Accepted Manuscript

Characterization and Properties of Natural Fiber Polymer Composites: A

Comprehensive Review

M.R. Sanjay, P. Madhu, Mohammad Jawaid, P. Senthamaraikannan, S. Senthil,

S. Pradeep

PII: S0959-6526(17)32394-6

DOI: 10.1016/j.jclepro.2017.10.101

Reference: JCLP 10893

To appear in: Journal of Cleaner Production

Received Date: 30 May 2017

Revised Date: 07 October 2017

Accepted Date: 09 October 2017

Please cite this article as: M.R. Sanjay, P. Madhu, Mohammad Jawaid, P. Senthamaraikannan, S.
Senthil, S. Pradeep, Characterization and Properties of Natural Fiber Polymer Composites: A
Comprehensive Review, Journal of Cleaner Production (2017), doi: 10.1016/j.jclepro.2017.10.101

This is a PDF file of an unedited manuscript that has been accepted for publication. As a service to
our customers we are providing this early version of the manuscript. The manuscript will undergo
copyediting, typesetting, and review of the resulting proof before it is published in its final form.
Please note that during the production process errors may be discovered which could affect the
content, and all legal disclaimers that apply to the journal pertain.
 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT

Highlights:

 Detailed review on various mechanical properties and characterization studies have been
reviewed.
 New green materials resulted in the utilization of composites made from raw natural
fibers and polymer matrices which are one of the most rapidly used research topics of
recent times.
 Increased utilization of natural fiber as reinforcement for composite materials can
diminish the use of synthetic fibers and reduce greenhouse gas emissions.

1
 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT

Characterization and Properties of Natural Fiber Polymer

Composites: A Comprehensive Review

M. R. Sanjay1, P. Madhu2, Mohammad Jawaid3, P. Senthamaraikannan4,

S.Senthil5, S. Pradeep6
1Department of Mechanical Engineering, Ramaiah Institute of Technology, Banglore,

Visvesvaraya Technological University, Belagavi, India. Mobile: Mobile: +919035814366, E-

mail: mcemrs@gmail.com
2Department of Mechanical Engineering, Malnad College of Engineering, Hassan, Visvesvaraya

Technological University, Belagavi, India. Mobile: +919740627464, E-mail:

madhu.p.gowda15@gmail.com
3Department of Biocomposite Technology, Institute of Tropical Forestry and Forest Products,

Universiti Putra Malaysia, UPM Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia, Mobile: 0060-143471343, Email

ID: jawaid@upm.edu.my
4Department of Mechanical Engineering, Kamaraj College of Engineering and Technology,

Virudhunagar, Tamilnadu, India. Mobile: +919751942854, E-mail:

senthamaraikannan1991@gmail.com
5Department of Mechanical Engineering, Kamaraj College of Engineering and Technology,

Virudhunagar, Tamilnadu, India, Mobile: +919894471176, Email ID: itssenthil@yahoo.com

6Department of Mechanical Engineering, Malnad College of Engineering, Hassan, Visvesvaraya

Technological University, Belagavi, India. Mobile: +919740620519, E-mail:

pradmcehsn@gmail.com
 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT

Abstract

The world is in need of more eco-friendly material, therefore researchers around the globe focus

on developing new materials that would improve the environmental quality of products. This

need for new green materials has led to the utilization of composites made from raw natural

fibers and polymer matrices, and this has become one of the most widely investigated research

topics in recent times. Natural fiber composites are an alternative for replacing environmentally

harmful synthetic materials and help control pollution problems. In addition, they are low cost,

have better mechanical properties and require low production energy consumption. Also, using

such materials in construction works, it is possible to improve the sustainability by eliminating

construction wastes. Keeping in view all the benefits of natural fiber reinforced polymer

composites, this paper first discusses various fabrication techniques employed for the production

of these composites and then presents a detailed review of the research devoted to the analysis of

their structure and properties by a variety of characterization techniques.

Keywords: Natural fiber, Properties, XRD, FTIR, SEM

1. Introduction

Natural fiber hybrid composites can be viable alternatives to synthetic fiber reinforced

composites as structural or semi-structural components, especially in lightweight applications

(Sathishkumar et al., 2014; Sanjay et al., 2017; Yusriah et al., 2014). Nowadays, replacing

synthetic fibers with natural fibers in the automotive industry can yield economic, environmental

and social benefits. This area of research continues to be of interest to engineers and

professionals as natural fiber composites turning out to be an alternative solution to the ever

depleting non-renewable sources (Hom et al., 2015; Karnani et al., 1997; Singleton et al., 2003;

Zah et al., 2007). It has been found that these natural fiber composites possess better electrical
 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT

resistance, good mechanical properties, good thermal and acoustic insulating properties, as well

as higher resistance to fracture (Ramnath et al., 2014; Sanjay et al., 2015 & 2016a; Yelin et al.,

2016).

In the past, natural fibers were used in building and structural applications. More recently, some

cellulosic products and wastes have been used as fillers in polymers to achieve cost savings and

to impart some desirable properties (Chawla and Bastos, 1979; Kokta, 1988; Lubin, 1982;

Maldas and Kokta, 1995; Piggot, 1980; Prasad et al., 1983). Already explored industrial

applications include window and door frames, furniture, railroad sleepers, automotive panels and

upholstery, gardening items, packaging, shelves etc., applications in aerospace, leisure,

construction, and sports, industries and, in general applications that do not require very high

mechanical resistance, but, instead, reduce the purchasing and maintenance costs (Faris et al.,

2014; Ku et al., 2011; Mantia and Morreale, 2011). Recent work on natural fiber composites

reveals that the specific mechanical properties of natural fiber composites are comparable to

those of glass fiber reinforced composites. Natural fiber composites, in the form of panels, tubes,

sandwich plates, have been used to replace wooden fittings, and fixtures, for furniture, and noise

insulating panels in the last decade (Alves et al., 2010; Mei-po et al., 2011). The classification of

natural fibers is presented in Fig. 1 and annual productions of natural fibers are tabulated in

Table 1.

Fibers are used as reinforcement material in composites, which are converted into different

forms, such as mats, rovings, yarns and fabrics (Oksman et al., 2001; Van et al., 2006;

Andersons et al., 2011). To date, several manufacturing methods have been investigated to
 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT

produce composites, such as film stacking, vacuum infusion, hand lay-up, compression

moulding, filament winding, manual winding, resin transfer moulding, injection moulding, and

pultrusion, to name a few (Khondkeret al., 2006; Liu et al., 2008; Oksman et al., 2001; Yan et

al., 2012). While selecting a particular manufacturing method, various factors need to be

considered, including raw material properties, size and shape of the composite, economics

involved in the process etc. (Danni et al., 2014; Mei-po et al., 2011). Table 2 presents a literature

survey on processing techniques of natural fiber reinforced composites. In this review, a

collective effort has been made to survey research on various properties of natural fiber

composites and on their characterization using FTIR, XRD, and thermogravimetric analyses.

Fig. 1. Classification of natural fibres [Akil et al., 2011; Sanjay et al., 2015].
 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT

Table 1 Annual productions of natural fibers [Athijayamani et al., 2010].

Natural fiber Origin World production (x 103 Tons)

Coir Fruit 100

Banana Stem 200

Bamboo Stem 10,000

Jute Stem 2,500

Hemp Stem 215

Flax Stem 810

Abaca Leaf 70

Kenaf Stem 770

Roselle Stem 250

Ramie Stem 100

Sisal Leaf 380

Sun hemp Stem 70

Cotton lint Fruit 18,500

Wood Stem 1, 750,000

Broom Stem Abundant

Elephant Grass Stem Abundant

Linseed Fruit Abundant

Oil Palm Fruit Fruit Abundant

Rice Husk Fruit/grain Abundant

 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT

Table 2 Processing Techniques of Natural Fiber Reinforced Composites.

Fiber Type of fiber Processing Method Reference

Short fiber reinforced Twin-screw extruder and
Cellulose fiber Amash et al., 2000
composites hydraulic press
Pultrusion and
Continuous fiber compression molding,
Flax fiber yarn Angelov et al., 2007
reinforced composites Vacuum heating and
compression molding
Haake rheomix and
Short fiber reinforced injection molding, Twin-
Flax fiber Arbelaiz et al., 2006
composites screw extruder and
injection molding
Pineapple leaf Short fiber reinforced Hydraulic press using film
Arib et al., 2006
fiber composites stacking technic
Continuous fiber Single-screw extruder and
Sisal fiber yarn Fung et al., 2003
reinforced composites injection molding
Chopped sisal Short fiber reinforced
Haake rheocord mixer
fiber composites
Melt mixing (Haake
rheocord mixer), solution
Joseph et al., 2003
Short fiber reinforced mixing
Sisal fiber
composites (toluene) followed by
extrusion and compression
molding
Tubular braiding
Continuous fiber Khondker et al.,
Jute yarn technique, compression
reinforced composites 2006
molding
Unidirectional Continuous fiber
Heated press into a mold Madsen et al., 2003
and reinforced composites
 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT

multidirectional
flax fiber
Short fiber reinforced Haake rheocord and
Bamboo fiber Moe et al., 2003
composites injection molding
Powder impregnation
through compression
Chopped hemp Particulate fiber
molding and extrusion Mohanty et al., 2004
fiber reinforced composites
followed by injection
molding
Kapok/cotton Continuous fiber Mwaikambo et al.,
Hydraulic press
fabric reinforced composites 2000
Sisal, kenaf, Compression molding
Particulate fiber
hemp, using a film stacking Paul et al., 2003
reinforced composites
jute and coir method
Pine free saw Particulate fiber Single-screw extruder and Pickering et al.,
dust reinforced composites compression molding 2004
Chopped jute Short fiber reinforced Shear K-mixer and
Rana et al., 2003
fiber composites injection molding
Laboratory sigma blade
Short fiber reinforced
Pinewood fiber mixer and injection
composites
molding
Particulate fiber Twin-screw extruder and
Flax (pulp) fiber
reinforced composites injection molding
Short fiber reinforced Single-screw extruder and Ramakrishna et al.,
Date palm leaves
composites injection molding 2009
Sisal, coir, luff
Brabender mixer and
sponge and Particulate fiber
processed by
cellulose from reinforced composites
compression molding
pulp fiber
Cellulose Particulate fiber Solvent mixing followed
 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT

whiskers reinforced composites by hot press

Particulate fiber Melt mixing (plastomill)
Cellulose fibers
reinforced composites and compression molding
Alfa, bleached
Particulate fiber Brabender mixer and
soft wood,
reinforced composites compression molding
Avicel fibers
Eucalyptus
wood, ground
Particulate fiber Brabender and hydraulic
corncob and
reinforced composites press
spent brewery
grain fibers
Particulate fiber
Cellulose fibers Droplet method
reinforced composites
Eucalyptus wood Particulate fiber
Hot press
fibers reinforced composites
Particulate fiber High-speed mixer and
Lignocel fiber
reinforced composites injection molding
Kraft pulp of Particulate fiber Twin-screw extruder and
eucalyptus fiber reinforced composites injection molding
Particulate fiber Mixer and injection
Hard wood dust
reinforced composites molding
Haake rheomix 600
equipped with roller
Particulate fiber
Aspen pulp fiber blades
reinforced composites
rotor and compression
molding
Particulate fiber
Pinewood flour Woodtruder and die
reinforced composites
Liquified wood Particulate fiber Haake rheomix, single-
mill reinforced composites screw extruder
 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT

and injection molding

Twin-screw extruder and
Particulate fiber compression molding,
Wood fiber
reinforced composites Single-screw extruder and
compression molding
Particulate fiber Heated roll mixer and
Hemp strands
reinforced composites injection molding
Brabender internal mixer
Particulate fiber and compression molding,
Hemp fiber
reinforced composites Twin-screw extruder and
injection molding
Single fiber embedded
inside two previously
Jute and hemp Particulate fiber built sheets of PP matrix
fiber reinforced composites by
compressing at melting
point
Bleached soft
Particulate fiber Two roll mill and injection
wood
reinforced composites molding
pine fibers
Rice husk flour Particulate fiber Single-screw extruder and
filler reinforced composites injection molding
Twin-screw extruder and
Particulate fiber injection molding, Single-
Rice husk
reinforced composites screw extruder and
injection molding
Mixer and compression
Particulate fiber molding, Haake rheo
Saw dust
reinforced composites mixer and compression
molding
Luffa fiber Particulate fiber Haake rheocord mixer and
 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT

reinforced composites compression molding

Wheat straw Particulate fiber Brabender mixer and
fibers reinforced composites injection molding
Particulate fiber Single-screw etruder and
Paper sludge
reinforced composites compression molding
Particulate fiber Haake rheocord mixer and
Coconut fiber
reinforced composites compression molding
Particulate fiber Plied up alternatively and
Layer of kenaf
reinforced composites pressed in a heated press
Particulate fiber Pellets processed by twin-
Rice husk
reinforced composites screw extruder
Seung et al., 2003
Rice husk and Particulate fiber Twin-screw extruder and
wood flour fiber reinforced composites injection molding
Continuous fiber Twin-screw extruder and
Jute fiber yarn Thi et al., 2006
reinforced composites injection molding
Compression molding
Short fiber reinforced Zampaloni et al.,
Kenaf fiber through a sheet stacking
composites 2007
technic

2. Mechanical Properties

2.1. Tensile Properties

Our literature review reveals that, in general, natural fiber reinforced composites are reported to

exhibit comparable mechanical properties with those of synthetic fiber ones. For example, Van et

al., 2002, established that the mechanical properties of flax, hemp, jute and sisal fibers are very

good, which makes them capable of competing with glass fiber as regards strength and modulus.

Moreover, such assertions can be extended towards other types of natural fibers as well. For

instance, a study carried out on henequen fiber established its high mechanical properties and its

suitability for reinforcing thermoplastic resins (Cazaurang et al., 1991). Also, it has been
 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT

reported that chopped snake grass fiber isophthallic polyester composites show improved tensile

strength and tensile modulus upon an increase in fiber volume fraction (Sathishkumar et al.,

2014). Iannace et al., 1999, investigated bio-composites based on sea algae fibers and

biodegradable thermoplastic matrices. Composites were prepared by mixing thermoplastic

polymers with sea algae fibers. The effects of compression molding and calendering processes

on the mechanical properties of the resulting composites were studied. The results revealed that

the composite materials showed higher elastic modulus and lower strength than the matrix

components. Ichazo et al., 2001, noted that adding silane treated wood flour to polypropylene

(PP) resulted in an increase of the tensile modulus and strength of PP/wood flour composites.

Mylsamy et al., 2011, reported that, upon alkali treatment, agave fiber reinforced epoxy

composites showed high resistance to continuous elongation, while also exhibiting brittle

fracture at a maximum stress of 41.2 MPa. Also, the tensile modulus of the untreated agave

composite was 263 MPa, but this value increased to 270 MPa upon alkali treatment. Srinivasan

et al., 2014, carried out research on the ultimate tensile strength of banana/flax and glass fiber

reinforced polymer (GFRP) composites. The results showed that the flax-banana-GFRP hybrid

composite had higher ultimate tensile strength of 39 N/mm2, compared to the flax-GFRP

composite and the banana-GFRP composite, which reached tensile strength values of 32 N/mm2

and 30 N/mm2, respectively. Lee et al., 2009, investigated the long-discontinuous natural fibers

of kenaf and jute reinforced polypropylene (PP) composites, manufactured by carding and hot

pressing processes, with fiber weight fractions ranging from 10% to 70%. Experimental results

revealed that both tensile strength and modulus of both kenaf and jute fiber reinforced PP

composites enhanced with increased fiber loading and a maximum was reached before falling

back at a higher fiber weight fraction. Herrero-Franco et al., 2003, studied the tensile behavior of
 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT

high-density polyethylene (HDPE) reinforced with continuous henequen fibers. They were

treated with 0.015 wt. % of silane coupling agent. The results indicated that while the silane

treatment improved the tensile strength of the continuous henequen fiber reinforced HDPE

composites, it had no significant effect on their Young’s modulus. Jayaraman et al., 2004,

investigated the tensile properties of wood fiber waste based plastic composites and found out

that the tensile strength did not vary with the fiber content. Paul et al., 2003, reported on the

mechanical behavior of kenaf reinforced polypropylene composites, among others. The results

showed that with increasing fiber weight fraction, the tensile modulus and the ultimate tensile

stress of the kenaf reinforced polypropylene composites improved. Table 3 presents an overview

of the tensile properties of various natural fibers in comparison with those of synthetic fibers, as

reported in the literature discussed above.

Table 3 Comparison of the tensile properties of various natural fibers with synthetic fibers.

Tensile Tensile
Density Diameter %
Fiber name strength modulus Reference
(kg/m3) (µm) Elongation
(MPa) (GPa)
Jute 1460 - 393–800 10–30 1.5–1.8
Sisal 1450 50–300 227–400 9–20 2–14
David et al.,
Pineappleleaf 1440 20–80 413– 34.5– 82.5 0.8–1
2012
1627
Kenaf 1400 81 250 4.3 -
E-glass 2.55 <17 3400 73 3.4
S-glass 2.5 - 4580 85 4.6
Emad et al.,
Aramid 1.4 11.9 300 124 2.5
2016
HS Carbon 1.82 8.2 2550 200 1.3
Carbon (Std. 1.4 - 4000 230–240 1.4–1.8
PAN-based)
Red banana - - 482–567 - 30.6 Kiruthika et
 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT

Nendranbanana - - 407–505 - 28.3 al., 2009

Rasthalybanana - - 304–388 - 27.8
Morrisbanana - - 222–282 - 24.2
Poovanbanana - - 144–206 - 21.8
Vakka 0.81 175-230 549 15.85 3.46
Abaca leaf fiber 0.83 114-130 418–486 12–13.8 -
Alfa 0.89 - 35 22 5.8
Softwood kraft 1.5 - 1000 40 4.4
pulp
Viscose (cord) - - 593 11.0 11.4
Wool - - 120–174 2.3–3.4 25–35
Ku et al., 2011
Spider silk - - 875–972 11–13 17–18
B. mori silk 1.33 - 208.45 6.10 19.55
Twisted B. mori - - 156.27 3.82 20.57
silk
Tussah silk 1.32 - 248.77 5.79 33.48
Nettle - - 650 38 1.7
Flax 1500 - 345– 27.6–80 1.2–3.2
Libo et al.,
1500
2014
Hemp 1480 - 550–900 70 1.6
Banana 1350 80–250 529–759 8.20 1–3.5
Coir 1150 100–460 108–252 4–6 15–40
Root 1150 100–650 157 6.2 3 Mei-po et al.,
Palymyrah 1090 70–1300 180–215 7.4–604 7–15 2012
Date 990 - 309 11.32 2.73
Bamboo 910 - 503 35.91 1.4
Talipot 890 200–700 143–294 9.3–13. 3 2.7–5
Snake grass 887 45–250 278.82 9.71 2.87 Sathishkumar
Elephantgrass 817 70–400 185 7.4 2.5 et al., 2012
Petiole bark 690 250–650 185 15 2.1
 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT

Spatha 690 150–400 75.6 3.1 6

Rachilla 650 200–400 61 2.8 8.1
Rachis 610 350–408 73 2.5 13.5
Coconuttreeleafs - - 119.8 18 5.5
heath
Sansevieria 0.887 20–250 50–585 1.5–7.67 2.8–21.7
ehrenbergii
Sansevieria 0.89 83–93 526–598 13.5–15.3 –
Rifasciata
Sansevieria 0.915 230–280 585–676 0.2–11.2 11–14
cylindrica
Palm 1.03 400–490 377 2.75 13.71
Agave 1.20 126–344 - - -
Henequen 1.20 - 430–570 11.1–16.3 3.7–5.9
Bagasse 1.25 200–400 290 11 -
Curaua 1.40 170 158–729 - 5
Sea grass 1.50 5 453–692 3.1–3.7 13–26.6
Oil palm 0.7– 150–500 80–248 0.5–3.2 17–25
1.55
Piassava 1.4 - 134–143 1.07–4.59 7.8–21.9
PALF 0.8–1.6 20–80 180– 1.44–82.5 1.6–14.5
1627
Ramie 1.0– 20–80 400– 24.5–128 1.2–4.0 Satyanarayana
1.55 1000 et al., 1990
Isora 1.2–1.3 - 500–600 - 5–6
Hivernal - 12.9 ± 3.3 1111 ± 71.7 ± 1.7 ± 0.6
544 23.3
Alaska - 15.8 ± 4.1 733 ± 49.5 ± 3.2 1.7 ± 0.6
271
Niagara - 15.6 ± 2.3 741 ± 45.6 ± 1.7 ± 0.6
 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT

400 16.7
Oliver - 13.7 ± 3.7 899 ± 55.5 ± 1.7 ± 0.8
461 20.9
Cotton 1600 - 287–597 5.5–12.6 3–10
Ramie 1500 - 220–938 44–128 2–3

2.2. Flexural Properties

Flexural properties are one of the major parameters in composite materials and are used mainly

to assess the suitability of the material for structural applications by determining its flexural

strength, flexural modulus, flexural load and deflection at break. Research on flexural properties

of natural fiber composites reports a relationship between flexural strength and fiber

content/fiber length. For instance, a study indicates that the maximum flexural strength and

modulus of chopped snake grass fiber isophthallic polyester composites are achievable at 25% Vf

for 120mm and 150mm long fibers (Sathishkumar et al., 2012). Satyanarayana et al., 1990,

reported that in bamboo-mesh reinforced cement composites, the reinforcing material enhanced

the ductility and toughness of the cement matrix, and significantly increased the tensile, flexural,

and impact strengths. Joseph et al., 2002, compared the mechanical properties of phenol

formaldehyde composites reinforced with banana fibers and glass fibers. The composites were

fabricated using banana fiber and glass fiber with varying fiber length and fiber loading. The

analysis of flexural properties of these composites revealed that the optimum fiber length

required for banana fiber and for glass fiber is different for reinforcing a phenol formaldehyde

resole matrix. Both banana fiber and glass fiber reinforced composites show a regular trend of

increase in properties with fiber loading. Aziz et al., 2003, observed the effect of fiber alignment

and alkalization of long and random hemp and kenaf fibers, which were combined with polyester

resin and were hot pressed to form a composite. Their results revealed that alkalized and long
 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT

fiber composites gave higher flexural modulus and flexural strength compared with the

composites made from as-received fiber. The high flexural modulus and high flexural strength of

further alkalized hemp-polyester composites were associated with a low work of fracture. Shinji,

2008, investigated kenaf/PLA composites as biodegradable composite materials. The outcome of

this study revealed that the tensile and flexural strengths, as well as the elastic moduli of these

fibers improved linearly up to a fiber content of 50%. Mylsamy et al., 2011, concluded that good

chemical bonding between alkali treated continuous agave fiber and an epoxy matrix results in

improved flexural strength, flexural modulus and impact strength of the composites.

Fig. 2. Comparison of potential specific modulus values and ranges between

Natural fibers and glass fiber [Dittenber et al., 2012; Singh et al., 2005].

Mansour et al., 2011, studied the flexural properties of alkali treated Alfa fiber reinforced

polyester matrix composites. The results showed that the flexural strength and flexural modulus

increased from 23 MPa to 57 MPa and from 1.16 to 3.04 GPa, respectively, upon 10% NaOH
 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT

treatment of the fibers. Sanjay et al., 2016b, evaluated different mechanical properties of

banana/E-glass fabrics reinforced polyester hybrid composites. The test results revealed that the

maximum flexural strength of 193.75 MPa was reached for the hybrid laminate. Shibata et al.,

2005, concluded that kenaf fibers could achieve higher flexural strength in composites, which

was due to their densified structure, in comparison with the porous structure of bagasse fibers.

Surya et al., 2014, studied the hybridizing effect on the mechanical properties of jute/glass

reinforced epoxy composites. The results observed revealed that the addition of thin layers of E-

glass fabric to the outer layers of composites improved the tensile, bending, and impact

properties of the jute-reinforced composites. An overview of specific modulus values achieved

for natural fibers and glass fiber is depicted in Fig. 2.

2.3. Impact Properties

Maldas et al., 1995, carried out research on sawdust wood fiber-polystyrene composites and

concluded that impact strength showed considerable improvement when silicate, along with

isocyanate, was used as a coating component of the fiber. Pothan et al., 1997, investigated short

banana fiber reinforced polyester composites. The aim of the study was to understand the effect

of fiber length and fiber content on the impact strength of the composites. The maximum impact

strength was observed at 40 mm fiber length. The incorporation of 40% untreated fibers gave a

34% increase in impact strength (as shown in Fig. 3). Also, studies on the impact strength of

green composites with different pineapple fiber content were carried out, comparing pineapple

fiber composites with those comprising virgin resin. Results revealed that incorporating 40%

untreated fiber led to a 34% increase in impact strength (Luo and Netravali, 1999). Feng et al.,

2001, reported that the use of maleated-polypropylenes (MAPP) in kenaf-fiber/polypropylene

composites improved their compatibility and structural characteristics. It also resulted in the
 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT

improvement of impact strengths in the composites. Ray et al., 2002, carried out an impact

behavior study on 35% jute/vinylester composites having both untreated and alkali treated fibers.

From the results, it was evident that the alkali treatment removed the hemicellulose, while

enhancing the crystallinity and resulting in better fiber dispersion (Fig. 4). Thiruchitrambalam et

al., 2009, carried out impact tests on banana/kenaf polyester hybrid composites. They established

that using sodium lauryl sulfate (SLS) treatment of the fibers considerably improved the impact

strength of this hybrid composite. Denise et al., 2012, performed three point bend, tensile, and

Izod impact tests on continuous and aligned piassava fiber reinforced epoxy matrix composites.

It was observed that the composites containing above 20 volume % fibers showed an effective

reinforcement behavior, both in flexural and tensile tests, while the impact energy linearly

increased with the amount of piassava fibers. Hom et al., 2015, explored the hybridization effect

of basalt fiber on post-impact behavior and damage tolerance capability of hemp fiber reinforced

composites. All reinforced laminates were subjected to both quasi-static and flexural tests, and

were impacted under different ranges of energy. Acoustic emission was conducted for

monitoring the test, which affirmed the existence of severe limitations to the use of basalt fiber

reinforced composites. Mylsamy and Rajendran, 2011, studied the impact characteristics of

agave fiber epoxy composites. The impact resistance value of 1.53 J was reached and the crack

initiation and growth in the resin matrix reflected the impact failure of agave fiber reinforced

epoxy composites. Sanjay et al., 2016b evaluated the impact behavior of banana/E-glass fabrics

reinforced polyester hybrid composites, by comparing laminates with different composition. The

results revealed that the highest impact strength was found in the hybrid laminate, which was 6 J.

The impact strength of jute/oil palm empty fruit bunches hybrid epoxy composites and glass/oil

palm empty fruit bunches hybrid polyester composites was studied by Abdul et al., 2009. Their
 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT

findings showed that the higher strength of glass fibers led to higher impact strength in glass/oil

palm empty fruit bunches hybrid polyester composites. Luciano et al., 2016, investigated the

impact resistance of sisal fibers and silica nanoparticles hybrid composites and determined that

the composites made with unidirectional untreated fibers and silica nanoparticles (2 wt. %)

exhibited enhanced impact resistance and diminished complete porosity (Fig. 5). Hande and

Omer, 2016, concluded that higher impact values can be achieved by adding high impact

resistant fibers to the outer layers of composites. Also, they established that the tensile strength

of composite specimens can be improved by placing high tensile strength fibers at the inner

layers. Paul et al., 2003, compared the impact strength of coir, jute and kenaf based composites

and concluded that coir fiber composites displayed higher impact strength, but its other

mechanical properties were low, compared to those of jute and kenaf fiber composites. Sreekala

et al., 2002, investigated the mechanical behavior of hybrid phenol-formaldehyde-based

composites reinforced with glass and oil palm fibers. Oil palm fiber hybridized with glass fiber

resulted in improved impact strength.

Fig. 3. Effect of fiber loading (40 % fiber content) and fiber content (40 mm fiber length) on the
impact strength of the composite [Pothan et al., 1997].
 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT

Fig. 4. Impact fatigue curve of 35% jute/vinylester composites having both untreated and alkali
treated fibers [Ray et al., 2002].

Fig. 5. Interaction effect plot related to the impact resistance [Luciano et al., 2016].
 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT

2.4. Inter-laminar Properties

George et al., 2001, carried out a study on interface modification and characterization of natural

fiber reinforced plastic composites. It was observed that the quality of the fiber-matrix interface

is essential for the application of natural fibers as reinforcement for plastics. Also, the

researchers concluded that because fibers and matrices are chemically different, strong adhesion

at their interfaces is necessary to achieve successful transfer and distribution of stress on their

interfaces. Jochen et al., 2002, focused their research on the fiber interfacial characteristics that

affect the behavior of various natural fiber composites, such as flax, jute, yarn and woven fibers

reinforced with epoxy, polyester and polypropylene resins. They noted that these natural fiber

reinforced plastics possessed higher fiber strength and modulus, strong fiber-matrix adhesion and

higher critical load for damage initiation. Alkali treatment of various natural fibers, such as

hemp, jute, kapok, woven fibers, modified their structure, thereby promoting an increase in fiber

resin adhesion, which, in turn, led to an improvement in interfacial energy (Mwaikambo and

Ansell, 2002). Joseph conducted experiments, treating sisal fiber with a urethane derivative of

polypropylene glycol (PPG), maleic anhydride modified polypropylene (MAPP), and KMnO4.

The result was that the chemical treatment improved interfacial adhesion characteristics between

the fiber and the matrix (Joseph et al., 2002). Siregar investigated the effects of treating short

pineapple leaf fiber (PALF) with different concentrations (0%, 2% and 4% solutions) of NaOH,

for reinforcing high impact polystyrene (HIPS) composites. The results indicated that, after the

alkali treatment, the adhesion characteristics between the fiber and the matrix enhanced, thus

favoring the production of a composite (Siregar et al., 2010). Mylsamy et al., 2011, carried out

dynamic mechanical analysis studies on untreated continuous agave fiber reinforced epoxy

composites and on alkali treated continuous agave fiber reinforced epoxy composites. The results
 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT

revealed that the composites with poor interfacial bonding tended to dissipate more energy than

those with good interfacial bonding. Denise et al., 2012, reported that the notch-toughness of

long aligned piassava reinforced epoxy composites exhibited a considerable linear increase with

the addition of fibers, which was mainly due to low fiber/epoxy matrix interfacial shear stress.

Abdul et al., 2009, remarked that loss in fiber strength results in high impact loss, which is

mainly due to the swelling of cell wall structures. Also, they further reported that the composite

strength reduced with the degradation in interfacial adhesion between the filler and the matrix

with continuous water absorption by the composite samples. Ferreria et al., 2005, improved the

fatigue strength by using hybrid fiber composites with a polypropylene hemp layer adjacent to

the bond interface, which was expected to produce more uniform stress in transient regions.

Zulkifli et al., 2002, studied the inter-laminar fracture properties of natural rubber/polypropylene

composites, comprising 5-20 % of natural rubber in the polypropylene. An increased natural

rubber content resulted in decreased inter-laminar fracture toughness of the composite material.

The attractiveness of woven composites is constantly increasing due to their simple processing

and high mechanical properties. Woven fiber reinforced composites give more stable properties

in the fabric plane than unidirectional lamina. The weaving of the fiber provides an interlocking,

which increases strength better than can be achieved by fiber-matrix adhesion

(Thiruchitrambalam et al., 2012). Yongli Zang examined the interfacial properties of

unidirectional flax/glass fiber reinforced hybrid composites (Fig. 6). The results showed that the

inter-laminar shear strength and fracture toughness of the hybrid composites were higher,

compared to those of the glass fiber reinforced composites (Yongli et al., 2013).
 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT

Fig. 6. Failure specimens and interlaminar shear strength of the (a) GFRP (glass fiber reinforced
hybrid polymer composites, (b) FFRP (flax fiber reinforced polymer composite) and (c) HFRP
(flax/glass fiber reinforced hybrid polymer composite) [Yongli et al., 2013].

2.5. Hardness Properties

Lundquist et al., 2003, reported that a pulp fiber reinforced thermoplastic composite shows an

increase in stiffness by a factor of 5.2 and in strength by a factor of 2.3, relative to the virgin

polymer. Zampaloni et al., 2007, concluded that Kenaf–maleated polypropylene composites have

a higher modulus/cost and higher specific modulus and strength, at a lower cost than those

reinforced with sisal, coir, and E-glass, thereby making them good alternatives for various

existing materials. Sanjay et al., 2016b, measured the hardness values of different laminates

prepared from banana/E-glass fabrics reinforced polyester hybrid composites by various stacking

sequences. It was found that laminate L1 (pure glass fiber composite) was the hardest (26.72

HV) and laminate L2 (pure banana fiber composites) was the least hard (12.36 HV). The results

revealed that an increased number of banana fabric layers reduced the hardness of the composites

(Fig. 7). Ramanaiah et al., 2012, developed a new natural borassus seed shoot fiber reinforced

polymer matrix composite with various fiber volume content ranging from 0.116 to 0.305.

Studying the variation of mechanical properties, they observed that the hardness of the
 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT

composites decreased with an increase in the fiber content. Sreekala et al., 2002, carried out

investigations of the mechanical behavior of hybrid phenol-formaldehyde-based composites

reinforced with glass and oil palm fibers. It was established that hybridizing oil palm fibers with

glass fibers improved mechanical properties, such as tensile strength, tensile modulus and

flexural strength, but decreased the hardness property. Yan et al., 2012, evaluated the effects of

inner diameter, length-to-diameter ratio and tube thickness of flax fiber-reinforced epoxy circular

tubes. The study revealed that the energy absorption capability of the flax/epoxy composite tube

was majorly dependent on the tube geometry and the laminates of specific length with multiple

plies displayed higher energy absorption capacity. Seung-Hwan et al., 2007, carried out hardness

and elastic modulus tests on cellulose fiber-reinforced polypropylene composites formed by the

nano-indentation technique. A line of indents was produced from the fiber to the matrix. There

was a gradient of hardness and modulus across the interphase region. The distinct properties of

the transition zone were revealed by 1–4 indents, depending on the nano-indentation depth and

spacing.

Fig.7. Hardness value for hybrid composites [Sanjay et al., 2016b],

 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT

3. Water Absorption Properties

Water absorption studies are carried out to determine the effect of moisture on the shape,

debonding and loss of strength in the composites (Tserki et al., 2006). Azwa and Yousif, 2013,

concluded that alkali treated kenaf fiber composites showed less moisture absorption of 3.85%,

compared to untreated fiber composites of 6.38% correspondingly. This influenced the weight

loss behavior of the fiber composites mainly due to heat exposure. Also, because of the minimal

voids and hemicellulose contents in the treated fibers, moisture could not be maintained within

the composites. Jumaidin et al., 2016, determined the moisture absorption of thermoplastic sugar

palm starch/agar blend samples, by considering the weight of the samples before and after

absorption. Manikandan, 2007, remarked that hybridization of glass fiber with palmyra

reinforced composites presented greater flexibility and improved the mechanical properties, as

well as decrease the moisture absorption (Fig. 9). Kasama and Nitinat, 2009, reported that the

incorporation of glass fiber into sisal–polypropylene composites enhanced mechanical and water

resistance properties of the composite. Hom et al., 2015, analyzedthe water absorption behaviour

of non-woven hemp fiber reinforced unsaturated polyester composites and concluded that

increased voids and cellulose content resulted in increased fiber volume fraction and moisture

uptake of the composites. Sanjay et al., 2016c, investigated the hybridization effect of

jute/kenaf/E-glass woven fabric composites on their water absorption behavior, while the

composites were formed by different layering sequences. The study showed that upon

hybridization with E-glass, the water absorption capacity of the composites declined

considerably (Fig. 10). Jannah et al., 2009, studied the effect of varying percentage by volume

(5%, 10%, 15%, and 20%) of woven banana fiber used to reinforce unsaturated polyester

composites, while also using different chemical treatments by the vacuum bagging technique.
 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT

The effects of fiber content and fiber surface modifications on the flexural, impact and water

absorption properties of the composites were investigated. They found that acrylic acid treatment

resulted in improved mechanical and water absorption properties of the composites, compared to

the alkali treatment and to the absence of any fiber modification (Fig. 11). Le Duigou et al.,

2009, examined the influence of sea water ageing on the properties of bio-composites. They

showed that the weakening of the interface between flax fiber and PLLA matrix is one of the

main factors triggering the damage mechanism induced by water absorption. The water

absorption properties of coir and sisal fiber reinforced PP composites, using water at three

different temperatures, of 23, 50, and 70 0C, were analyzed. A decrease in the tensile properties

of the composites was demonstrated, showing a great loss in mechanical properties of the water-

saturated samples, compared to the dry samples (Espert et al., 2004).

To conclude, biopolymers have been found to have the tendency to absorb more moisture than

their synthetic counterparts. Moreover, natural composites have proved to perform particularly

poorly when immersed in water. Singh and Gupta, 2005, found that the strength of a

sisal/polyester composite was 13–31% lower when fully immersed into liquid than at 95% RH.
 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT

Fig. 8. Moisture absorption behavior of thermoplastic SPS with different amount of agar
[Jumaidin et al., 2016].

Fig. 9. Moisture absorption curves in water for palmyra/glass fiber hybrid composites
[Velmurugan and Manikandan, 2007].
 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT

Fig. 10. Water absorption of composites during 150 days of immersion in normal water [Sanjay
et al., 2016c].

Fig. 11. Water absorption of 10 and 20 vol% of banana fiber-reinforced polyester composites
[Jannah et al., 2009].
 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT

4. Thermal Properties

Feng et al., 2001, reported that the use of maleated-polypropylenes (MAPP) in kenaf-

fiber/polypropylene composites changed the crystallization and melting behavior of these blends.

Joseph et al., 2003, carried out studies on the thermal and crystallization behavior of short sisal

fiber reinforced polypropylene (PP) composites. The thermal behavior of these composites was

studied using Thermo-Gravimetry (TG) and Differential Scanning Calorimetry (DSC). The

results revealed that fibers exhibited superior properties after they were chemically treated with a

urethane derivative of polypropylene glycol (PPG), maleic anhydride modified polypropylene

(MAPP), and KMnO4. Annie et al., 2008, investigated the thermo-physical properties of banana

fiber/polypropylene commingled composite materials. The results showed that the thermal

conductivity and thermal diffusivity of these composites declined with fiber loading after treating

the fibers with different NaOH concentrations. A 10% NaOH treated banana fiber composite

showed better thermo-physical properties than a 2% NaOH treated banana fiber composite. The

results of the thermogravimetric analysis indicated that the addition of kenaf fibers into the

epoxy slightly improved both the charring and the thermal stability of the samples. Fig. 12

illustrates the TGA curves obtained for the materials under study. From Fig.13 it can be seen

that the untreated kenaf/epoxy composite starts to lose weight earlier than the other samples.

This may be attributed to the higher moisture content of untreated fibers, whereby, the presence

of hemicelluloses has caused higher moisture absorption of the composite (Azwa and Yousif,

2013). Another work on sugar palm starch and agar composites demonstrated that the two

components were compatible and the addition of agar improved the tensile properties (tensile

strength and Young’s modulus) and thermal properties of thermoplastic sugar palm starch

composites, in terms of glass transition temperature and melting temperature. Thermoplastic SPS
 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT

blends with 30 wt. % agar showed the highest tensile strength (Jumaidin et al., 2016). Setsuko

and Nobuo, 1989, studied the effect of thermal degradation on the mechanical properties of

wood/polymer composites. The temperature range they focused on was from 220 to 260 0C and

the exposure time was varied from 4 to 4096 min. It was observed that although, in general, the

mechanical properties deteriorated, as a result of thermal degradation of wood flour, toughness

and bending strength were even more affected. Boopalan et al., 2013, investigated the

mechanical and thermal properties of jute and banana fiber reinforced epoxy hybrid composites.

To improve the mechanical properties, jute fiber was hybridized with banana fiber. Tensile,

flexural, impact, thermal and water absorption tests were carried out on hybrid composite

samples. The study indicated that the addition of up to 50% by weight banana fiber into

jute/epoxy composites resulted in increasing the mechanical and thermal properties and in

decreasing moisture absorption.

Fig. 12.Thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) curves [Azwa and Yousif, 2013].

 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT

5. Tribological Properties

Friction and wear are two important tribological phenomena occurring during the relative motion

of solid surfaces, which usually lead to dissipating energy and deteriorating materials (Emad et

al., 2016). The tribological properties of phenol formaldehyde composites, with different volume

fractions of sisal fiber, were investigated at high temperatures. The effect of different fiber

contents on the coefficient of friction and the wear rate of sisal fiber/phenol formaldehyde

composites was considered, while the friction coefficient showed different trends at different

temperature. The wear rate significantly increased at higher temperatures. In general, unattached

fibers on the worn surface of composites bear the majority of the friction loads. At higher

amounts of fiber content, defects are probably formed in the composites due to worse dispersion

of the fibers in the matrix (Wei et al., 2015).

Generally, the coefficient of friction (COF) is a quantitative number that defines the frictional

behavior of materials. In wear tests, a friction value is either an average of the entire test or a

stable value assessed at the end of the test. Wear is a progressive loss of material from one or

both mating surfaces during sliding brought about by mechanical and/or chemical processes

(Menezes et al., 2013). The worn surfaces of kenaf fiber reinforced epoxy (KFRE) composite

and neat epoxy (NE) have been observed at different operating parameters. High thermo-

mechanical is the main reason for debonding, which deteriorated the interfacial bond between the

fibers and the matrix. Micro-cracks were propagated due to the high side force. Micro-cracks

cause failure of materials and increase the wear rate at a higher applied load. It can be concluded

that micro-cracks are a predominant wear mechanism under severe conditions (higher load

and/or velocity) (Chin and Yousif, 2009).

 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT

The tribological properties of brake pads developed using rice straw (RS) and rice husk dust

have been investigated and the results indicated that the tribological properties were significantly

improved by the addition of rice straw and rice husk dust into the composites. Thus, it could be

concluded that these composites could be effectively used in brake pad formulations (Mutlu,

2009). Bio-wastes can decrease the wear rate of polymer composites, compared to neat epoxy.

Additionally, composites reinforced by wood apple shell particles showed lower erosion wear,

compared to coconut composites (Ojha et al., 2014). The wear rate and friction coefficient of

chopped sugar cane fiber reinforced polyester (CSCRP) were compared with those of chopped

glass fiber reinforced polyester (C-GRP) composites at different fiber length. Results revealed

that the wear rate of the composites reinforced by the sugar cane fiber was better than that of the

composites reinforced by glass fiber. Meanwhile the composite reinforced with glass fibers

showed a better coefficient of friction, but the values achieved for both types of composites were

very close (El-Tayeb et al., 2008).

6. FTIR, XRD and SEM Characterization of Natural Fiber Polymer Composites

Fourier Transform Infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy is an effective analytical technique for

determining the functional groups interacting within natural fiber and for characterizing their

covalent bonding information. The infrared spectra corresponding to a variety of plant fibers are

illustrated in Table 4.

FTIR analysis confirmed that the components of sugar palm starch/agar blend composites were

compatible and intermolecular hydrogen bonds existed between them. Fig. 13 presents the FT-IR

data for native sugar palm starch (SPS), agar, and thermoplastic SPS blends, respectively. The
 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT

native SPS spectrum is similar to the agar spectrum in the range of 4000 to 2000 cm−1. These

two materials exhibit the same broad bands from 3100 to 3700 cm−1, which can be attributed to

hydrogen bonded hydroxyl groups (O-H) from complex vibrational stretching, associated with

free, inter- and intramolecular bound hydroxyl groups. The bands at approximately 2900 cm-1

were attributed to tightly bound water present in the SPS. Meanwhile, the peak at 1644 cm−1 for

native agar was caused by stretching of the conjugated peptide bond formed by amine (NH) and

acetone (CO) groups. The peaks in the range of 1400–1450 cm−1 were assigned to O-H bending.

In the SPS spectrum, three peaks appeared between 928 and 1164 cm−1, which were attributed to

C-O bond stretching. The peaks at approximately 1089 and 1020 cm−1 were characteristic of the

anhydro-glucose ring C-O stretch. In the agar spectrum, the peaks at approximately 1070, 1030

and 930 cm−1 were assigned to the C-O of 3,6-anhydro-galactose. The FT-IR spectra of the

polymer blends made it possible to identify the interaction between the components at a lower

wave number, indicating stronger interaction between the components. This phenomenon proved

that agar and SPS were compatible and there was interaction between their chains upon blending

(Jumaidin et al., 2016). Fakhru and Islam, 2013, used FTIR spectroscopy to analyze

polypropylene/saw dust composite compositions before and after exposure. The FTIR analysis

shows the disappearance of functional groups because of the breakdown of the corresponding

groups. It is an evidence of the degradation of polymer composites. Three peaks at 1725 cm−1,

1646.9 cm-1 and 1376.6 cm−1 disappeared, which positively indicates the dissociation of the

bonds carbonyl (C=O), carbon–carbon double bond (C=C) and methyl group (CH3),

respectively. The peak at 1625 cm-1 is reduced in the spectrum of alkali treated hemp fibers and

is completely absent in that of alkali treated kenaf fibers. This peak represents the C=O bonds on
 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT

hemicellulose and is further evidence that hemicellulose is removed from the fiber surfaces by

the alkali treatment (Mwaikambo and Ansell, 2002).

Table 4 FTIR analysis peaks for various existing natural fibers.

Various peaks in FTIR analysis Refer

CO ence
Bending
Stretchin
vibration
g C-
of C-H and
Carb CH2S vibration
C-O β- C-
Natural O-H C-H onyl ymm of the
groups of glycosidi OH
Fibers Stretc Stretchin C=O etric acetyl
the c bend
hing g Stret bendi group in
aromatic linkages ing
ching ng lignin
ring in
and
polysaccha
hemicellu
rides
lose
Malaysian - 2918 cm-1 1736 1425 1242 cm-1 1050 cm-1 898 cm-1 - Abdul
Ceibapenta cm-1 cm-1 lah et
ndra (L.) al.,
2010
Date palm 3300 2946 cm-1 1735 - - - - - AlMa
leaves cm-1 cm-1 adeed
et al.,
2013
Pineapple 3450 2900 cm-1 1730 - 1260 cm-1 1050 cm-1 - - Alfred
cm-1 cm-1 and 1030 o et
cm-1 al.,
2013
 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT

Coir 3330 2910 cm-1 1725 1420 1235 cm-1 - - - Arrak

cm-1 cm-1 cm-1 hiz et
al.,
2012
Artichoke 3342 2923cm-1 1737 1422 - 1372 cm-1 892 cm-1 589 Fiore
cm-1 and 2854 cm-1 cm-1 and 1318 cm-1 et al.,
cm-1 cm-1 2011

Okra 3600- 2925 and 1734 1430 1384 cm-1 1370 cm-1 894 cm-1 598 Igor et
3100 2854 cm-1 cm-1 cm-1 and 1243 and 1320 cm-1 al.,
cm-1 cm-1 cm-1 2011
Banana 3600- 2910 cm-1 - 1416 - 1036 cm-1 - - Ketty
3100 cm-1 et al.,
cm-1 2007
Nelumbom 3361 2900 cm-1 1734 - - 1033 cm-1 - - Liu et
ucifera cm-1 cm-1 al.,
2008
Curaua 3500- 2900-2750 1740 - 1240 cm-1 - - - Marci
3200 cm-1 cm-1 a et
cm-1 al.,
2009
Henequen 3100- 2917 cm-1 1736 1436 1254 cm-1 - - - Mizan
3800 cm-1 cm-1 ur,
cm-1 2009
Hemp 3410 2916 cm-1 1732 1425 1247 cm-1 - 892 cm-1 - Moye
cm-1 cm-1 cm-1 enudd
in et
al.,
2011
Jute 3600- 2910 cm-1 1739 1430 1294 cm-1 - - - Prose
3200 cm-1 cm-1 njit et
 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT

cm-1 al.,
2010
Borassus 3435c 2920 cm-1 1746c - 1254 cm-1 1058 cm-1 893cm-1 - Reddy
m-1 and 2851 m-1 et al.,
cm-1 2013
Kenaf 3397 2902-2918 - 1416 - 1036 cm-1 - - Sherif
cm-1 cm-1 cm-1 et al.,
2006
Hibiscus 3700- 2917 cm-1 1729 1428 1245 cm-1 1372 cm-1 896 cm-1 - Sonia
sabdariffa 3100 cm-1 cm-1 and
cm-1 Priya,
2013
Luffa 3370 2870 cm-1 1730 1417 - 1055 cm-1 884 cm-1 - Valcin
Cylidrica cm-1 cm-1 cm-1 eide et
al.,
2005
Ferula 2919 cm-1 - 1422 1260 cm-1 1050 cm-1 897 cm-1 608 Yolda
communis 3400 cm-1 cm-1 s et
(Chaskshir) cm-1 al.,
2013

The peak at 1239 cm-1 corresponding to the kenaf fibers is much smaller for the alkali treated

samples. This peak is a C-O stretch of the acetyl group of lignin and is reduced because lignin is

partially removed from the fiber surface (Liu et al., 2004). FTIR analyses of chemically treated

fibers seeking to identify the presence of functional groups reveal that increasing the

concentration of alkali and SLS beyond 10% damages the fiber surface, resulting in poor fiber

adhesion and worse properties of the banana/kenaf fiber-reinforced hybrid polyester composites

(Alavudeen et al., 2015). The peak at 1641 cm-1 in the spectrum of propionic anhydride treated
 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT

jute fiber/polyethylene/nanoclay nanocomposites indicated absorbed water in crystalline

cellulose, and this band disappeared upon the chemical treatment of the fiber using PA. The band

at 1512 cm-1 is attributed to the presence of aromatic rings in lignin. The absorption band at 1359

cm-1 is assigned to C-H bending in hemicellulose and lignin (Faruk et al., 2016). Xun et al.,

2003, observed peaks at 1636 and 1250 cm-1 being related to a change in the hemicellulose and

lignin, which indicates a successful treatment of the fiber.

Fig. 13. FT-IR spectra of (a) native SPS and (b) native agar (c) neat SPS matrix (d) 10% agar (e)
20% agar (f) 30% agar (g) 40% agar [Jumaidin et al., 2016].

A literature survey on the crystallinity index and crystallite size of different natural fibers

determined by XRD analyses is presented in Table 5.

 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT

Table 5 Crystallinity index and crystallite size of different natural fibers.

Crystalline Amorphous Crystallinity Crystallite Reference

Natural fiber Intensity Intensity at Index (CI) Size (CS)
at 2θ 2θ in % in nm
Flax 220 180 700 2.8
Ramie ~ 220 180 580 -
Sisal 260 180 750 - Liu et al.,
Coconut 22.50 - 680 - 2008
Moyeenuddin
Hemp 220 16.60 87.90 -
et al., 2011
Prosenjit et
Jute 22.50 18.50 58.900 -
al., 2010
Borassus 220 160 38.40 -
Spanish ~220 180 520 -
Nelumbonucifera 22.20 16.30 - -
Cornstalk 220 180 740 3.8 Reddy et al.,
Raffia textilis 22.50 18.50 640 32 2013
Cotton stalks 220 180 650 5.5
Pineapple 220 180 58.60 -
Luffa cylindrical 220 180 59.10 -
Yoldas et al.,
Chakshir 22.20 16.80 480 1.6
2013

SEM micrographs of snake grass fiber composite specimens reveal fiber failure during tensile

and flexural testing; the matrix cracked and fibers were pulled out in the composites that

contained fiber loadings of 10% Vf and 25% Vf,as shown in Fig. 14 (Sathishkumar et al., 2012).
 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT

Mwaikambo and Ansell, 2002, carried out chemical modification of various natural fibers, such

as hemp, sisal, jute, and kapok, by alkali treatment. Following the alkali treatment, the

Differential Scanning Calorimetry analysis showed a rapid degradation of the cellulose for

NaOH concentrations between 0.8 and 8%, beyond which degradation was found to be marginal.

There was a marginal drop in the crystallinity index of the hemp fiber, while sisal, jute, and

kapok fibers showed a slight increase in crystallinity when subjected to caustic soda

concentrations of 0.8–30%. Mohanty et al., 2004, carried out SEM analysis on sisal–

polypropylene composites, which confirmed that the improved fiber-matrix adhesion with two

ethylene and propylene impact copolymers resulted in increased mechanical properties.

Edeerozey et al., 2004, investigated the morphological changes that occurred due to various

NaOH concentrations on kenaf fibers by SEM analysis. The results proved that the treated fibers

exhibited excellent mechanical properties, compared to untreated fibers. Fig. 15a displays

transverse cross-sections of a number of piassava fibers, indicating not only differences in their

size and shape, but also the existence of empty spaces corresponding to channels (lumen), where

nutrients and water flow along the fiber. In Fig. 15b, a higher magnification of one of the cross-

sections reveals several lacunae situated at one end of the cross–section, as well as the

distribution of cells. Fig. 15c, with even higher magnification, shows a considerable number of

cells of different sizes. Fig. 15d presents the characteristic rough surface of a piassava fiber with

many protrusions on its surface. Further, the surface is partially covered with parenchyma cells

along with protruded spinulosesphere-shaped bodies (David et al., 2012). In another study, SEM

images revealed a few voids present in the banana–flax based natural fiber composite specimens.

These minor imperfections were attributed to the fabrication by the hand lay-up method.

However, it has been estimated that the low investment in manufacturing by this method, with
 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT

the great advantage of obtaining adequate properties, overrides the need to adopt a better

fabrication method.

Fiber strength is very often associated with the arrangement and orientation of fibers. SEM

results help obtain a clear picture of crack propagation properties and the state of fiber during

failure (Srinivasan et al., 2014). SEM characterization of flax reinforced laminates shows the

brittle character of the fracture at a microscopic level with significant presence of pullout (Fig.

16a), with weak interface and the presence of fibrillation (Fig. 16b and c) (Petrucci et al., 2013).

Fractrography studies on banana/kenaf fiber reinforced hybrid polyester composites, showing the

fracture behavior of the composite, indicate that a better fiber–matrix adhesion exists in the

hybrid composite due to the interlocking of fibers (Abdul et al., 2009). The fracture surface

morphologies of Pennisetum purpureum/glass reinforced hybrid composites that were subjected

to tensile and flexural tests are shown in Fig. 17. Fig. 17a shows images of the hybrid composite

with untreated Pennisetum purpureum/glass reinforced hybrid composites that were subjected to

tensile and flexural tests are shown in Fig. 17. Fig. 17a shows images of the hybrid composites

with the untreated P. purpureum fiber that was tested at RT; the surface morphology was rough

and exhibited typical long fiber pullout. When the samples were tested at 40 0C, voids due to

fiber pullout could be observed, as shown in Fig. 17b. These images indicate that weak

interfacial bonding exists between the untreated P. purpureum fibers and the epoxy matrix. Fig.

17b also shows a porous structure with lumen, where the resin did not penetrate into the bundles

of fibers. However, when the samples were tested at 60 0C, debonding of the fiber–matrix

interface was observed, as shown in Fig. 17c; this is because the temperature approached the Tg

value of the composites. Finally, softening of the epoxy matrix can be clearly observed in the
 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT

fracture-surface image of the sample that was tested at 80 0C, as shown in Fig. 17d (Ridzuan et

al., 2006).

Fig. 14. SEM micrograph of the flexural fractured specimen (a) 10% Vf and (b) 25% Vf
[Sathishkumar et al., 2012].

Fig. 15. Scanning electron micrographs showing the morphology of piassava fibers: (a)
Transverse cross-sections of different fibers; (b) Transverse cross-section of one fiber with a
number of lacunas at the end of the cross section (c) Higher magnification of b, showing number
of cells of different sizes and (d) longitudinal section of the fiber showing the surface of the fiber
[David et al., 2012].
 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT

Fig. 16. SEM images of the fracture surface of flax fiber reinforced laminates [Petrucci et al.,
2013].

Fig. 17. Field emission scanning electron microscope images of Pennisetum purpureum/glass–
epoxy-reinforced hybrid composite with untreated Pennisetum purpureum fibers [Ridzuan et al.,
2006].
 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT

7. Conclusion

Among various natural materials, natural fibers offer several advantages over synthetic materials

in reinforcing composites, due to their biorenewable characteristic and eco-friendly behavior,

and can be thus effectively utilized for various applications. In this regard, the present article

deals with the study of reliabilty of natural fibers and their composites. To assess the reliability

of natural fibers, our survey discusses various results reported in the published literature on the

mechanical properties, such as tensile, impact and interlaminar properties, water absorption

properties and tribological properties of natural fibers, as well as those of natural fiber

composites. In addition, some characterization studies using techniques such asFTIR, XRD and

SEM, are also presented. From discussions above, the following conclusions can be drawn:

 Plant based natural fiber composites have been demonstrated as an important alternative

material for synthetic fiber reinforced polymer matrix composites due to their

biodegradable nature. Increased utilization of natural fiber as reinforcement for

composite materials can diminish the use of synthetic fibers and reduce greenhouse gas

emissions.

 Natural fiber composites exhibit comparable properties to those of synthetic fiber

composites as regards tensile strength, impact strength, interlaminar shear strength,

thermal, water absorption and tribological properties. However, the properties of the

composites depend on various factors, such as type of resin, origin of the fibre (fruit,

stem, leaf, etc.), reinforcement type (powder form, short fiber, continuous fiber), fiber

orientation (unidirectional or multi-directional), manufacturing technique (hand layup,

compression moulding, injection molding, etc.), crystallinity index and crystallite size of
 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT

the fiber, chemical functional groups existing in the fiber, volume and weight fraction of

fiber added into the composite, as well as fiber condition (raw or surface treated).

 Hybridization with multiple natural fiber reinforcements has been recognized as a

potential technique to fabricate composites. Moreover, it can enhance certain mechanical

properties.

 The present world is in need of more green materials and this has made investigators turn

their attention on natural cellulosic fibers and they have been effectively used as

reinforcements in various diverse applications replacing synthetic fibers. In this paper, a

detailed review on various properties of natural fibers and their characterization by

various techniques has been presented, which may provide an insight into natural fiber

composites and be of help especially to new researchers in this field.

 Furthermore, in future depth analysis of different processing methods for composite

fabrication and different surface modification techniques on the natural fibers could be

discussed. Also the use of various thermoset and thermoplastic polymers and their effects

on composites can be discussed.

 Many of these composites are made up of non-biodegradable synthetic resins with natural

fibers, so that these composites are partially biodegradable, so it is essential to discover

the biodegradable resin with an expected properties to significantly reduce the

environmental impact.

 However, the use of natural fibers in polymer composites still faces several challenges,

such as excess water absorption and poor thermal properties of such composites. In

addition, there are also some less explored aspects, such as the electric resistance, thermal

conductivity and acoustic insulation properties of plant-based composites. Future

 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT

research and development need to concentrate on eco-friendly materials with sufficient

properties to replace synthetic polymer composites for expanding new areas of

applications.

References

Abdul Khalil, H.P.S., Kang, C.W., Khairul, A., Ridzuan, R., Adawi, T.O., 2009. The effect

of different laminations on mechanical and physical properties of hybrid composites. J.

Reinf. Plast. Compos. 28, 1123–1137.

Abdullah, M.A., Rahmah, A.U., Man, Z., 2010. Physicochemical and sorption characteristics

of Malaysian Ceibapentandra (L.) Gaertn. as a natural oil sorbent. J. Hazar. Mater. 177(1-3).

683–691.

Akil, H.M., Omar, M.F., Mazuki, A.A.M.. Safiee, S.,. Ishak, Z.A.M., Bakar, A. A., 2011.

Kenaf fiber reinforced composites: A review. Mater Des. 32(8–9), 4107–4121.

Alavudeen, A., Rajini, N., Karthikeyan, S., Thiruchitrambalam, M., Venkateshwaren, N.,

2015. Mechanical properties of banana/kenaf fiber-reinforced hybrid polyester composites:

Effect of woven fabric and random orientation. Mater. Des. 66, 246–257.

Alfredo Sena Neto, R., Marco Araujo, A.M., Fernanda Souza, V.D., Luiz Mattoso, H.C., Jose

Marconcini, M., 2013. Characterization and comparative evaluation of thermal, structural,

chemical, mechanical and morphological properties of six pineapple leaf fiber varieties for

use in composites. Industr. Crop. Prod. 43, 529–537.

Alves, C.,. Ferrao, P.M.C., Silva, A.J.,. Reis, L.G., Freitas, M., Rodrigues, L.B., Alves, D.E.,

2010. J. Clean. Prod. 18, 313–327.

 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT

Al-Maadeed, M.A., Ramazan Kahraman., Noorunnisa Khanam, P., Somaya Al-Maadeed.,

2013. Characterization of untreated and treated male and female date palm leaves. Mater

Des. 43, 526–531.

Amash, A., Zugenmaier, P., 2000. Morphology and Properties of Isotropic and Oriented

Samples of Cellulose Fiber–Polypropylene Composites. Polym. 41, 1589–1596.

Andersons J, Joffe R. 2011. Estimation of tensile strength of an oriented flax fiber reinforced

polymer composite. Compos Part A-Appl. Sci. 42(9),1229–1235.

Angelov, I., Wiedmer, S., Evstatiev, M., Friedrich, K., Mennig, G., 2007. Pultrusion of a

Flax/Polypropylene Yarn. Compos Part A-Appl. Sci. Manufact. 38(5), 1431–1438.

Annie Paul, S., Boudenne, A., Ibos, L., Candau, Y., Joseph, K., Thomas, S., 2008. Effect of

fiber loading and chemical treatments on thermo-physical properties of banana

fiber/polypropylene commingled composite materials. Compos Part A-Appl. Sci. Manufact.

39(9), 1582–1588.

Arbelaiz, A., Fernandez, B., Ramos, J.A., Mondragon, I., 2006. Thermal and Crystallization

Studies of Short Flax Fiber Reinforced Polypropylene Matrix Composites: Effect of

Treatments. Thermochim Acta. 440, 111–121.

Arib, R.M.N., Sapuan, S.M., Ahmad, M.M.H.M., Paridah, M.T., Khairul Zaman, H.M.D.,

2006. Mechanical Properties of Pineapple Leaf Fiber Reinforced Polypropylene Composites.

Mater Des. 27, 391–396.

Arrakhiz, F.Z., . El Achaby, M., Kakou, A.C., Vaudreuil, S., Benmoussa, K., Bouhfid, R.,

Fassi-Fehri, O., Qaiss, A., 2012. Mechanical properties of high density polyethylene

reinforced with chemically modified coir fibers: Impact of chemical treatments. Mater Des.

37, 379–383.
 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT

Athijayamani, A., 2010. Studies on the mechanical properties and machinability of roselle-

polyester and roselle/sisal-polyester hybrid composites. Ph.D. Thesis, Anna University,

Chennai, India.

Aziz, S.H., Ansell, M.P., 2003. The effect of alkalization and fiber alignment on the

mechanical and thermal properties of kenaf and hemp bast fiber composites: part 1-polyester

resin matrix. Compos Sci. Technol. 64(9), 1219-1230.

Azwa, Z.N., Yousif, B.F., 2013. Characteristics of kenaf fiber/epoxy composites subjected to

thermal Degradation. Polym. Degrad. Stab. 98, 2752–2759.

Boopalan, M., Niranjana, M., Umapathy, M.J., 2013. Study on the mechanical properties and

thermal properties of jute and banana fiber reinforced epoxy hybrid composites. Compos Part

B - Eng. 51, 54–57.

Cazaurang, M.N., Herrera, P.J., Gonzalez, P.I., Aguilar, M., 1991. Physical and mechanical

properties of henequen fibers. J. Appl. Polym. Sci. 43(4), 749–756.

Chawla, K.K., Bastos, A.C., 1979. The mechanical properties of jute fiber and polyester/jute

composites. Mech. Behav. Mater. 3, 191-196.

Chin, C., Yousif, B., 2009. Potential of kenaf fibers as reinforcement for tribological

applications. Wear. 267, 1550–1557.

Danni Chang., Lee, C.K.M., Chun-Hsien Chen., 2014. Review of life cycle assessment

towards sustainable product development. J. Clean. Prod. 83, 48–60.

David Dittenber, B., Hota, V.S., Ganga Rao., 2012. Critical review of recent publications on

use of natural composites in infrastructure. Compos Part A-Appl. Sci. Manuf. 43, 1419–

1429.
 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT

Denise Cristina, O.N., Ailton, S.F., Sergio, N.M., Regina Coeli, M.P., Satyanarayana, G.,

2012. Studies on the characterization of piassava fibers and their epoxy composites, Compos

Part A-Appl. Sci. Manufact. 43(3), 353–362.

Dittenber, D.B., Ganga Rao, H.V.S., 2012. Critical review of recent publications on use of

natural composites in infrastructure. Compos Part A-Appl. Sci. Manuf. 43(8), 1419–1429.

Di Liu., Guangting Han., Jiancheng Huang., Yuanming Zhang., 2009. Composition and

structure study of natural Nelumbonucifera fiber. Carbohydr. Polym. 75(1), 39–43.

El-Tayeb, N., 2008. A study on the potential of sugarcane fibers/polyester composite for

tribological applications. Wear, 265, 223–235.

Emad Omrani., Pradeep Menezes, L., Pradeep Rohatgi, K., 2016. State of the art on

tribological behavior of polymer matrix composites reinforced with natural fibers in the

green materials world. Eng. Sci. Technol. Inter. J. 19, 717–736.

Espert Ana., Vilaplana Francisco., Karlsson, Sigbritt., 2004. Comparison of Water

Absorption in Natural Cellulosic fibers from Wood and One-year Crops in Polypropylene

Composites and Its Influence on their Mechanical Properties. Compos Part A-Appl. Sci.

Manufact. 35, 1267–1276.

Fakhrul, T., Islam, M., 2013. Degradation behavior of natural fiber reinforced polymer

matrix composites. Proced. Eng. 56,795–800.

Faris AL-Oqla, M., Sapuan, S.M., 2014. Natural fiber reinforced polymer composites in

industrial applications: feasibility of date palm fibers for sustainable automotive industry. J.

Clean. Prod. 6, 347–354.

Faruk Hossen, Md., Sinin Hamdan., Rezaur Rahman, Md., Saiful Islam, Md., Fui Kiew

Liew., Josephine Chang hui Lai., Mizanur Rahman, Md., 2016. Effect of clay content on the
 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT

morphological, thermo-mechanical and chemical resistance properties of propionic anhydride

treated jute fiber/polyethylene/nanoclay nanocomposites. Measure. 90, 404–411.

Feng Daan., Caulfield, D.F., Sanadi, A.R., 2001. Effect of compatibilizer on the structure-

property relationships of kenaf fiber/polypropylene composites. J. Polym. Compos. 22(4),

506–517.

Ferreira, J.M., Silva, H., Costa, J.D., Richardson, M., 2005. Stress analysis of lap joints

involving natural fiber reinforced interface layers. Compos Part B - Eng. 36, 1–7.

Fiore, V., Valenza, A., Di Bella, G., 2011. Artichoke (CynaracardunculusL.) fibers as

potential reinforcement of composite structures. Compos Sci. Technol. 71,1138–1144.

Fung, K.L., Xing, X.S., Li, R.K.Y., Tjonga, S.C., Mai, Y.W., 2003. An Investigation onthe

Processing of Sisal Fiber Reinforced Polypropylene Composites. Compos Sci. Technol. 63:

1255–1258.

George, J., Sreekala, M.S., Thomas, S. 2001. A review on interface modification and

characterization of natural fiber reinforced plastic composites. J.Poly. Eng. Sci. 41(9), 1471–

1485.

Hande Sezgin., Omer B Berkalp., 2016. The effect of hybridization on significant

characteristics of jute/glass and jute/carbon-reinforced Composites. J. Indus. Text. 1–14.

Herrera-Franco, P.J., Valadez-Gonzalez, A., 2003. Mechanical properties of continuous

natural fiber-reinforced polymer composites. Compos Part A-Appl. Sci. Manuf. 35, 339–45.

Hom Nath Dhakal., Fabrizio Sarasini., Carlo Santulli., Jacopo Tirillò., Zhongyi Zhang.,

Vellayaraj Arumugam., 2015. Effect of basalt fiber hybridisation on post-impact mechanical

behaviour of hemp fiber reinforced composites, Compos Part A-Appl. Sci. 75, 54–67.
 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT

Iannace, S., Nocilla, G., Nicolais, L., 1999. Bio-composites based on sea algae fibers and

biodegradable thermoplastic matrices. J. Appl. Polym. Sci. 73(4), 583–592.

Ichazo, M.N., Albano, C., González, J., Perera, R., Candal, M.V., 2001. Polypropylene/wood

flour composites: treatments and properties. Compos. Struct. 54(2-3), 207–214.

Igor Maria De Rosa., Jose Kenny M., Maniruzzaman, Mohd., Moniruzzaman, Md., Marco

Monti., Debora Puglia., Carlo Santulli., Fabrizio Sarasini., 2011. Effect of chemical

treatments on the mechanical and thermal behaviour of okra (Abelmoschusesculentus) fibers.

Compos. Sci. Technol. 71(2), 246–254.

Jannah, M., Mariatti, M., Abu Bakar, A., Abdul Khalil, H.P.S., 2009. Effect of chemical

surface modifications on the properties of woven banana-reinforced unsaturated polyester

composites. J. Reinf. Plast. Compos. 28(12), 1519–1532.

Jayaraman, K., Bhattacharya, D., 2004. Mechanical performance of wood fiber-waste plastic

composite materials. Resour. Conser. Recy. 41, 307–319.

Jochen Gassan., 2002. A study of fiber and interface parameters affecting the fatigue

behaviour of natural fiber composites. Compos Part A-Appl. Sci. Manufact. 33(3), 369–374.

Joseph, S., Sreekala, M.S., Oommen, Z., Koshy, P., Thomas, S., 2002. A Comparison of the

mechanical properties of phenol formaldehyde composites reinforced with banana fibers and

glass fibers. Compos Sci. Technol. 62(14), 1857-1868.

Joseph, P.V., Joseph, K., Thomas, S., Pillai, CKS., Prasad, V.S., Groeninckx, G., Mariana

Sarkissova., 2003. The thermal and crystallization studies of short sisal fiber reinforced

polypropylene. Compos Part A-Appl. Sci. Manuf. 34(3), 253–266.

 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT

Jumaidin, R., Sapuan, S.M., Jawaid, M., Ishak, M.R., Sahari, J., 2016. Characteristics of

thermoplastic sugar palm Starch/Agar blend: Thermal, tensile, and physical properties. Inter.

J. Biolog. Macromole. 89, 575–581.

Karnani, R., Krishnan, M., Narayan, R., 1997. Bio-fiber reinforced polypropylene

composites. Polym. Eng. Sci, 37(2), 476–483.

Kasama Jarukumjorn., Nitinat Suppakarn., 2009. Effect of glass fiber hybridization on

properties of sisal fiber–polypropylene composites. Compos Part B - Eng. 40, 623–627.

Ketty Bilba., Marie-Ange Arsene., Alex Ouensanga., 2007. Study of banana and coconut

fibers: Botanical composition, thermal degradation and textural observations. Biores.

Technol.98, 58–68.

Khondker, O.A., Ishiaku, U.S., Nakai, A., Hamada, H., 2006. A novel processing

techniquefor thermoplastic manufacturing of unidirectional composites reinforced with jute

yarns. Compos Part A-Appl. Sci. 37(12), 2274–2284.

Kiruthika, A.V., Veluraja, K., 2009. Experimental studies on the physico-chemical properties

of banana fiber from various varieties. Fiber Polym. 10(2),193–199.

Kokta, B.V., 1988. Use of wood fibers in thermoplastic composites. Polym. New. 13, 331-

339.

Ku, H., Wang, H., Pattarachaiyakoop, N., Trada, M., 2011. A review on the tensile properties

of natural fiber reinforced polymer composites. Compos Part B - Eng. 42(4), 856–873.

La Mantia, F.P., Morreale, M., 2011. Green composites: A brief review. Compos Part A-

Appl. Sci. Manuf. 42(6), 579–588.

Le Duigou, A., Davies, P., Baley, C., 2009. Seawater ageing of flax/poly (lactic

acid)biocomposites. Polym. Degrad. Stab. 94,1151–1162.

 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT

Lee, B.H., Kim, H.J., Yu, W.R., 2009. Fabrication of long and discontinuous natural fiber

reinforced polypropylene biocomposites and their mechanical properties. Fiber Polym. 10,

83–90.

Lubin, G., 1982. Hand book of composites. Van Nostrand Reinhold, New York.

Luciano Machado Gomes Vieira., Julio Cesar dos Santos., Tulio Hallak Panzera., Andre Luiz

Christoforo., Valdir Mano., Juan Carlos Campos Rubio., Fabrizio Scarpa., 2016. Hybrid

Composites Based on Sisal Fibers and Silica Nanoparticles. Polym. Compos.

Lundquist, L., Marque, B., Hagstrand, P.O., Leterrier, Y., Manson, J.A.E., 2003. Novel pulp

fiber reinforced thermoplastic composites. Compos Sci. Technol. 63(1), 137–152.

Luo, S., Netravali, A.N., 1999. Interfacial and mechanical properties of environment-friendly

‘green’ composites made from pineapple fibers and poly (hydyoxybutyrate-co-valerate)

resin. J. Mater. Scie. 34(15), 3709–3719.

Libo Yan., Nawawi Chouw., Krishnan Jayaraman., 2014. Flax fiber and its composites – A

review. Compos Part B - Eng. 56, 296–317.

Liu, W., Mohanty, A.K., Drzal, L.T., Askel, P., Misra, M., 2004. Effects of alkali treatment

on the structure, morphology and thermal properties of native grass fibers as reinforcements

for polymer matrix composites. J. Mater. Sci. 39,1051–1054.

Liu, Q., Hughes, M., 2008. The fracture behaviour and toughness of woven flax fiber

reinforced epoxy composites. Compos Part A-Appl. Sci. 39(10), 1644–1652.

Madsen, B., Lilholt, H., 2003. Physical and Mechanical Properties of Unidirectional

PlantFiber Composites – An Evaluation of the Influence of Porosity.Compos Sci. Technol.

63, 1265–1272.
 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT

Maldas, D., Kokta, B.V., 1995. Composites of Chlorinated Polyethylene wood fibers. J.

Reinf. Plast. Compos.14, 458-470.

Mansour Rokbi., Hocine Osmani., Abdellatif Imad., Noureddine Benseddiq., 2011. Effect of

chemical treatment on flexure properties of natural fiber-reinforced polyester composite.

Proced. Eng. 10, 2092–2097.

Marcia Spinace, A.S., Carlos Lambert, S., Karen Fermoselli, K.G..Marco-A De Pao., 2009.

Characterization of lignocellulosic curaua fibers. Carbohydrate Polymers, 77(1), 47–53.

Mei-po Ho., Hao Wang., Joong-Hee Lee., Chun-kit Ho., Kin-tak Lau., Jinsong Leng., David

Hui., 2011. Critical factors on manufacturing processes of natural fiber composites. Compos

Part B - Eng. 43(8), 3549–3562.

Menezes, P.L., Nosonovsky, M., Kailas, S.V., Lovell, M.R., 2013. Tribology for Scientists

and Engineers. Springer, 43–91.

Mizanur Rahman, M., 2009. UV-cured henequen fibers as polymeric matrix reinforcement:

Studies of physico-mechanical and degradable properties. Mater Des. 30(6), 2191–2197.

Moe Moe Thwe., Kin Liao., 2003. Durability of Bamboo-glass Fiber Reinforced Polymer

Matrix Hybrid Composites. Compos Sci. Technol. 63, 375–387.

Mohd Edeerozey, A.M., Hazizan Md Akil., Azhar, A.B., Zainal Ariffin, M.I., 2004.

Chemical modification of kenaf fibers. Mater. Lett. 61(10), 2023–2025.

Mohanty, S., Nayak, S.K., Verma, S.K., Tripathy, S.S., 2004. Influence of fiber treatment on

the performance of sisal-polypropylene composites. J. Appl. Polym. Sci. 94(3), 1336–1345.

Moyeenuddin, A., SawpanKim., Pickering, L., Alan Fernyhough., 2011. Effect of various

chemical treatments on the fiber structure and tensile properties of industrial hemp fibers.

Composites Part A: Appl. Sci. Manuf. 42(8), 888–895.

 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT

Mutlu, I., 2009. Investigation of tribological properties of brake pads by using rice strawand

rice husk dust. J. Appl. Sci. 9, 377–381.

Mwaikambo, L.Y., Martuscelli, E., Avella, M., 2000. Kapok/Cotton Fabric–Polypropylene

Composites. Polym. Test. 19, 905–918.

Mwaikambo, L.Y., Ansell, M.P., 2002. Chemical modification of hemp, sisal, jute, and

kapok fibers by alkalization. J. Appl. Poly. Sci. 84(12), 2222–2234.

Mylsamy, K., Rajendran, I., 2011. The mechanical properties, deformation and thermo

mechanical properties of alkali treated and untreated Agave continuous fiber reinforced

epoxy composites. Mater Des, 32(5), 3076–3084.

Oisik Dasa., Debes Bhattacharyya., Ajit Sarmaha, K., 2016. Sustainable eco–composites

obtained from waste derived biochar: a consideration in performance properties, production

costs, and environmental impact. J. Clean. Prod. 129, 159–168.

Ojha, S., Raghavendra, G., Acharya, S., 2014. A comparative investigation of bio waste filler

(wood apple-coconut) reinforced polymer composites. Polym. Compos. 35, 180–185.

Oksman, K., 2001. High quality flax fiber composites manufactured by the resin transfer

moulding process. J. Reinf. Plast. Compos. 20(7), 621–627.

Paul Wambua., Jan Ivens., Ignaas Verpoest., 2003. Natural fibers: can they replace glass in

fiber reinforced plastics, Compos Sci. Technol. 63,1259–1264.

Petrucci, R., Santulli, C., Puglia, D., Sarasini, F., Torre, L., Kenny, J.M., 2013. Mechanical

characterization of hybrid composite laminates based on basalt fibers in combination with

flax, hemp and glass fibers manufactured by vacuum infusion. Mater. Des. 49, 728–735.
 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT

Pickering, K.L., Ji, C., 2004. The Effect of Poly[methylene(polyphenyl isocyanate)] and

Maleated Polypropylene Coupling Agents on New Zealand Radiata Pine Fiber–

Polypropylene Composites. J. Reinf. Plast. Compos. 23(18), 2011–2024.

Piggot, M.R., 1980. Load bearing fiber composites. Pergamon Press.

Pothan, L.A., Thomas, S., Neelakantan, N.R., 1997. Short banana fiber reinforced polyester

composites: mechanical, failure and aging characteristics. J. Reinf. Plast. Compos. 16(8),

744–765.

Prasad, S.V., Pavithran, C., Rohatgi, P. K., 1983. Alkali treatment of coir fiber–polyester

composites. J. Appl. Polym. Sci.18, 1443-1454.

Prosenjit Saha., Suvendu Manna., Sougata Roy Chowdhury., Ramkrishna Sen., Debasis

Roy., Basudam Adhikari., Enhancement of tensile strength of lignocellulosic jute fibers by

alkali-steam treatment. Biores. Technol. 101(9), 3182–3187.

Rana, A.K., Mandala, A., Bandyopadhyay, S., 2003. Short Jute Fiber Reinforced

Polypropylene Composites: Effect of Compatibiliser, Impact Modifier and Fiber Loading,

Compos Sci. Technol. 63, 801–806.

Ramakrishna Malkapuram., Vivek Kumarand., Yuvraj Singh Negi., 2009. Recent

Development in Natural Fiber Reinforced Polypropylene Composites. J. Reinf. Plast.

Compos. 28(10), 1169-1189.

Ramanaiah, K., Ratna Prasad, A.V., Hema Chandra Reddy, K., 2012. ffect of Fiber Loading

on Mechanical Properties of Borassus Seed Shoot Fiber Reinforced Polyester Composites. J.

Mater. Environ. Sci. 3 (3).374–378.

 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT

Ray, D., Sarkar, B.K., Bose, N.R., 2002. Impact fatigue behaviour of vinyl ester resin matrix

composite reinforced with alkali treated jute fibers. Compos Part A-Appl. Sci. Manufact.

33(2), 233–241.

Reddy, O.K., Uma Maheswari, C., Mukul Shukla., Song, J.I., Varada Rajulu, A., 2013.

Tensile and structural characterization of alkali treated Borassus fruit fine fibers. Compos

Part B - Eng. 44(1), 433–438.

Ridzuan, M.J.M., Abdul Majid, M.S., Afendi, M., Mazlee, M.N., Gibson, A.G., 2016.

Thermal behaviour and dynamic mechanical analysis of Pennisetum purpureum/glass-

reinforced epoxy hybrid composites. Compos. Struct. 152, 850–859.

Sanjay, M.R, Arpitha, G.R., Yogesha, B., 2015. Study on Mechanical Properties of Natural -

Glass Fiber Reinforced Polymer Hybrid Composites: A Review, Mater. Tod. Proc. 2, 2959 –

2967.

Sanjay, M.R., Arpitha, G.R., Laxmana Naik, L., Gopalakrishna, K., Yogesha, B., 2016.

Applications of Natural Fibers and its Composites: An Overview. Nat. Resour, 7, 108–114.

Sanjay, M.R., Arpitha, G.R., Laxmana Naik, L., Gopalakrishna, K., Yogesha, B., 2016.

Studies on Mechanical Properties of Banana/E-Glass Fabrics Reinforced Polyester Hybrid

Composites. J. Mater. Environ. Sci. 7(9), 3179–3192.

Sanjay, M.R., Yogesha, B., 2016. Study on Water Absorption Behaviour of Jute and Kenaf

Fabric Reinforced Epoxy Composites: Hybridization Effect of E-Glass Fabric, Inter. J.

Compos. Mater. 6(2), 55–62.

Sanjay, M.R, Yogesha, B., 2017. Studies on Natural/Glass Fiber Reinforced Polymer Hybrid

Composites: An Evolution, Mater. Tod. Proc. 2, 2739 – 2747.

 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT

Sathishkumar, T.P., Navaneethakrishnan, P., 2012. Tensile and flexural properties of snake

grass natural fiber reinforced isophthallic polyester composites. Compos Sci. Technol. 72,

1183–1190.

Sathishkumar, T.P., Navaneethakrishnan, P., Shankar, S., Rajasekar, R., 2013.

Characterization of new cellulose sansevieriaehrenbergii fibers for polymer composites,

Compos. Interf. 20(8), 575–593.

Sathishkumar, T.P., Navaneethakrishnan, P., Shankar, S., Rajasekar, R., 2014. Mechanical

Properties and Water Absorption of Short Snake Grass Fiber Reinforced Isophthallic

Polyester Composites. Fiber Polym. 15 (9), 1927–1934.

Satyanarayana, K.G., Sukumaran, K., Mukherjee, P.S., Pavithran, C., Pillai, S.G.K.,1990.

Natural fiber–polymer composite. Cem. Compos. 12, 117–36.

Setsuko Takase., Nobuo Shiraishi., 1989. Studies on composites from wood and

polypropylenes. II. Appl. Polym. 37(3), 645–659.

Seung-Hwan Lee., Siqun Wang., Pharr., George, M., Haitao Xu., 2007. Evaluation of

Interphase Properties in a Cellulose Fiber-reinforced Polypropylene Composite by Nano

indentation and Finite Element Analysis. Compos Part A-Appl. Sci. Manufact. 38(6), 1517–

1524.

Sherif Keshk., Wiwin Suwinarti., Kazuhiko Sameshima., 2006. Physicochemical

characterization of different treatment sequences on kenaf bast fiber, Carbohydr. Polym.

65(2), 202–206.

Shibata, S., Cao, Y., Fukumoto, I., 2005. Press forming of short natural fiber-reinforced

biodegradable resin: effects of fiber volume and length on flexural properties. Polym. Test.

24(8), 1005–1011.
 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT

Shinji Ochi., 2008. Mechanical properties of kenaf fibers and kenaf/PLA composites.

Mechan. Mater, 40(4-5), 446-452.

Singleton, A.C.N., Baillie, C.A., Beaumont, P.W.R. Peijs, T., 2003. On the mechanical

properties, deformation and fracture of a natural fiber/recycled polymer composite. Compos

Part B - Eng. 34, 519–526.

Singh, B., Gupta, M., 2005. Natural fiber composites for building applications. In: Mohanty,

A.K, Misra, M., Drzal, L.T., editors., Natural fibers, biopolymers, and biocomposites. Boca

Raton: Taylor & Francis, 261–290.

Siregar, J.P., Sapuan, S.M., Rahman, M.Z.A., Zaman, H.M.D.K., 2010. The effect of alkali

treatment on the mechanical properties of short pineapple leaf fiber (PALF) reinforced high

impact polystyrene (HIPS)composites. J. Food. Agricul. Environ. 8(2), 1103–1108.

Sonia, A., Priya Dasan K., 2013. Chemical, morphology and thermal evaluation of cellulose

microfibers obtained from Hibiscus sabdariffa. Carbohydr. Polym. 92(1), 668–674.

Sreekala, M.S., Jayamol George., Kumaran, M.G., Sabu Thomas., 2002. The mechanical

performance of hybrid phenol-formaldehyde-based composites reinforced with glass and oil

palm fibers. Compos. Sci. Technol. 62, 339–353.

Srinivasan, V.S., Rajendra Boopathy, S., Sangeetha, D., Vijaya Ramnath, B., 2014.

Evaluation of mechanical and thermal properties of banana–flax based natural fiber

composite. Mater Des. 60, 620–627.

Surya D Pandita., Xiaowen Yuan., Munirah A Manan., Chun H Lau., Alamelu Subramanian,

S., Jun Wei., 2014. Evaluation of jute/glass hybrid composite sandwich: Water resistance,

impact properties and life cycle assessment. J. Reinf. Plast. Compos. 33, 14–25.
 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT

Thi-Thu-Loan Doan., Shang-Lin Gao., Ma der, E., 2006. Jute/Polypropylene Composites, I.

Effect of Matrix Modification. Compos Sci. Technol. 66, 952–963.

Thiruchitrambalam, M., Alavudeen, A., Athijayamani, A., Venkateshwaran, N., Elaya

Perumal, A., 2009. Improving mechanical properties of banana/kenaf polyester hybrid

composites using sodium lauryl sulfate treatment. Mater. Phys. Mechan. 8, 165–173.

Thiruchitrambalam, M., Alavudeen, A., Venkateshwaran, N., 2012. Review on Kenaf Fiber

Composites. Rev. Adv. Mater. Sci. 32, 106–112.

Tserki, V., Matzinos, P., Zafeiropoulos, N., Panayiotou, C., 2006. Development of

biodegradable composites with treated and compatibilized lingocellulosic fibers. J. Appl.

Polym. Sci.100, 4703–4710.

Valcineide, O.A., Tanobe., Thais, H.D., 2005. Sydenstricker, Marilda Munaro, Sandro C.

Amico, A comprehensive characterization of chemically treated Brazilian sponge-gourds

(Luffa cylindrica). Polym. Test.24(4), 474–482.

Van de Velde, K., Kiekens, P., 2002. Thermal degradation of flax: The determination of

kinetic parameters with thermo gravimetric analysis. J. Appl. Polym. Sci. 83(12), 2634–2643.

Van de Weyenberg, I., Chi Truong, T., Vangrimde, B., Verpoest, I., 2006. Improving the

properties of UD flax fiber reinforced composites by applying an alkaline fiber treatment.

Compos Part A-Appl. Sci. 37(9), 1368–1376.

Velmurugan, R., Manikandan, V., 2007. Mechanical properties of palmyra/glass fiber hybrid

composites. Compos Part A-Appl. Sci. Manufact. 38, 2216–2226.

Vijaya Ramnath, B., Manickavasagam V.M., Elanchezhian, C., Vinodh Krishna, C., Karthik,

S., 2014. Determination of mechanical properties of intra- layer abaca–jute–glass fiber

reinforced composite. Mater Des. 60, 643–652.

 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT

Wei, C., Zeng, M., Xiong, X., Liu, H., Luo, K., Liu, T., 2015. Friction properties of

sisalfiber/nano-silica reinforced phenol formaldehyde composites. Polym. Compos. 36, 433–

438.

Xun Lu., Ming Qiu Zhang., Min Zhi Rong., Guang Shi., Gui Cheng Yang., 2003. Self-

reinforced melt processable composites of sisal. Compos. Sci. Technol. 63(2), 177–186.

Yan, L.B., Chouw, N., Yuan, X.W., 2012. Improving the mechanical properties of natural

fiber fabric reinforced epoxy composites by alkali treatment. J. Reinf. Plast. Compos. 31(6),

425–437.

Yelin Deng., Dimos Paraskevas., Yajun Tian., Karel Van Acker., Wim Dewulf., Joost R.

Duflou., 2016. Life cycle assessment of flax-fiber reinforced epoxidized linseed oil

composite with a flame retardant for electronic applications. J. Clean. Prod. 133, 427–438.

Yoldas Seki., Mehmet Sarikanat., Kutlay Sever.,Cenk Durmuşkahy., 2013. Extraction and

properties of Ferula communis (chakshir) fibers as novel reinforcement for composites

materials. Compos Part B - Eng. 44(1), 517–523.

Yongli Zhang., Yan Li., Hao Ma., Tao Yu., 2013. Tensile and interfacial properties of

unidirectional flax/glass fiber reinforced hybrid composites. Compos Sci. Technol. 88, 172–

177.

Yusriah, L., Sapuan, S.M., Zainudin, E.S., Mariatti, M., 2014. Characterization of physical,

mechanical, thermal and morphological properties of agro-waste betel nut (Areca catechu)

husk fiber. J. Clean. Prod. 72, 174–180.

Zah, R., Hischier, R., Leao, A.L.,, Braun, I., 2007. Curaua fibers in the automobile industry e

a sustainability assessment. J. Clean. Prod. 15,1032–1040.

 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT

Zampaloni, M., Pourboghrat, F., Yankovich, S.A., Rodgers, B.N., Moore, J., Drzal, L.T.,

Mohanty, A.K., Misra, M., 2007. Kenaf Natural Fiber Reinforced Polypropylene

Composites: A Discussion on Manufacturing Problems and Solutions. Compos Part A-Appl.

Sci. Manufact. 38(6), 1569–1580.

Zulkifli, R., Fatt, L.K., Azhari, C.H., Sahari, J. 2002. Interlaminar fracture properties of fiber

reinforced natural rubber/polypropylene composites. J. Mater. Process. Technol. 128, 33–37.