if you try.
You couldn't see each other in the fog, could you.
TYPE: …………………………………
He nodded his head in agreement.
John sprained his ankle when he was going upstairs.
She waved her hand, saying goodbye.
2
TYPE: …………………………………
John hoped to see his girl-friend.
I avoid meeting too many people.
They expect to get some money.
Follow-up: now try these pairs

1. (a) Peter hurt himself.
(b) Peter hurt their feelings.
2. (a) Tricia waved her hand.
(b) Tricia waved the flag.
5. Tick five sentences which should not be changed. If you think a sentence should be
changed, choose the correct reason(s) (A-D) from the list in the box then rewrite the
sentence. [adopted from Foley and Hall]
The passive form is more appropriate because:

A the agent is unknown or unimportant
B the agent is obvious from the context or general knowledge
C we are describing rules, processes or procedures
D we prefer to put new information or a long subject clause at the end of a sentence
1. The stunning vista of long white beaches backed by verdant hills entranced her.
2. Our area sales manager has decided to leave.
3. The executioner executed the prisoner at dawn.
4. A man who had never known that he had rich relations inherited the estate.
5. My parents are staying with us over the weekend.
6. The New York flight leaves at six thirty.
7. They collect the information from various retail outlets and they enter it onto the database.
8. An unknown person has vandalized the lift in our block.
9. The ancient Egyptians were superb stonemasons.
10. People hardly ever see foxes in daylight.
11. People must complete this form in black ink and they must sign it.
12. Several members of the international press corps interviewed the terrorists.
13. This house used to belong to my aunt.
14. The jury convicted the man and the judge sentenced him to fifteen years in jail.
15. They heat milk to 110oC and then they rapidly cool it to produce the final
pasteurized product.
6. Rewrite each sentence in a more formal style so that it contains a passive form
of the word given in capitals. [adopted from Vince]
1. Sorry, but we've lost your letter. MISLAY

2. The police are grilling Harry down at the station. QUESTION
3. They've found the remains of an old Roman villa nearby. DISCOVER
4. You'll get a rise in salary after six months. RAISE
5. You go in the cathedral from the south door. ENTER
3
6. They stopped playing the match after half an hour. ABANDON

7. They've stopped traffic from using the centre. BAN
8. They took Chris to court for dangerous driving. PROSECUTE
9. You usually eat this kind of fish with a white sauce. SERVE
10. I don't know your name. INTRODUCE
7. Rewrite these sentences using passive forms. [adopted from Vince]
1. We will provide refreshments during the interval. .................................................................

2. You should complete the form in black ink. ..........................................................................
3. We have not tested this product on animals. .......................................................................
4. We supply this appliance with a plug. ..................................................................................
5. Someone has fitted this car with an alarm. ..........................................................................
6. We arrange our displays in chronological sequence. ...........................................................
7. You must wear hard hats while we are carrying out construction work. (two passives) ........
.................................................................................................................................................
8. We will prosecute all shoplifters. ..........................................................................................
9. Closed circuit cameras are monitoring this area. .................................................................
10. You may find toilet facilities at the rear of block B. .............................................................
11. We will take care of all the formalities. ...............................................................................
12. The customs officer made me open my suitcases. ............................................................
13. A lot of people say the government is out of touch with public opinion. ..............................
14. The judge ought to have sent him to prison for life. ............................................................
15. The check-in clerk gave Stephen an upgrade to first class. ...............................................
16. A farmer let us park the caravan in his field overnight. ......................................................
8. Put each verb in brackets into the passive in an appropriate tense. [adopted from Vince]
1. Nothing ............................... (see) of Pauline since her car ............................. (find) abandoned
near Newbury last week.
2. As our new furniture .............................. (deliver) on Monday morning I'll have to stay at home
to check that it...................................... (not damage) during transit.
3. The new Alhambra hatchback, which in this country .............................. (sell) under the name
'Challenger', .............................. (fit) with electric windows as standard.
4. For the past few days I .............................. (work) in Jack's office, as my own office
(redecorate).
5. The last time I went sailing with friends the boat ............................. (sink) in a gale. Luckily I
(not invite) again since then!
6. It ............................. (announce) that the proposed new office block.......................... (now not
build) because of the current economic situation.
7. A major new deposit of oil ............................. (discover) in the North Sea. It . .........................
(think) to be nearly twice the size of the largest existing field.
4
8. Pictures of the surface of the planet Venus .........................(receive) yesterday from the
space probe 'Explorer' which......................... (launch) last year.
9. A large sum ......................... (raise) for the Fund by a recent charity concert but the target
of 2250000 ......................... (still not reach).
10. No decision ......................... (make) about any future appointment until all suitable
candidates ......................... (interview).
9. PAST PASSIVES. Answer the questions. [adapted from Vince and V. Evans]
Which parts of the sentences below refer to the present and which to the past?
1
a) People believe that Mary is living in Scotland.
b) Mary is thought to be living in Scotland.
2
a) People believe that Smith left England last week.
b) Smith is believed to have left England last week.
3
a) The police thought that the thief was still in the house.
b) The thief was thought to still be in the house.
4
a) Everyone knows the portrait was painted by an Italian.
b) The portrait is known to have been painted by an Italian.
c) An Italian is known to have painted the portrait.
Which parts of the sentences below refer to the past, and which to the ‘past
before past’?
1
a) People thought Sue had paid too much.
b) Sue was thought to have paid too much.
2
a) People think the driver was doing a U-turn.
b) The driver is thought to have been doing a U-tum.
Now, turn the following sentences into the passive:
1. They believe John was working illegally. John .....................................................................

2. They say he felt better. He ...................................................................................................
3. They thought she had been brave to do so. She .................................................................
4. People think Pablo has escaped from prison. Pablo ............................................................
5. The officers say Anne lied to the police. Anne .....................................................................
6. They know she was always late for work . She ....................................................................
10. Rewrite these sentences, beginning with the underlined words. Decide whether the
passive infinitive will be simple or perfective. What does it depend on? [adapted from Graver].
1. It is said that he is an honest hard working man.

2. It is now thought that some redundancies in the Company are inevitable.
3. It was alleged that the Prime Minister had misled the House.
4. It is believed that the Chancellor is thinking of imposing new taxes to raise extra revenue.
5. It is presumed that the ship's radio equipment was put out of action during the fire.
5
11. CAUSATIVES.
Which request sounds stronger?
a) You must have your hair cut.
b) Get your hair cut at last!
Which sentence sounds stronger?

a) He made Liz send a fax.
b) He had Liz send a fax.
When was the task more difficult?

a) I had my car serviced last week.
b) I eventually got my car serviced last week.
Now, write the sentences in the causative form as in the example. [adapted from V. Evans]
1. They arranged for medical supplies to be flown into the region.
had ..........................................................................................................................................
2. A shark bit Tony’s leg off.
got ...........................................................................................................................................
3. A lawyer will have to sign this document for you.
have ........................................................................................................................................
4. Why did you insist that I buy this horrible cheese?

make .......................................................................................................................................
5. She pays someone to clean the windows every mont.
cleaned ...................................................................................................................................
6.Someone will mug you if you walk through the park like that at night.
get ...........................................................................................................................................
7. Workmen were forced to work 7 days a week.
made .......................................................................................................................................
8. Please, don’t insist that I cook dinner tonight!
make .......................................................................................................................................
9. Her nose was broken by accident.
got ...........................................................................................................................................
10. He got someone at the garage to adjust the brakes.
adjusted ...................................................................................................................................
6
Practical Grammar MODALITY
3. MODALITY
I
MEANING AND FORM
1. What are the differences between these pairs of sentences?

A a) She went to London. b) She might have gone to London.
B a) I don't want you to do it. b) I wish you didn't do it.
C a) He stole the jewels. b) He probably stole the jewels.
D a) What did I do wrong? b) Well – what did I do wrong?
E a) Do you want me to open the window? b) Shall I open the window for you?
F a) I want George to stop smoking at once. b) George must stop smoking at once.
2. Find realisations of modal meanings in the following text. [from Downing & Locke]
"Dad" – George shifted his feet. "I wonder if I'm really suited for medicine."
"Of course you are," his father told him briefly. "We've had medical men in this family since
the days of Gladstone bags and leeches. I wish you'd follow the example of your sister. She
will certainly be studying upstairs with her usual diligence. And what, might I ask, would you
intend to do instead?"
"I’ve thought of the – er – drama."
3. Which of the following sentences express degrees of likelihood, and which some other modal
concepts? [adapted from Headway Advanced].
1. You can borrow the car; I don’t need it.
2. He can’t still be at the office; it’s after 9 o’clock.
3. I can’t hear you very well – the line is bad.
4. That won’t be the postman at the door, he’s been already.
5. Will you give me a hand with this? It’s very heavy.
6. John’s awful. He simply won’t admit he’s made a mistake.
7. He’ll be at the airport by now.
8. No, you may not leave before the end.
1
9. We may be in for a rough crossing, there’s a storm coming.

10. He might change his mind, if we keep on at him.
11. You mustn’t give up, try just once more.
12. He always looks so exhausted; he must have a demanding job.
13. If you hurry up, we could be there by 6 o’clock.
14. You should drive more slowly here; it’s a dangerous corner.
15. You should have no trouble passing; it’s your best subject.
5. DEFINITIONS:
a. Modality is the category by which speakers express their ………………….. towards
information, intentions, events, facts and people.
b. All modal expression are ........................ categorical than a plain declarative. Thus, modality
is said to express our relation to reality, while unmodified declaratives treat the process as
reality.
c. When a speaker uses modality, he is not presenting a simple assertion of fact. What he is
saying is coloured by his ......................... attitude or intervention.
2
II
VERDICTIVE / EPISTEMIC MODALITY
1. Match the notions on the left with the modal verbs on the right. Provide examples.
must
can’t certainty (prediction, belief)
will
certainty (logical conclusion)
won’t
should/ ought to certainty [that not X]
shouldn’t/ ought not to probability
may
possibility
might
could
2. Which epistemic meanings are stronger and which are weaker?

A [someone is knocking]
a) That will be the postman.
b) That should be the postman.
B
Belinda: I met a charming man at your party.
a) Petronella: That would have been my ex-husband, if that’s the right word.
b) Petronella: That must have been my ex-husband, if that’s the right word.
C
a) You will already be familiar with the subject. [= "I assume you are"]
b) You should already be familiar with the subject.
D
a) You will have read about the subject. [= "I assume you have read about it"]
b) You must have read about the subject.
E
a) He wouldn’t be a friend of yours, I suppose? [= "I don’t think it is very likely"]
b) He can’t be a friend of yours.
F
a) It's funny that we should be staying at the same hotel.
b) It’s great that we will be staying at the same hotel.
3
3. CERTAINTY. How certain are we when saying the following?

Pat forgot your birthday.
Pat may have forgotten your birthday.
Pat will have forgotten your birthday.
Pat must have forgotten your birthday.
Pat might have forgotten your birthday.
4. CERTAINTY. Complete the responses to the statements, using "must" or "can’t"

1. His fiancée writes to him every day. She .............................................................................
2. I don't seem to have my key with me. I ................................................................................
3. He drives a Rolls-Royce and his wife a Mercedes. They... ..................................................
4. No one thought he would be offered the job, but he was. The person who interviewed him..
........................................................................................................................................
5. He has no idea what the book is about. He... .......................................................................
5. CERTAINTY. Rewrite the sentences, using "will" or "would" with the appropriate infinitive
form, and omitting any words in brackets.
1. This is (probably) what we're looking for. .............................................................................
2. Ah! It's half-past eight. That is the postman at the door. (I should think) ..............................
3. You appreciate (I am sure) that this puts me in a very difficult position. ...............................
4. As you have no doubt heard, he's getting married soon. .....................................................
5. You (probably) haven't seen this morning's headlines, I suppose? ......................................
6. PROBABILITY. Rewrite the sentences, using "should" or "ought to."

1. The Conservatives are expected to win the next election.
2. There will probably be a lot of people at the meeting.
3. The weather forecast says it will probably be fine tomorrow.
4. Our visitors were expected to arrive long before now.
5. It probably won't be too difficult to get over the problem.
4
7. POSSIBILITY. Use "may", "might", or "could" in the sentences below. Note that all the
sentences refer to present or future possibility.
Is it possible to say they may/ might/ could form a scale of intensity?
Perhaps you will find you have made a mistake.

It is just conceivable that we shall get an answer tomorrow.
Accept his offer now. It is just possible that he will change his mind later.
Owing to the strike, trains will possibly be subject to delays.
III
EPISTEMIC MODALITY IN THE PAST
5
1. How do we signal remoteness in time and remoteness in reality in Epistemic Modality?

Remoteness in TIME is signaled by .......................................................................….
Remoteness in REALITY is signaled by ....................................................................….
SO
In order to refer to past FACTS we change ...........................................................……...
2. Respond to the statements or questions with a sentence suggesting a possible explanation,

using "may", "might", or "could" + the perfect infinitive of the verbs given.
e.g. Why isn't he here? (may, miss) → He may have missed the train.
1. No one is waiting at the bus stop. (may, miss) .....................................................................
2. He didn't come to the party last night, (might, not want) .......................................................
3. No one has answered the door. (might, go out) ...................................................................
4. How on earth did the thief get in? (could, break) ..................................................................
5. Why didn't the teacher explain? (may, not know) .................................................................
6. How did they know about our plans? (could, guess) ............................................................
7. He didn't seem surprised when I told him. (may, already know) ...........................................
8. They should have been here long before now. (may, lose) ..................................................
9. I haven't seen my neighbors for over a week. (may, go) ......................................................
10. Why hasn't she written to me? (could, forget) ....................................................................
3. Complete the sentences with "may have","should have", "must have" or "can't have". More than
one answer may be possible.
1. ‘Where's Phil?’ ‘I don't know. He ........................... home.' (go)
2. ‘How are the builders getting on?' 'They ........................... by now. I'll go and see.’(finish)
3. ‘Ann isn't here.’ ‘Surely she ........................... I reminded her yesterday.’ (forget)
4. The garden's all wet. It ........................... in the night, (rain)
5. ‘We went to Dublin for the weekend.' 'That ........................... a nice change.' (be)
6. ‘Who phoned?' 'She didn't give her name. It ........................... Lucy.' (be)
7. He ........................... all his money. I gave him £ 10 only yesterday! (spend)
8. I ........................... a new job. I'll know for certain tomorrow. (find)
9. The car's got a big dent in the side. Bernie ........................... an accident, (have)
10. They're not at home. They ........................... away for the weekend, (go)
6
IV
DEONTIC MODALITY
1. Sort the following examples into Epistemic and Deontic.

A. a) The girls may read in bed until midnight.
b) The girls may be reading in beds.
B. a) I suppose that this is your uniform?
b) Pupils are supposed to wear uniforms
c) Supposedly, they are dead.
C. a) It's possible for them to live here.
b) It's possible that they live here.
D. a) You must be joking.
b) You must be amusing.
E. a) She needn’t stay any longer.
b) She needn’t necessarily be there.
F. a) John should know what’s going on – will you tell him?
b) John should know what’s going on – will you ask him?
G. a) I forbid you to go.
b) We demand that you come immediately.
7
2. TYPES. What is the difference in the meaning of the following pairs of sentences?
A. a) I must go. b) I have to go.
B. a) You may leave now. b) You can leave now.
C. a) You mustn’t smoke here. b) You cannot smoke here.
D. a) You needn’t help him. b) You don’t need to/ don’t have to help him.
3. Choose the right form from the two given in italics [adapted from Foley and Hall].
1. To must / Having to listen to hip-hop music all evening is my idea of torture!
2. The landlord ought to / ought have taken his responsibilities more seriously.
3. This company is awful to work for. We must / have to account for every minute of the day.
4. Do you know if we must / have to have visas for the Caribbean?
5. The newspaper shouldn't have / mustn't have printed the rumour without concrete evidence.
6. What a state my shoes are in! They need/must repairing.
7. We have to / are supposed to put our bags in the lockers, but most people take them into the gym.
8. We couldn't go / mustn't have gone into the disco because we were too young.
9. Polite notice: children do not have to / are not allowed to play on the grass.
10. This offer is not open to current employees. Participants must not have / need not have been
employed by the company in the last tour years.
11. We needn't / needn't to have booked the tickets in advance; there are plenty left.
8
12. With our new range of hair products, you mustn't / don't have to spend hours caring for your
hair.
13. There wasn't anyone on the nightclub door so we didn't need to show / needn't have shown proof
of our age.
14. Our advice is that even people as young as twenty-five should / must consider a personal
pension.
15. You won't have to / had better not tell Shirley what you saw – it will only upset her and she’ll
blame you.
V
DEONTIC MODALITY IN THE PAST
1. a) What do you notice about the verbs?

..........................................................................................................................................
9
b) How can we refer to ‘real’ past in Deontic modality?

…………………………………………………………………………………………..
c) How do we refer to the ‘unreal’ or unfulfilled past in Deontic modality?
..........................................................................................................................................
2. UNREAL PAST. Complete the sentences with modal verbs and the verbs in brackets.
e.g. He __ me last week. (pay) → He should have paid me last week.
1. When he said that to me I ........................... (hit) him.
2. I ........................... (phone) you, but I didn't have your number.
3. If my parents hadn't been so poor. I ........................... (go) to university.
4. There were lots of places anyway, so we ........................... (bought) the tickets in advance. It was
a waste of time!
5. I ........................... (put) more salt in the soup. It tastes dull.
6. If you needed money, you ........................... (ask)me.
7. ‘We got lost in the mountains.' ‘You fools - you ........................... (take) a map.'
8. You ........................... (tell) me you were bringing your friends to supper!
9. It's his fault she left him; he ........................... (be) nicer to her.
VI
AMBIGUITY AND SPECIAL CASES
1. AMBIGUITY. Each of the following utterances is ambiguous. Try to provide paraphrases to

highlight the two possible readings [adapted: R.A.Close by I.S.].
(a) I should be pleased to see him.
(b) We could go to the theatre.
(c) You may be out late this evening.
(d) They should be home now.
(e) You will sit here.
(f) You must be very strict.
(g) The guests will have arrived.
(h) They could have sold their house.
(i) She should have left by now.
10
2. NECESSITY/POSSIBLITY Check whether the following examples can be paraphrased with

Necessity or Possibility? Can they be easily be classified as Epistemic or Deontic, or do they
represent some other shades of modality? Tick as appropriate.
11
3. What is the difference in the meaning of the sentences? Which type of modality do they
belong to? How do you make them PAST?
1. a) The road may be blocked. b) The road can be blocked.
2. a) This illness can be fatal b) This illness may be fatal
3. a) Jimmy can be a nuisance. d) Jimmy may be a nuisance.
→ Is it possible to say:
a) Can you park in this street on Sundays?
b) May you park in this street on Sundays?
4. Some of the sentences below express Deontic meanings of VOLITION (willingness, or

intention), some INHERENT CAPACITY, or CHARACTERISTIC BEHAVIOUR, while others
Epistemic meanings. Try to label the meanings of the modal verb WILL
1. She won't speak in public for anything in the world.
2. She won't speak in public, she is not a proper person to do it.
3. She won't have spoken yet. It's only half past two.
4. She will have arrived by Thursday next week.
5. She will speak for hours about her children. No one can stop her.
6. The table will seat comfortably only 50 people. We can't invite more.
7. Will you get me that book, please? I can't reach it.
8. I will get you everything you need, don't worry.
5. Choose the right meaning of the sentence. Decide which Deontic meanings they represent.
1 If anyone rings in the next few minutes, I'll be in the storeroom.
a) I'm in the storeroom now.
b) I'm going to the storeroom.
2 I've tried it again but the computer just won't accept my disc. I don't understand it.
a) I'm annoyed with the computer.
b) I'm not concerned about the computer.
3 It's a relief that Annie's changed class. She would argue with everything I said.
a) I didn't mind the arguments.
b) The arguments annoyed me.
12
4 The secretary shall minute the proceedings of each meeting.

a) The secretary is offering to do it.
b) The secretary is instructed to do it.
5 I would have liked to meet the professor while he was here.
a) The speaker met the professor.
b) The speaker didn't meet the professor.
6 I phoned the police but they just wouldn’t react to the situation.
a) the police refused to react
b) the police couldn’t do anything
7 Uncle Tom will always sit and talk for hours.
a) He insists on talking too long.
b) It is his habit to talk too long.
13
MODALITY
1. MODALITY is the category by which speakers express attitudes towards the event contained in
the proposition.
2. VERDICTIVE (EPISTEMIC, EXTRINSIC) MODALITY is used when the speaker assesses the
probability that the proposition is true in terms of modal certainty, probability or possibility.
3. DIRECTIVE (DEONTIC, INTRINSIC) MODALITY is used when the speaker intervenes in the
speech event by laying obligations or giving permission. Closely related to these meaning are
those of ability and intrinsic possibility.
4. All modal expression are less categorical than a plain declarative.
5. Modal auxiliaries express both types of modal meanings, showing the speaker's attitude to the
potential event.
THE REALISATIONS OF MODAL MEANINGS

Verbs expressing modal meanings
1. Lexical verbs such as: allow, beg, command, forbid, guarantee, guess, promise, suggest,
warn.
2. The verbs wish and wonder, which express wish and doubt
3. The modal auxiliaries: can, could, will, would, must, shall, should, may, might, ought and
semi-modals need and dare.
4. The lexico-modal auxiliaries composed of be or have and usually another element + infinitive:
a. he able to be going to
b. be about to be liable to
c. be apt to be sure to
d. be bound to be likely to
e. be certain to be to
f. be due to have to
g. be supposed to have got to
h. be meant to
Other means of expressing modal meanings

a. Modal Disjuncts such as probably, possibly, surely, hopefully, thankfully, obviously.
b. Modal adjectives such as probable, likely, possible used in impersonal constructions or as a
part of a Nominal Group.
c. Modal nouns such as possibility, probability, chance, likelihood.
d. Certain uses of -if -clauses: if you know what I mean; if you don't mind my saying so.
e. The use of remote past: I thought I'd go along with you , if you don't mind.
f. The use of non-assertive items such as any: He'll eat any kind of fruit.
g. Certain types of intonation, such as fall-rise.
h. The use of hesitation phenomena in speech.
LOGICAL CATEGORIES REALISED BY MODAL VERBS
VERDICTIVE (epistemic, extrinsic) MODALITY
!!! In order to refer to PAST FACTS we change the INFINITIVE, not the modal!!!
• inference and logical conclusion: must, can't
He must be at least sixty.
He can't be as old as that.
You can’t have met him yesterday; he’s on holiday.
• belief and conjecture: will, would
You will be already familiar with this subject.
He wouldn't be a friend of yours, I suppose?
He will have reached the office by now.
• expectation and probability: should, ought to
The Conservatives should win the next election.
• possibility: could, may, might
A full list of verbs may/ could be found in the appendix (It is possible that it is there)
Agreement between management and unions may be reached tomorrow.
(It is possible that this will be done)
• prediction: will, would
I think I'll finish the work tonight.
• concession: may
Your job may be demanding, but it isn't boring.
DIRECTIVE (deontic, intrinsic) MODALITY
!!! In order to refer to PAST FACTS we change the MODAL!!!
• advice and recomendation: shall, should, ought to, had better
Shall I try again?
You should read this book - you'll enjoy it.
• obligation and necessity: must, mustn't, have to
I must tell you what happened. (I want to)
I have to tell you what happened. (I was told to do it)
• absence of obligation (exemption): needn't, not need to, not have to.
You needn't come if you don't want to.
I don't have to work on Sundays.
• permission: can
You can visit him now.
• ability and potential: can, could, be able to.
He can speak German fluently.
He could speak German when he was a child.
• general characteristics; can, could.
A house in London can cost a lot of money.
He could be very unpleasant when he was angry.
• possibility (intrinsic): can
A full list of verbs can be found in the appendix (It is possible to find it anytime)
• characteristic behaviour: will, would
When he has a problem he will work until he solves it.
He would sit and do nothing all day long.
• inherent capacity: will, would
This suitcase will hold everything
The car wouldn't start. (Refused to start).
Practical Grammar ADVERBS and INVERSION
ADVERBS, ADVERBIALS, and INVERSION
1. ADVERBIAL CLAUSES. Complete the table below.

(a) the types of clauses: concessive, place, conditional, time, purpose, reason, manner
(b) conjunctions: as, since, while, so that (Note: each is needed at least twice)
2. ADVERBS. Rewrite the sentences so that the adverbs in brackets are in the correct order.
a. My parents (allowed/hardly/ever) us to (late/on weekdays/stay up).
………………………………………………………………………………………………………..
b. Taking advantage of a gap betweenthe players, Owen kicked the ball (into the net/just before
halftime/skillfully).
………………………………………………………………………………………………………..
c. Foxes (often/be seen/can) scavenging (on the streets of London/at night).
………………………………………………………………………………………………………..
d. David (well/behaves/quite) when he is at home but he (at school/causes trouble/often).
………………………………………………………………………………………………………..
e. The post (arrive/sometimes/on time.doesn’t) in this part of the city.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………..
f. I (immedietly/didn’t/recognise) the man wavin (at the end of the show/frantically/from the
balcony).
…………………………………………………………………………………………………..
1
3. INVERSION. Complete each sentence by using the phrases from the box.
Rarely have No sooner had Under no circumstances are Not only did
Under no circumstances will as did Were you Hardly had Little did Rarely have
a)……………………………………………… we arrived at the hotel, when there was a power cut.

b) ……………………………………………….. members of staff to accept gratuities from clients.
c) …………………………………………….. Detective Dawson realise what she was to discover!
d) …………………………….. to pay the full amount now, there would be a ten per cent discount.
e) I supposed, ………………………………………….. most people, that I would be retiring at 60.
f) ……………………………………………………………..the doctors seen a more difficult case.
g) ………………………………………. Jean win first prize, but she was also offered a promotion.
h) ……………………………………….. late arrivals be admitted to the theatre before the interval.
i) …………………………………… one missing child been found, than another three disappeared.
j) ……………………………………………. so many employees taken sick leave at the same time.
4. Complete each sentence with a suitable phrase containing the verb in brackets in an
appropriate form.
a) Should ……………………………………. (need) anything, let me know.
b) Were the plane ……………………………. (take off), everyone in it would have been killed.
c) Had ………………………………… (study) harder, I would probably have passed all my exams.
d) Should …………………….. (be) in the neighbourhood, drop in.
e) Had ……………………… (go) to the doctor immediately, your daughter would not be so ill.
f) Never before ……………………………. (spend) so much money on her daughter's birthday.
g) Should ……………………………. (feel) hungry, just call room service, and order a meal.
h) Were …………………………… (offer) her the job, we couldn't be sure that she would accept.
i) Had ……………………………… (take) the necessary measures, this political crisis could have
been avoided,
j) Scarcely ………………………...(get) home when the police called us with news of Geoffrey.
2
5. Five of the following sentences contain mistakes in word order and missing auxiliaries. Tick
(V) the correct sentences and correct the mistakes.
a. They’re going to complain about this and so are we.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………..
b. Little we knew the full extent of his involvement fraud.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………..
c. The sales director is resigning and so most of the marketing team are.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………..
d. I tried to get there by nine, only was there a traffic jam on the motorway.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………..
e. Over there stood the three-meter tall statue of Lenin.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………..
f. The embassy refuses to intervene. Well, so it be.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………..
g. Tomorrow the first day is of the rest of your life.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………..
h. Long live the glorious revolution!
………………………………………………………………………………………………………..
i. No way the boss treating me like that and getting away with it!
………………………………………………………………………………………………………..
j. Under no circumstances latecomers will be admitted to the auditorium.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………..
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6. Rewrite the sentences, beginning with the words in bold.

a. The children rested under the tree.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………..
b. The cat sat on the sofa.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………..
c. The ballons rose up to the sky.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………..
d. Our taxi is here.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………..
e. David kicked the ball high into the air.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………..
4
Practical Grammar THE NOUN PHRASE
THE NOUN PHRASE

I
NOUN
1. Grammar:
a. number: singular / plural
book-books, child-children, tooth-teeth, man-men, sheep-sheep, information, binoculars, trousers
→ The audience was cheering and clapping their hands.
b. gender: masculine / feminine / neuter

brother, sister, child, tree, dog - bitch, ship, moon, duke – duchess, singer, artist, student,
nurse – (male) nurse
→ Everybody likes their achievements to be noticed.
c.case:
SUBJECTIVE (Nominative) / OBJECTIVE / GENITIVE (Possessive)
→S: She/Doris opened the door.
→ O: I saw her/Doris.
→ G: I looked at her/Doris. / It is hers, not mine.
d. Saxon Genitive (possessive ‘s)
Sam’s children, [my son]’s dog, Sam and Mary’s children, Doris’s son, Dickens’s house, [the boys]’
room [someone else]’s house, Dickens’ house, BUT NOT: *the Sam’s children
1
→ !! We use the possessive ’s structure especially when the first noun is ............................ : it is a
name of a person, a group of people, organisation, or animal. In the case of ............................ nouns
we generally prefer the “of the” structure, e.g. my father’s name, the firm’s structure, the dog’s
leg, the name of the book, the structure of plastic, the leg of the table
→ !! We also use the ‘s structure to denote time measurements, e.g.today’s paper, yesterday’s
news, a month’s holiday, three hours’ delay
e. semantic classes of nouns.

– animate / inanimate:a dog, a table
– common / proper nouns: city/ Paris, girl/Ann, train/the Orient Express, painter /Chagall
– abstract / concrete nouns: information, progress, moonlight, difficulty, anger, ethics, shopping
– countable (count) / uncountable (mass): wood, paper, soup, friend, furniture, chair, lamb, land
2. Expand these phrases

vases ......................................................................................................................................................
boy ........................................................................................................................................................
love ........................................................................................................................................................
friendship ...............................................................................................................................................
3. NUMBER. Write the plural of these nouns

mosquito ..................................... fish ............................................. salmon ........................................
photo ........................................... species ...................................... hovercraft ...................................
potato ......................................... trout ........................................... means ........................................
zoo ............................................ calf .........................................… deer............................................
5a. NUMBER. Put into the singular as many of the NPs in the following sentences as possible
without changing the meaning of the nouns, and make other changes that become necessary.
1. The Middle Ages were times of feudal rivalries.
2. The drivers must produce their certificates to the customs.
3. The soldiers left their arms in the barracks.
4. Barracks are buildings used as military headquarters.
5. Goods trains carry heavier loads than trucks do.
2
b. Put into the plural as many of the NPs in the following sentences as possible without
changing the meaning of the nouns, and make other changes that become necessary.
1. A crisis often occurs even in the best regulated family.
2. Another criterion is needed in analysing this phenomenon.
3. The anonymous workman was the real hero on the campus.
4. The runner-up was given a pound note.
5. The skeleton found in the lower stratum was immediately taken to the museum.
7a. GENDER. Write the feminine, or the masculine of these nouns, as required.
bull ........................................... hen ..............................................
dog .......................................... lion ...............................................
duck ........................................ ram ..............................................
fox ........................................... stag ..............................................
goose ..................................... stallion .........................................
b. Write the masculine of the following nouns
duchess .................................. niece ............................................
queen ..................................... witch ............................................
lady ......................................... nun ..............................................
spinster .................................. waitress .......................................
wife ........................................ landlady .......................................
9. CASE. Right or wrong? Tick (V) the right sentences and correct the wrong ones.
1. Is this the teacher’s pen?
2. Are you the Al’s daughter?
3. Do you know Lesleys’ last name?
4. Here is the address of Barry.
5. Here is my parents’ address.
6. It was the school’s responsibility.
7. What‟s the Wilson’s number? I must phone them.
8. That‟s an old habit of Marion’s.
9. It’s a crazy idea of Alice.
10. Where is that brother of Carol?
3
10. CASE. Make two noun groups from each set of words. [adapted from Swan and Walters]
file: your secretary, legal documents = your secretary’s file; the file of legal documents
story: Helen; the French Revolution .....................................................................................................
policy: full employment; the company ..................................................................................................
style: me favourite author; the 1930s ...................................................................................................
ideas: modern physics; my daughters ..................................................................................................
11. CASE. Rewrite using ‘s’ or ‘of the’ structure. [adapted from Swan and Walters]
the club + its monthly meeting ..............................................................................................................
his parents + their car ...........................................................................................................................
the world + its end ................................................................................................................................
Angela + her leg ...................................................................................................................................
the trees + their highest branches ........................................................................................................
my suitcase + its lock ...........................................................................................................................
next week + its timetable ......................................................................................................................
12. CASE. Eight of these sentences contain mistakes. Tick (V) the correct sentences, then find
andcorrect the mistakes. [adapted from Foley and Hall]
1. Elizabeth is a good friend of him.
2. I’m really fed up with my landlord’s wive’s endless complaints about noise.
3. As the English say, ones’ home is ones’ castle.
4. You should pay attention to what he says; he’s a close associate of the managing director’s.
5. Don’t blame him; it was mine own fault.
6. She’s been put in charge of childrens’ activities at the summer camp in Maine.
7. Since they got married they’ve only been interested in each other.
8. My brother’s-in-law’s parents have decided to emigrate.
9. We don’t know him very well; he’s just an acquaintance of us from our university days.
10. There’s something wrong with that buses brake lights.
4
II
ADJECTIVES
1. Some tips on using adjectives:

a. Most adjectives can be used in front of a noun (attributive position), or after a linking verb, e.g. be
(predicative position):
– Attributive: We’ve just seen an exciting film.
– Predicative: That film was exciting.
b. There are some adjectives which we usually only use in one position.
*The plant they are building outside the town is chemical.
They’re building a chemical plant outside the town.
c. Adjectives usually used in attributive position:
– classifying adjectives: chemical, chief, criminal, elder, entire, eventual, former, industrial, local,
lone, main, medical, maximum, national, nuclear, only, principal, social, sole, whole, underlying,
outdoor/indoor
– emphasising adjectives: mere, sheer, utter
d. Many adjectives beginning with the letter a and adjectives describing health and feelings are not usually
used before nouns; we use them in the predicative position:
*Try not to disturb the asleep children.
Try not to disturb the children; they are asleep.
e. Adjectives usually used in predicative position:
– beginning with a: ablaze, afloat, afraid, alight, alike, alive, alone, aloof, ashamed,
askew, asleep, awake, aware
– health and feelings: content, fine, glad, ill, pleased, poorly, ready, sorry, sure, upset, (un)well
f. !!! There are some fixed phrases/idioms in which we use normally predicative adjectives before a noun
with a special meaning:
– e.g. glad tidings, an ill wind, a ready wit, a sorry state, an upset stomach.
g. Some predicative adjectives have equivalent words which can be used before a noun:
They are doing experiments on live animals/animals which are alive.
– predicative: alive, afraid, alike, asleep, ill
– attributive: live/living, frightened, similar, sleeping, sick
h. Some adjectives, including some ending in -able and -ible, can follow a noun if the noun follows
superlative adjective or the first/last/next/only:
They say she’s the oldest woman alive.
I’m afraid that’s the last ticket available.
5
i. Adjectives that are followed by a prepositional phrase, e.g. interested in something, suitable for somebody,
go after, not before, a noun:
* The project will appeal to interested in ecology students.
The project will appeal to students interested in ecology.
j. This is similar to a reduced relative clause. We can also use a full relative clause with the adjective in
predicative position.
The project will appeal to students who are interested in ecology.
k. Some participle adjectives (see below) can only be used after a noun:
*Please dispose of your cigarettes in the provided ashtrays.
Please dispose of your cigarettes in the ashtrays provided.
– before or after a noun: affected, chosen, identified, infected, remaining, selected, stolen
– only after a noun: applying, caused, discussed, found, provided, questioned, taken
2. GRADABILITY. Put each adjective into the correct box below. Each box will contain ten
adjectives. [from Foley and Hall]
amazing, attractive, cold, correct, dead, enormous, exciting, expensive, extinct, fascinating,
freezing, good, interesting, huge, large, minute, paralysed, shy, sick, ugly
ungradable adjectives gradable adjectives
6
3. WORD ORDER. Tick (V) those which are grammatically correct and cross (x) those which
are incorrect. In some cases both sentences are correct. [from Foley and Hall]
1 A Cost is the chief factor. B The cost factor is chief.
2 A This is the principal argument. B This argument is principal.
3 A He had an ashamed feeling. B He felt ashamed.
4 A That’s a ridiculous idea. B That idea is ridiculous.
5 A The village has a local post office. B The village post office is local.
6 A It was sheer madness. B The madness was sheer.
7 A You have a ready dinner. B Your dinner is ready.
8 A He had an alone sensation. B He sensed he was alone.
9 A We’re building an indoor pool. B The pool we are building is indoor.
10 A You have very alike children. B Your children are very alike.
11 A That was a silly comment. B That comment was silly.
12 12 A She’s a mere beginner. B That beginner is mere.
13 A They are afraid people. B Those people are afraid.
14 A We have maximum security here. B Here the security is maximum.
15 A He’s my ill brother. B My brother is ill.
4. WORD ORDER. Some adjectives have a different meaning when used before or after a
noun. What is the meaning difference between the NPs in the following sentences?
1a. The meeting was full of concerned residents.
b. The students concerned were a small minority.
2a. I’m afraid we have opposite points of view.
b. We used to live in the house opposite.
3a. The present chairman is getting on a bit.
b. We took a vote of all members present.
4a. Responsible parents have been outraged by this show.
b. The person responsible will be caught and punished.
5a. He gave us a ridiculously involved excuse.
b. The president gave medals to all those involved.
7
Practical Grammar COUNTABILITY
COUNTABILITY
1. Underline the correct words or phrases. [adapted from Foley and Hall]
In today’s Cookery Corner I’d lik eto address a request from Mrs Parkins for (1) an
information/information about which type of (2) chocolate/ chocolates to use in cooking. Well, Mrs
Parkins,my (3) advice is/ advices are always to use the best possible chocolate you can find. It’s the
same principle as with (4) wines/ wine . In cooking always use (5) an equivalent quality/ equivalent
quality to what you drink. With chocolate the reason is that higher quality will always give your
cakes and sweets (6) a better/better taste. Good quality chocolate has more cocoa solids and (7) less
sugar/ fewer sugars . For the best taste choose chocolate with high cocoa (8) content/contents –
never (9) fewer/less than 70%. It goes without saying that you should also use other good (10)
ingredient/ ingredients . For example always use (11) a strong fresh/ strong fresh coffee, the right
kind of (12) flours/flour and always weigh the ingredients on the kitchen (13) scale/scales .
2. Put the countable and uncountable words in pairs of similar meaning.

accommodation, advertisement, baggage, banknote, bread, cars, fact, flat, furniture, information,
job, journey, loaf, money, publicity, suitcase, table, traffic, travel, work
Countable Uncountable
3a. Divide the nouns into countable and uncountable

dust, happiness, flour, flower, knowledge, love, milk, meat, music, oil, piano, rain, river, snow, song
1
3b. Are these nouns countable or uncountable? Make sentences to show the differences.
sound, lamb, experience, hope, sun, piano, chocolate, paper
4. Are all the NPs in the following sentences used correctly with respect to countability?
1. She fed the baby a teaspoon of apple.
2. He said that dog tastes best when it is cooked with ginger.
3. There are several new butters being produced without milk.
4. Can I have two sugars, please?
5. Circle the one alternative in the following sentences which is NOTpossible. Then compare
with the key. [adapted from FCE Gold]
1. Would you like some/a little/a few more chicken?
2. Can I have another piece/ lump/ bit of that delicious chocolate?
3. I had some/ a bit of/ a good news the other day.
4. I tried on a/ some/ a pair of jeans, nut they didn‟t suit me.
5. I don‟t usually have much/ many/ a great deal of spare time during the week.
6. She gave me some/ a piece of/ many good advice about the exam.
7. Many/ Few/ Much local people came to the meeting.
8. Why not come and stay with us for a couple of / a pair of / a few days?
9. Would you like another /some / more toast?
10. The/ Some/ A police arrived straight away.
11. We usually have a lot of/ a/ some very nice weather at this time of year.
12. How many lumps/ teaspoons /slices of sugar do you usually have in your coffee?
13. Could you give me another piece /sheet /slice of paper, please?
14. I would like some/ a bit of /a few information about your courses.
1. a few; 2. lump; 3. a; 4. a; 5. many; 6. many; 7. Much; 8. a pair of; 9. another; 10. A; 11. a; 12. slices; 13.
slice; 14. a few.
2
SUBJECT-VERB AGREEMENT
1. DEFINITIONS:
a. Subject-Verb Agreement (Concord):
Doris (3rdSG) sings (3rdSG) very well.
Her children (3rdPL) sing (3rdPL) in a church choir.
b. Singular nouns for groups of people often have plural verbs and pronouns in British
English, especially when we are talking about personal kinds of action.
Compare:
– My family are very angry with me: they think I should go to university.
BUT: The average family has 3.5 members: it is much smaller than in 1900.
– The team are going to lose again. They’re useless!

BUT: A cricket team is made up of eleven players, including its captain.
c. The following singular expressions also usually have plural verbs:
– a number of ...
– the majority of... a couple of... a group of... a lot of .+ plural noun/ pronoun
– the rest of + plural noun/pronoun
– a number of us are worried about it.
– the majority disagree
– there are a couple of children outside.
d. On the other hand, some plural expressions have singular verbs: names of quantities, plural
names of countries, compound nouns joined by and, more than one + singular noun.
– Ten pounds is too much to pay.
– Three weeks was not enough holiday.
– The United States is smaller than Canada.
– Fish and chips costs £3.
– More than one person disagrees.
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2. Write the correct verb forms [adapted from Virginia Evans]

1. Mathematics .................. (be) my favourite subject.
2. Wood ..................... (come) from trees.
3. Her hair .................. (look) quite scruffy.
4. My luggage .................... (be) lost by the airline.
5. Gravity ................... (pull) things towards the centre of the Earth.
6. Butter .................... (contain) a lot of fat.
7. Most people .................. (be) worried about the future.
8. That jewellery really ................ (suit) you.
9. This machinery ...................... (be) very noisy.
10. Your furniture ...................... (look) so tasteful!
3. Choose the best combination for each blank

class are club have orchestra are school have staff do
class is club has orchestra is school has staff does
1a. In England, a state .......................... to give time to religious education.

1b. My daughter‟s .......................... decided to hold their sports day next Saturday.
2a. The .......................... given £5 000 to charity this year.
2b. The .......................... fifty per cent more members than a year ago.
3a.The .......................... not like the new manager.
3b. The .......................... not need to be increased.
4a. Jane‟s .......................... in Room 6.
4b. Our .......................... planning a party.
5a.The .......................... just tuning up – let‟s hurry in.
5b. The .......................... composed of string, wind, and percussion instruments.
4
4. Choose the right verb.

1. A group of teenagers in the town (has/have) organised a scheme to help old people with their
shopping.
2. A number of people (has/have) complained about the noise,
3. Do you think three pounds (is/are) a big enough tip?
4. Hamburger and chips (is/are) not a very healthy lunch.
5. In the latest rail union vote the majority (has/have) voted to go on strike; the rest of the members
(is/are) expected to support the strike fairly solidly.
6. Two kilos (is/are) pretty small for a newborn baby.
7. Our teenage son thinks there (is/are) a number of good reasons for staying up late and having a
good time.
8. More than one house in our street (has/have) been broken into recently.
9. A couple of dangerous looking men (is/are) waiting for you outside.
10. One of my friends (has/have) just won two free plane tickets to New York.
11. Six weeks (is/are) a long time to wait for news of your family.
12. The majority of the children‟s parents (is/are) unemployed.
13. A lot of shops (is/are) opening on Sundays now.
14. The Philippines (has/have) signed the new human rights agreement.
15. The police think that more than one person (was/were) in the stolen car.
16. Tom and Rosie were late, but the rest of us (was/were) on time.
17. (Is/Are) bacon and eggs what you usually cal for breakfast?
18. We‟ve just learnt that a couple of our club members (has/have) been chosen for the national
team.
5
Practical Grammar ARTICLES
ARTICLES
I
TYPES AND USE OF ARTICLES
1. Answer these quiz questions, paying particular attention to the use of the definite article.
e.g. Which is the largest desert in Africa? The Sahara.
Which continent is permanently frozen?
Which large river flows through London?
Name the large group of islands whose capital is Manila.
In which country can you find the Pyramids?
Which mountain chain runs along the west coast of South America?
Name the desert covering much of Mongolia and northern China.
What's the capital of Turkey?
What's the longest river in South America?
Which city in Australia has a famous opera house?
Which New York street is associated with the financial world?
Which ocean lies between America and Europe?
What's the highest mountain in the world?
Which star is 150,000,000km from the Earth?
What's the world's highest lake?
Which US state is Hollywood in?
1
2. Put these places in the appropriate column of the table according to whether they take the
definite article or zero article. Give an example for each. What are the exceptions to the places
marked with an asterisk?
most towns/cities* most countries* most streets* most mountains*, mountain ranges seas rivers
lakes island groups continents deserts, states/counties theatres cinemas hotels
Definite Article Zero Article [ø]
3. Some rules.
a. PROPER NOUNS:
– Since they refer to unique entities, they’re already definite.
BUT: several entities can be denoted by the same name.
Is there a John Smith in this class?
I was born on a Monday.
We had a very hot June last year.
– Continent, country or city may be indefinite, when something abstract or imaginary is
predicated about it:
A politically united Europe will not be easy to achieve.
I can’t imagine a Greece without an Athens.
When used as metonyms:
I’ve got a Goya at home, but it’s only a reproduction.
b. DEFINITE/ INDEFINITE REFERENCE

The use of the definite article indicates that the Speaker believes that the referent of the NP is
‘known’ to the Hearer, i.e. the Hearer has enough information, either in the text or in his/her
background knowledge, to distinguish the NP referent from everything else, i.e. to identify it.
2
How can the referent be ‘known’?

(a) previous mention in the text (the same or different Noun, but the same referent)
There was an enormous rat in the corner. The animal looked quite unafraid.
(b) by association – referent known/assumed to be given by inference from some element of the text
I saw a taxi at the side of the road. The driver was asleep.
(similarly: building - caretaker, restaurant - waiter, menu, tables etc.)
(c) immediate physical context
Where is the soap? (said in the bathroom)
(d) reference to a unique item (in the world/universe): the sun, the sky, etc.
(e) unique in a limited context (e.g. country, city), refer to shared knowledge
Can you take me to the station?
the Prime Minister, the Queen
(f) nouns modified by adjectives of unique meaning: same, last, only, logical uniqueness, right,
wrong, main, following) and by ordinal numbers
I’m waiting for the last bus.
(g) nouns modified with the superlative degree of adjectives
the largest city in Europe
She was the most intelligent girl in the class.
→ ! but note: The lecture was most interesting.
I’ve heard a most interesting story recently.
This is what I like most about him.
(h) NPs modified by PPs and restrictive relative clauses
He took us to the hotel where he was staying.
We have not considered the question of your remuneration yet.
The data described in table 5 represents....
→ ! but note: I’d like to buy a house in Downing Street.
She married a guy whom she had met at university.
(i) ‘the’ at the beginning of stories (a tactic used to puzzle the reader, make him/her as if ‘see’ the
setting and stimulate the interest in the narrative)
The dog was called Thompson, a name without significance, except that Timmy’s nephew, aged 10,
had named him so.…
3
2a. The indefinite / definite distinction is a grammatical reflex of a basic functional contrast:
classifying vs. identifying
a. describe a new scene or picture:
There’s __ farmhouse with __ horse, __ dog, and __ old truck.
b. identify some objects in a picture that a person can see/ remember:
Can you see __ farmhouse with __ horse, __ dog and __ old truck?
c. A: What is making that noise?
B 1 : It’s probably __ dog outside. → ‘How would you classify it?’
B 2 : It’s probably __ dog next door. → ‘How would you identify it?’
d. We watched __ cartoon about __ cat and __ bird in __ cage. __ cat kept trying to get __ bird out of __ cage.
e. Did you see __ cartoon about __ cat and __ bird in __ cage?
f. I think that painting is __ Picasso.
g. Do you like my new watch? It’s __ Calvin Klein.
h. A: Are you ready to go?
B:Yes, but before I leave, I just have to check that Cindy is okay and the cage is closed.
A: Pardon?
B: Oh, I forgot, you haven’t met Cindy. She’s __ parrot and I keep her in __ cage.
2b. GIVEN (‘known’) vs. NEW (‘unknown’) information

1. Last week ____ tornado ripped through ____ small town in Texas.
2. ____ tornado damaged many houses in ____ quiet little town.
3. It tore off ____ roof and blew off ____ windows of George Bober’s house.
4. Among ____ things that disappeared was ____ photo of George’s dog Popper.
5. The next day, more than 20 miles away, Mary Sahrama was working in ____ garden of her small
cottage when she noticed ____ piece of paper in ____ bushes.
6. She picked up ____ paper and realized it was ____ photograph of ____ dog.
***
7. I can give you a cup but ____ handle is broken.
8. I wanted to buy a watch but ____ price was too high.
9. There was a surgeon in addition to two nurses there, but no one asked ____ doctor to help.
10. imagine this is the beginning of a story: ____ door opened and ____ killer walked in.
11. ____ baby had been crying for an hour before ____ girl got up and went into ____ bedroom.
4
3. Decide whether the gaps should be filled with a/an, the or Ø

1. ____ West End in London is what every tourist wants to see.
2. I have never been interested in ____politics, least of all in ____ politics of ____ USSR.
3. I hate ____ women. Particularly, I hate ____ women of ____ Orient.
4. ____Philadelphia which Johnson describes so enchantingly is ____heritage of ____colonial times.
5. From ___time to ___time ___people see ___UFO in ___sky.
6. ____USA is bounded by Canada on ____north, generally along ____latitude 49° N and ____ Great Lakes.
7. Newton discovered ____law of ____gravitation and Bell Invented ____telephone.
8. Do you prefer watching ____TV or listening to ____radio?
9. ____press is one of ____most powerful mass-media.
10. Does your son go to ____kindergarten or to ____school?
11. If you break ____law, you risk being taken to ____prison.
12. She is not under ____ arrest but she is not allowed to leave ____town.
13. When we were approaching ____town, Susan fainted.
14. George gets up at ____ dawn, works till ____noon, then he has ____lunch. He finishes studying at
____dusk and goes to ____bed at ____midnight.
15. Would you like to stay to ____dinner?
16. Today ____ dinner was delicious.
17. My dog never barks in ____morning or during ____day. He starts howling in ____night – that’s why
hardly anybody sleeps in ____neighbourhood.
18. It has turned out that George doesn’t have ____anaemia but ____flu.
19. Mark was ____famous physicist but some years ago he turned ____linguist.
20. Sam was elected ____chairman of ____meeting.
21. Nothing like that could have happened in ____England of ____Queen Victoria.
22. The historical personality I admire ____most is ____Emperor Napoleon.
23. We’ll leave on ____Monday before ____Easter.
24. He lives in ____Bronx.
25. I would like to see ____Sahara, ____Nile, ____Lake Nasser and ____Aswan Dam.
26. Among the highest mountains in Europe are ____Alps, the highest peak of which is ____Mount Blanc.
27. ____North Sea is ____arm of ____Atlantic Ocean.
28. My favourite newspaper is ____Guardian, theatre – ____Old Vic and ____Covent Garden, museum -
____Tate Gallery and professional periodical - ____Language.
29. __ Wilsons have gone to ___Netherlands for their holidays. They are going to see __Delft and __Hague.
30. Their performance was marvellous from ____beginning to ____end.
5
4. Read this story and fill in the gaps with the correct article: a/an, the or – (no article). For
one gap you will need a possessive adjective. [from Foley and Hall]
I first experienced terror when I was seven. My mother lived in London, but after a brief liaison
with (1) ____ soldier from the United States she became pregnant and fled to (2) ____ country. (At
that time, fifty years ago, it was considered shameful to be a single parent.) A great aunt of hers
lived in (3) ____ cottage in (4) ____ North Wales, and there she was able to bring me up in (5) ____
peace, pretending that she was a widow. (6) ____ locals were all very friendly to her and accepted
us without question, and I had (7) ____ blissful childhood.
One day I arrived home from (8) ____ school to find my mother clutching (9) ____ telegram, in
floods of tears. (10) ____ telegram informed her that her father - my grandfather - had died. His
funeral would be in three days and we had to go to London. I have never been outside (11) ____
village and I was really excited at the thought of going to (12) ____ capital city. So, two days later,
we boarded a train to London. It was (13) ____ first time I had been on a train and I could barely
contain (14) ____ excitement of such an adventure. Several hours later we arrived. I clutched my
mother's hand as we stepped down from the train. (15) ____ station was full of people rushing home
from (16) ____ work and it was quite dark. Now (17) ____ fear was starting to creep into my mind.
Then, suddenly, we were in (18) ____ street outside the station. I had never seen so many people,
buses and cars, nor heard so much noise. I was terrified. I opened (19) ____ mouth and the wail that
I let escape was one of (20) ____ sheer terror.
6
II
SPECIFIC AND GENERIC REFERENCE
A. SPECIFIC REFERENCE
1. Look at the interaction of countability, number and definiteness in the use of articles. Then fill in
the gaps.
1. ____ accommodation in Warsaw is very expensive. In fact, it is difficult to find ____ flat a
student can afford with ____ furniture that is not 30 years old.
2. ____ bread in the cupboard is stale. Go and buy ____ loaf, or better two.
3. Mum gave me ____ money when I was going to the shop but ____ $5 banknote was torn.
4. John has just found ____ new job although ____ work is not easy to find during crisis.
5. ____ traffic is unbearable today. Has everyone here got ____ car?
6. Have you got ____ when our exam results will be announced?
7. As usual at the airport my ____ baggage was lost. I couldn’t find ____ red suitcase.
8. This TV show has gained ____ publicity recently, but never watch it.
7
2. Complete these sentences by putting either the or [ø] in the gaps as appropriate.
1. ____ most people do not have a very keen sense of smell.
2. ____ knowledge of perfumes was passed from ____ Egyptians to ____ Greeks.
3. ____ cosmetics often contain ____ antiseptics.
4. Rene-Maurice Gattetosse, a Frenchman, was ____ first to coin the word, ____ 'aromatherapy'.
5. ____ Gattetosse lived and worked in ____ area around Grasse, in ____ southern France.
6. During ____ Great Plague, in ____ Middle Ages, fires made of ____ pine wood were lit in an
attempt to combat ____ disease. Strangely enough, perfumers of the time were almost immune to
____ disease.
7. When I get home from ____ college, I put ____ lavender and geranium oil into a burner.
Now fill in the gaps with appropriate articles.
3a. Explain the difference in meaning the inclusion of the indefinite article makes:
1. In the fitness club I heard the assistant say she had lost (a) weight.
2. I don’t think that (a) strict order is necessary.
3. No, it wasn’t (a) marble.
4. A young architect would like (a) living in London.
5. (A) wit is usually welcome.
6. Mr. Smith said that his failure was due to (a) depression.
7. My son is involved in (an) entertainment.
b. Explain the difference in meaning the inclusion of the definite article makes:
1. Dr Jones is now in (the) hospital.
2. I’m going to explain the basic rules of navigation on (the) board.
3. Have you met (the) Bill Clinton?
4. Mr. Brown passed (the) information to the enemy.
5. The retired captain now works on (the) land.
6. Mrs. Smith is in (the) office.
8
B. GENERIC REFERENCE
DEFINITION: When NPs and sentences are used to make generalisations
about classes of objects
(a) Ø + plural count N → Tigers are dangerous.
(b) Ø + non-count N → Beauty is often only skin deep.
(c) a + singular count N → A (typical) dog likes to eat meat.
(d) the + singular count N → The dog is a friendly animal.
(e) the + plural nationality N → The Scots are thrifty.
(f) the + adjective → The young are creative.
– (a) & (b) are the most common patterns, others are restricted and not always interchangeable
– (c) ‘instance use’ – a particular thing stands as an instance or representative of a class, common
in explanations and definitions, cannot be used to refer to the existence or location of a type A noun
is a word used to refer to a thing or a person.
An anthropologist is a person who studies societies and cultures and their development.
* A kangaroo lives in Australia.
* A panda is an endangered species.
– (d) the pattern used in formal contexts, one of a class is used as a typical example, on the basis of
which we generalise about the whole class, often on a topic of professional relevance (body parts,
technological developments, animal species).
The task of the teacher is to stimulate the intellectual development of students.
The panda is an endangered species.
This chapter deals with the heart.
The computer is uniquely flexible.
4. Which of the italicised NPs can be interpreted as generic in the following examples?
1. Bicycles are very useful during a holiday.
2. We always hire bicycles during our holidays.
3. I have official information for you.
4. Official information is usually difficult to obtain.
5. The German likes his beer in the evening, and so does the Englishman.
9
6. The German I know is a good musician.

7. The Germans are good musicians.
8. I met a German yesterday.
9. The Japanese work hard.
10. The Japanese were listening patiently.
11. There was a dog in the room. The dog looked vigilant.
12. The dog is vigilant.
13. A cat is not as vigilant as a dog.
14. Cats have been domesticated for centuries.
15. Dogs are vigilant.
16. The electric lamp is a very useful invention.
17. The electric lamp on my desk is broken.
18. I need an electric lamp to work.
19. The pen is mightier than the sword.
20. The pen I bought yesterday has broken already.
5. In the following text examine all the phrases with the noun whale(s). Decide which are used
generically. Explain the use of articles (a, the, ø) [from Yule 1998]
In winter the Hawaiian Islands play host to a celebrity of sufficient distinction to have been
designated the State Marine Mammal. While they are not anywhere near as numerous as the
humans who come to Hawaii, the humpback whales’ arrival nonetheless generates a lot of
excitement and interest. Most people who see the whales get a great deal of satisfaction and
excitement from the experience, but it is clear that few really understand what a humpback whale is,
and how it differs from other mammals, other inhabitants of the ocean, or other whales. In order to
develop an accurate perception of the humpback whale, it is both interesting and informative to
pace it in the context of the general group of marine animals known as cetaceans.
10
Practical Grammar RELATIVE CLAUSES
RELATIVE CLAUSES
1. INTRODUCTION.
a. Some relative clauses define, i.e. they say which person or thing, or what kind of person or thing,
you are talking about.
b. Others do not define; they just add more information.
c. Below are some (useful?) pedagogical generalisations. Regrettably, they got all mixed up…
relative that never omit the relative pronoun
head Noun: a proper name never use a comma
a comma never use a comma
whose use a comma
any + Noun never omit it
d. Note the use of which to refer to a whole clause. Compare [i] and [ii]:
[i] The dentist pulled out the teeth which/that were causing the trouble. (which/that just refers to 'the
teeth'.)
[ii] The dentist had to pull out two of my teeth, which was a real pity. (which refers to the whole
clause before: 'The dentist... teeth'.)
!! Note that "what" cannot be used in this way:
→ He got the job, which surprised us all. (NOT ... what surprised.)
2a. Look at the following pairs of sentences. Which relative clauses define – the ones in the (I)
sentences or those in the (ii) sentences?
1.[i] The woman who/that does my hair has just had a baby.
[ii] Dorothy, who does my hair, has just had a baby.
2. [i] She married a man (that/who/whom) she met on a bus.
[ii] She married a nice architect from Belfast, whom she met on a bus.
3. [i] Have you got a book that's really easy to read?
[ii] I lent him The Old Man and the Sea, which is really easy to read.
4. [i] What did you think of the wine (that) we drank last night?
[ii] I poured him a glass of wine, which he drank at once.
1
2b. Answer the questions:

→ Without the relative clauses, which make more sense – the (i) sentences or the (ii) sentences?
→ Non-defining relative clauses have commas. Why do you think this is?
→ In which kind of clause can we use that instead of who(m) or which?
→ In which kind of clause can we leave out a relative pronoun when it is the object?
→ Do you think non-defining clauses are more common in a formal or an informal style?
5. DEFINING. What do we call:

1. a person who prepares technical plans and drawings?
2. a person who owns shares in a company?
3. a person who goes to the theatre regularly?
4. a person who writes plays?
5. a person who is skilled in foreign languages?
6. NON-DEFINING. Join the sentences, using which or who in non-defining relative clauses,
and inserting the appropriate punctuation.
e.g. His latest play has been a great success. It was well reviewed by the critics.
His latest play, which was well reviewed by the critics, has been a great success.
1. This industrial dispute has now been settled. It disrupted production at six Midlands factories
while it lasted.
2. The Prime Minister's reshuffle means that the Cabinet will be reduced to twenty. It now has
twenty-two members.
3. Some London policemen were sent to America on a goodwill visit. They are well known for their
politeness and helpfulness.
4. Three acres of land go with this estate. The estate is situated in one of the most beautiful parts of
rural England.
5. Covent Garden's latest production of Don Giovanni looks like being a huge success. It opened at
the Royal Opera House last night.
2
7. Defining vs. non-defining and the use of commas

(a) Milk which contains chemicals is dangerous for health.
(b) Milk which contains calcium is very healthy.
(c) A biologist is a person who studies living things.
(d) John Flemming who discovered penicillin was Scottish.
8. Decide which relative pronoun to use [Graver p. 118]

→ "that" vs. "which" in defining relative clauses. Any preference?
[a] Any comment that / which comes from him is valuable.
[b] They promised to do all that / which lies in their power to solve the problem.
[c] the funniest film that / which has ever come from Hollywood
[d] the second car that / which appeared under the bridge
[e] It is a tool that / which never proves useful.
→ "that" vs. "who" in defining relative clauses. Any preference?

[a] The aunt that / who came to see us yesterday is my father’s sister.
[b] I met a man who / that had a small cat.
[c] I also met a woman that / who he wants to marry.
[d] The man who / that has the small cat likes the woman.
[e] The woman who / that the man likes has a large dog.
9. Join the sentences using which.

1. He decided not to complete his university course. This was a great disappointment to his parents.
2. We've just installed central heating. This should make a tremendous difference to the house next
winter.
3. John was ill in bed. This explains why he didn't turn up last night.
4. He blamed me for everything. I thought this very unfair.
5. Few people attended last night's meeting. This was a pity, since several important matters were
decided on.
3
10. Put in which or what.

1. She cycles to work every day, ............... keeps her healthy.
2. I very much liked ............... you said at the meeting.
3. They gave me ............... I asked for.
4. The lights suddenly went out, ............... frightened Granny terribly.
5. This is ............... I need.
6. Everybody arrived late, ............... didn't surprise me in the least.
11. Change who/ whom/ which to that, or leave it out, if possible.

1. This is Peter Taylor, who works with my sister.
2. People who don't answer letters annoy me.
3. What happened to the oranges which I bought yesterday?
4. This room, which isn't used any more, belonged to our eldest son.
5. My Uncle Sebastian, who has always been a bit or a traveller, has just gone off to Thailand.
6. We live in a village called Netherwald, which has 150 inhabitants.
7. I like a film which has a beginning, a middle and an end - in that order.
8. I've had a card from Sally, who used to live next door,
9. Do you remember those people who we met in Corfu?
10. We had some good advice from Mr Blenkinsop, whom we consulted about investments.
11. She took twelve aspirins, which is six times the normal dose.
12. He published a book called Asleep in the Bath, which nobody ever read,
12. Insert appropriate relative pronouns (think about all the possible options) and commas.
1. That is the officer _________ I spoke to.
2. The idea _________ the conference will solve the problem is absurd.
3. The purse _______ I lost last week has been found.
4. The last person ______ was an old lady got on the bus.
5. We were taken to the theatre every day ________ was a great delight to us.
6. Nobody knows ______ he told her.
7. I have a friend _______ six children sing in a choir.
8. The snow _______ had been falling all day was ______ gave us trouble.
4
9. This is the girl ______ horse won the race.

10. The friend from _______ I borrowed the car wants it back.
11. At the time ______ I met her she was an artist.
12. The year 1914 _______ WW I broke out marked the end of nineteenth-century values.
13. I expect employees to give me a reason ______ they are late.
14. Norwich _______ I grew up has changed in recent years.
15. His daughter applied to enter the university ______ he had studied years ago.
16. The girl ______ you were looking for didn’t come.
17. I had a book _______ covers were made of ivory.
18. I found a book some _______ pages were lost.
19. She broke the statue the head _______ was made of gold.
20. He gave five encores all ________ were quite new to the audience.
21. He gave five encores _________ he received enthusiastic applause.

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Practical Grammar_1 winter term topic 1: BASIC CONCEPTS

1.1 Metalanguage and language awareness

2. TERMINOLOGY. Give another example of the following categories.

3. LANGUAGE AWARENESS. Why do those nonsense sentences seem acceptable?

(a) He crattled his splot and scrot out a neelying groal.

(b) They strentered folicly until a magan veened to famble them.

1.2 Basic terminology

(a) is going to return .................................................................................................................................

2. TYPES OF VERBS. Look at the underlined fragments; are the verbs

He fell. Please sing me that song again.

3. TERMINOLOGY. Basic sentence functions.

Od: can become subject in the Passive

4. SENTENCE ANALYSIS. Sentence functions can be realized either by phrases or clauses.

CLAUSE (def.): …………………………………………………………………………………………………

(a) That we need more equipment is obvious. …………..

7. CLAUSES. Some terminology to describe multi-clausal sentences.

8. CLAUSES. Mark the sentences below as simple, compound or complex.

(a) The instrument was bought by my father many years ago.

9. CLAUSES. Types of clauses – revision

Lexico-modal auxiliaries: have to, be about to, be bound to, etc.

Lexical verbs: walk, play, learn, etc.

3. TYPES OF VERBS. Look at the following sentences.

a) Identify auxiliary and lexical verbs (mark them as A or L).

1. The students needn’t [ ] attend [ ] the lectures if they don’t [ ] want to [ ].

3. In the meantime they ought to [ ] work [ ] and study [ ] on their own.

1.2. Introduction to mood, tense and aspect

Finite verb forms:

a) Which verb form (finite or non-finite) is requited in the Declarative mood?

4. TENSE AND TIME. Look at the following three groups of sentences.

past present future

‘yesterday’ ‘’today’ ‘tomorrow’

And now a surprise set of sentences:

Well, they’re lining up for Littbarski’s free kick. .........................................................................

5b. Look at the verb phrases in the table below.

past perfect progressive simple present

6. TENSE AND ASPECT. Compositionality.

PERFECT PROG RESSIVE

7. TENSE AND ASPECT. Now, try to complete the definitions below.

1. TIME is ……………………….. of language and common to all human beings.

2. TENSE can be defined as a linguistic expression of ………………………. relations when

3. ASPECT refers to the ………………………. in which the verb action is reported or

4. English has …………………….. tenses: …………………….. and ………………………., and

5. ……………………… and …………………… categories can be combined in various ways

6. There is no obvious …………………………. tense in English corresponding to the

1.3. The PRESENT. The meaning of the PROGRESSIVE.

4. MEANING OF THE PROGRESSIVE. What happens to the verbs in these examples?

Progressive longer: ...............................................................................................................

Progressive shorter: .............................................................................................................

1a) She lives in a villa near Florence.

Now, tick one of the sentences which you think is right.

1 ‘I’m catching an early train to Grimble tomorrow,’ I warned Hilda.

B. What is implied by the following statements? Can we interpret this use of

1 Mr Crosbie is seeing the dentist tomorrow.

Cognition Relations Acts Activities Processes

Explain the difference in meaning of the sentences below.

1.4.The meaning contribution of the PERFECTIVE

2. (a) I'll speak to him when I finish this letter.

3. (a) Jimmy always drinks tea when he has his dinner.

Why is it so? Consider the same examples again:

2. He isn't here. .......................................................................................................................

3. I can't remember the phone number. ...................................................................................

4. The dishes are still dirty. ......................................................................................................