CHAPTER 2

ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY

LEARNING OBJECTIVES:

 To define anatomy and physiology and explain how they are related
 To describe the general functions of each organ system
 To list the different systems in the human body
 To understand how anatomy and physiology relate to the work performed in SPD

INTRODUCTION

 In today's healthcare environment, it is essential that SPD technicians recognize the

importance of their job duties in the realm of quality patient care

 Knowledge of anatomy and physiology will enable SPD professionals to better understand
the policies and procedures developed for each job function that they perform

ANATOMY

Branch of science(biology) concerned with the study of structure of body parts:

-Macroscopic/microscopic

"their form and organization"

PHYSIOLOGY

The scientific study of functions of the body parts:

"what they do and how they do it"

LEVELS OF ORGANIZATION OF THE HUMAN BODY

 CELL

-Basic structural, functional and biological unit of all known living organisms.

-Building blocks of life-replicate

-Smallest functional basic unit of life that is classified as a living thing

 TISSUE

-Collection of cells organized into groups or layers with a common function.

Four types of tissue:

1. Connective tissue
2. Epithelial tissue
3. Nervous tissue
4. Muscle tissue
  ORGAN

-Groups of tissues that form complex structures with specialized functions called organs.

 SYSTEM

-Involves various numbers and kinds of organs that are arranged so that, together, they can
perform complex functions for the body

The human body has 11 major systems:

1. Skeletal
2. Muscular
3. Nervous
4. Endocrine
5. Circulatory
6. Lymphatic
7. Respiratory
8. Digestive
9. Integumentary
10. Reproductive
11. Urinary

Cells need (6) Environmental Factors to Exist:

1. WATER - is abundant and helps transport substances in regulating body temperatures (a

requirement) and metabolic processes

2. FOOD - chemicals or nutrients used as energy sources and build new cell

3. OXYGEN - gas used in process by which energy is released from nutrients, energy in turn is
needed to drive metabolic processes (aerobic and anaerobic)

4. HEAT - energy as a by product of metabolic reactions

5. PRESSURE - application of force on something

6. Alkaline pH environment - is an environment with high pH level (basic, not acidic

chemically)

HOMEOSTASIS

 It's the state of equilibrium in which the internal environment of the body remains relatively
constant
 The conditions within the cell maintains a stable environment

COMPONENTS OF A CELL:

 CELL WALL

- Tough, flexible surrounds the outer surface of some cells protecting it from injury

 CELL MEMBRANE
 - outer boundary of the cell, allows for imbedded proteins, food, nutrients & waste to be
passed in/out of the cell

 NUCLEAR MEMBRANE

-Supports the nucleus and controls (filters) the passage of materials between nucleus and
cytoplasm

 NUCLEUS

-Located near center of the cell, also known as the brain

-Contains "DNA" (deoxyribonucleic acid) and chromosomes (directs all life and reproduction)

-DNA is the only molecule in the body capable of reproducing itself

 CYTOPLASM

-Where lots of cells activities occur.

-Where food molecules are also received, processed & used.

-Functions as a communication system through which molecules can be transported from

one cell part to another

 CILIA

-Short appendages move "to-and-fro” like little fingers

 FLAGELLA

-Longer than cilia and moves undulating, wavelike motion

SKELETAL SYSTEM

 Internal Framework of the body and;

 Functions to protect internal organs
 System consists of the bones and the ligaments and cartilages that bind bones together at
the joints.
 Red and White Blood Cells grow within the marrow, which stores minerals (calcium and
phosphorous) when needed.
 Average body has 206 bones for adults
 An infant has anywhere from 300-350/270 bones at birth

Ligaments

-Binds bones together (bone to bone) at the joints

Osteocyte

-A cell that lies within the substance of fully formed bone (Bone cell)

-Osteo means?

-Cyte means?
Joint

-articulation, location in which the bone connects

-constructed to allow movement and provide mechanical support

-skull, sacral, sternal, pelvic bones

(5) types of bones

LONG BONES

-act as levers

 (Ex: femurs or (thigh bone), and humerus or upper arm bone)

SHORT BONES

- act as bridges

 (Ex: metacarpals of the hand and metatarsals of the foot)

FLAT BONES

-act as protective shells

 . (Ex: ribs)

IRREGULAR BONES

-no particular category

 (Ex: Pelvic bone)

SESAMOID

-Bone embedded with in a tendon

 (Ex: patella in the knee and pisiform of the wrist)

AXIAL Skeleton:

-Bony and cartilaginous parts that support/protect the organs, the neck, and trunk

Includes the following parts:

SKULL

-cranium and facial bones

-smallest bones are located in middle ear (Hammer, Anvi Sumup)

HYOID BONE

-located in neck between lower jaw and the larynx

-supports the tongue and functions in swallowing

VERTEBRAL COLUMN
 -26 ring shaped bones called vertebrae separated by cartilaginous, in vertebral disks

-consists of lumbar, thoracic & cervical spine

THORACIC CAGE

-composed of sternum and 12 pairs of ribs

-protects organs in chest and upper abdomen

APPENDICULAR Skeleton

-Bones of the limbs and bones that anchor the limbs to the axial skeleton

Includes the following bones...

PECTORAL GIRDLE

-scapula and clavicle, connects bones of the arms

BONES OF THE UPPER LIMBS

-Arm Bones (Humerus, Radius Ulna)

PELVIC GIRDLE

-connects the bones of legs to axial skeleton

BONES OF THE LOWER LIMBS

-Leg Bones (Femur, Tibia, Fibula)

"BONES"

-Are as strong as steel but as light as aluminum

-Connective tissue that are made up of specialized cells and protein fibers interwoven made
up of water, mineral salts, and carbohydrates.

“JOINTS"

-Junctions between bones

-Occurs when 2 or more bones come together

-Some act as levers

-Some are rigid structures that hold bones in place

Type of Bone Diseases:

 BONE CANCER - Bone cancer is a malignant (cancerous) tumor of the bone that destroys
normal bone tissue.
  OSTEOARTHRITIS - Osteoarthritis is a disease of the joints. Unlike many other forms of
arthritis, such as rheumatoid arthritis and systemic lupus, osteoarthritis does not affect
other organs of the body.

 OSTEOPOROSIS - a medical condition in which the bones become brittle and fragile from
loss of tissue, typically as a result of hormonal changes, or deficiency of calcium or vitamin D

 LEUKEMIA - a malignant progressive disease in which the bone marrow and other blood
forming organs produce increased numbers of immature or abnormal leukocytes. These
suppress the production of normal blood cells, leading to anemia and other symptoms.

Instruments Used for Skeletal System:

TOTAL HIP/KNEE SETS - Hip replacement surgery is a procedure in which a doctor surgically removes
a painful hip joint with arthritis and replaces it with an artificial joint often made from metal and
plastic components.

OSTEOTOMES - a bone instrument. a surgical instrument for cutting bone, typically resembling a
chisel.

SCREW SETS

ARTHROSCOPES - a rigid endoscope or a viewing instrument through which the interior of a joint
may be inspected or operated on.

ORIF SETS Open Reduction Internal Fixation (ORIF) - involves the implementation of implants to
guide the healing process of a bone, as well as the open reduction, or setting, of the bone itself.
Open reduction refers to open surgery to set bones, as is necessary for some fractures.

CANNULATED SCREW SETS

MUSCULAR SYSTEM

 Muscles, the organs of the muscular system, consist largely of cells that are specialized to
undergo contractions.
 Muscles make up about half of the body's bulk
 Working with the skeleton, they generate the energy to move, make precise and intricate
hand movements lift objects, and even speak.
 Involuntary muscles (muscles that we do not consciously control) include the specialized
cardiac muscle and all smooth muscles and provide the essential power for the respiratory,
cardiovascular, and digestive systems.
 To function properly, muscles depend on a healthy nerve and blood supply
 It permits movement of the body, maintains posture and circulates blood throughout the
body.
 Musculoskeletal system
Muscles provide...

-Strength - balance posture

-movement and heat for the body to keep warm

-primary function of a muscle is to "contract"

The (3) types of muscle tissues are:

-skeletal muscle,

-smooth muscle and

-cardiac muscle

Smooth muscle

-has spindle-shaped, nonstriated uninucleated fibers

-occurs in walls of internal organs.

-is involuntary.

Cardiac muscle

-has striated, branched, uninucleated fibers.

-occurs in walls of heart.

-is involuntary

Skeletal muscle

-has striated, tubular, multinucleated fibers.

-is usually attached to skeleton

-is voluntary.

SKELETAL

-provides fast contractions

-move faster

-under voluntary control (somatic nervous system)

-they have striations (appear to have fissures or lines).

SMOOTH

-located in digestive, respiratory, walls of arteries, urinary and reproductive ducts

-involuntary muscle (autonomic nervous system)

-Peristaltic Movement
  wave-like rings of muscular contractions that move food through the gastro-
digestive tract. This motion mixes food and gastric juices

-Movement is affected by a number of hormones.

-they have no striations.

CARDIAC

-considered involuntary muscle...meaning- that it moves automatically to contract

(autonomic nervous system).

-“myo"-meaning muscle

-have intercalated disc.. giving it the rhythmic movement

“TENDON”

-Dense connective tissue that connects muscle to bone.

Diseases:

-Muscular Dysthrophy

(a hereditary condition marked by progressive weakening and wasting of the muscles)

Medical devices

Anterior Crucial Ligament (ACL) sets - Anterior cruciate ligament reconstruction ACL
reconstruction) is a surgical tissue graft replacement of the anterior cruciate ligament, located in the
knee, to restore its function after an injury. The torn ligament is removed from the knee before the
graft is inserted in an arthroscopic procedure.

Tenotomy sets - A tenotomy is a surgical act which involves the division of a tendon. It and related
procedures are also referred to as tendon release, tendon lengthening, and heel-cord release.

INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM

 The skin, or integument, and its associated structures (hair, glands, and nails)
constitute the integumentary system
 Included in this system are millions of sensory receptors and the vascular network of
the skin
 The skin protects the body from the environment and at the same time allows
communication with the environment.
 The skin is considered an organ because it consists of several kinds of tissues that
are structurally arranged to function together.
 It is the largest organ of the body
  The general appearance of the skin is important because it provide clues to certain
body conditions or dysfunctions.
 Pale - anaemia or shock
 Red or flushed - fever or infection
 Rash- allergies or local infection
 Abnormal skin textures = glandular or nutritional problem

(3) Layers of Skin:

 Epidermis

-outer protective layer

 Dermis

-nerves and blood supply of the skin is located.

 Hypodermis (subcutaneous)

-deepest layer of the skin, stores lipids, insulates, cushion the body, & regulate body
temperature

Instruments Used:

-Dermatomes

 used for skin grafts

-Skin Biopsy Punches

Diseases:

- Skin Cancer

- Inflammatory Conditions

- Burn

- Escharotomy

- When patient has been severely burned, the skin must be replaced with a skin graft to prevent
infection and fluid loss.

- The skin used for skin grafts is harvested from unburned parts of the body using dermatomes

CIRCULATORY SYSTEM

 Main function is to pump blood around the entire body and remove waste products)
  The blood vascular system also called the circulatory system, of the body is made capillaries
(tiny blood vessels up of arteries, veins, and between arteries and veins that distribute
oxygen-rich blood to the body)
 The heart is responsible for pumping blood through this network of blood vessels
throughout the body

(3) Functions of the Circulatory System:

1. Transportation

-substances essential for cellular metabolism are transported by the circulatory system

-(3) Substances are as follows...

 Respiratory - red blood cells transports oxygen to the cells

 Nutritive - digestive system is responsible for breakdown of food
 Excretory - metabolic waste, excess water & ions as well as other molecules in
plasma are filtered through the capillaries of the kidneys, then exits in urine

2. Regulation

-blood carries hormones and other regulatory molecules from origin to other tissues

3. Protection

-protects against injury and introduction of foreign microorganisms or toxins into the body

-white blood cells provide protection

FUNCTIONS OF THE CIRCULATORY SYSTEM

 Transports materials

-Nutrients from digested food

-Respiratory gases: CO2 and O2

-Waste materials: toxins and nitrogenous wastes

-Antibodies

-Hormones

-Enzymes

 Immune functions
 Maintains homeostasis

-Blood pH

-Heat transport

"ERYTHROCYTES"

-Red Blood Cells

-(Transports oxygen to the cells)

“LEUKOCYTES”

-White Blood Cells

-(Provides immunity to many disease producing agents)

(3) Types of Structures:

 Veins

-blue

-Unoxygenated

-have valves

 Arteries

-Red

-oxygenated

-Pressure inside

 Heart

-(4) parts: left, right, upper (atria), and lower (ventricle Atrium)

The major areas of the circulatory system can be divided into the

Cardiovascular System

- which consists of the heart and blood vessels, and the;

Lymphatic System

- which consists of the lymph nodes and the lymph vessels

CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM

 most basic function is to pump blood Vena around the entire body
 All body organs and tissues need a supply of oxygenated blood and the removal of waste
products
 A functional cardiovascular system is vital for survival
 Blood vessels form a tubular network throughout the body that permits blood to flow from
the heart to all the living cells of the body and then back to the heart
 Can contact more than 2 1/2 billion times in a lifetime
 Pumps more than 10 thousand gallons of blood per minute through a system of arteries and
veins that measures approximately 60,000 miles
The Heart is divided into (4) chambers:

 Upper (left/right) Atria (receives blood from the veins)

 Lower (left/right) Ventricles (forces oxygenated blood back to the arteries from the heart)

The flow of the blood diagram

1. Unoxygenated blood form the vena cava enters

2. The right atrium contacts then forward the blood to

3. Pass the tricuspid valve

4. The right ventricle

5. Then pulmonary artery

6. Then pulmonary truck and its branches

7. Lungs (capillaries and alveoli)

8. Pulmonary vein back to the heart (high 02 and low carbon dioxide)

9. Left atrium

10. Pass the bicuspid or mitral valve

11. Left ventricle

12. The aorta to its two branches

LYMPHATIC SYSTEM

 Consists of lymph nodes and produces Lymphocytes

 A lymphocyte is a type of white blood cell
 Under the microscope, lymphocytes can be divided into large granular lymphocytes and
small lymphocytes.
 Large granular lymphocytes include natural killer cells (NH cells)
 Small lymphocytes consist of T cells and B cells

Functions of the Lymphatic System

The lymphatic system works in close cooperation with other body systems to perform these
important functions:

-The lymphatic system aids the immune system in destroying pathogens and filtering waste
so that the lymph can be safely returned to the circulatory system
 -To remove excess fluid, waste, debris, dead blood cells, pathogens, cancer cells, and toxins
from these cells and the tissue spaces between them

-The lymphatic system also works with the circulatory system to deliver nutrients, oxygen,
and hormones from the blood to the cells that make up the tissues of the body

Disease:

-coronary artery disease (CABG – Coronary Artery Bypass Graft) treatment a major surgical
procedure

-TODAY we use stents in arteries to keep it open,

Instrument Sets:

-open heart sets

-Sternal saws

RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

Functions as...

 air distributors and a gas exchanger to provide oxygen and remove CO2 from the body's cells

To bring about the body's exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide with its environment, certain (4)
events must occur:

 Breathing
- inhalation/exhalation

 O2 and CO2 exchange

- between air in lungs alveoli & blood in lung capillaries

 O2 and CO2 transport

- exchange of gases convert venous to arterial blood

 O2 and CO2 exchange

- gases exchanges in tissues between arterial/venous blood flowing through tissue
capillaries and cells

The upper respiratory tract is composed of the;

 nose
  nasal cavity
 pharynx
 sinuses and
 larynx

The lower respiratory tract consists of the;

 trachea
 all segments of the bronchial tree and
 the lungs

Diseases:

 Lung Cancer
 Asthma
 COPD
- chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (due to smoking)
- PTB

Instruments Used:

 Bronchoscopes
 Thoracentesis trays
 Tracheostomy sets
 Epistaxis sets
 Mediastinoscopy sets
 Chest drainage systems

DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

 Main function is to digest food/absorption of nutrients

 (30) feet to tubing between the mouth and the anus
 Stomach and small intestine have relatively few microorganisms due to hydrochloric acid
produced in stomach and rapid movement of food through the small intestine
 Large intestine has a lot of microbes mainly composed of anaerobes that assist in the
enzymatic breakdown of foods and some synthesize useful vitamins

The digestive system can be divided into a gastrointestinal tract and accessory organs

The organs of the Gl tract include;

  Oral cavity
- food is ingested, mixed with saliva, and swallowed. The digestion of carbohydrates
begins in the oral cavity.
 Pharynx
- receives the food from the oral cavity and transports it to the esophagus
 Esophagus
- transports the food to the stomach by peristalsis
 Stomach
- receives the food from the esophagus, mixes it with gastric juices, begins the
digestion of proteins, moves chyme (ground-up food) into the duodenum, and
prevents backflow of chyme. Only limited absorption takes place in the stomach
 Small intestine
- receives the chyme from the stomach as well as secretions from the liver and
pancreas, chemically and mechanically breaks down the chyme,
absorbs/reabsorption of nutrients, and transports waste to the large intestine by
peristalsis. The small intestine is the longest portion of the Gl tract. The small
intestine is approximately 20 to 25 feet long and is the location where most of the
digestion process occurs.
 Large intestine
- receives undigested wastes from the small intestine, absorbs water and electrolytes,
and forms, stores, and expels feces through the anus. The large intestine is
approximately five to six feet long and has five parts: the ascending colon, the
transverse colon, the descending colon, the sigmoid colon, and the rectum.

The accessory digestive organs include:

 Teeth
- are the organs of chewing. They are designed to cut, tear, and grind ingested food so
that it can be mixed with saliva and swallowed. During this process, food is ground
into small bits, increasing the surface area that can be acted on by the digestive
system
 Tongue
- functions to move food around in the mouth during chewing and to assist in
swallowing. The tongue is also essential in producing speech.

 Salivary glands
- produce saliva. Saliva functions as a solvent to cleanse the teeth and dissolve food
chemicals so they can be tasted. Saliva also contains enzymes, which digest starch,
and mucous, which lubricates the pharynx to facilitate swallowing.
 Liver
- is the largest internal organ. Because of its very large and diverse enzymatic content,
its unique structure, and the act that it receives venous blood from the intestine, the
liver has a wider variety of functions than any other organ in the body. The liver
produces and secretes 250 millilitres (mL) to 1,500 mL of bile (an important digestive
 enzyme) per day. The major constituents of bile are bile salts, bile pigment
(bilirubin), phospholipids, cholesterol, and Inorganic ions.

 Pancreas
- Is a soft glandular organ with lobes. It plays an important role both in digestion (by
secreting pancreatic juice through the pancreatic duct into the duodenum) and In
the regulation of blood sugar (by secreting the hormones of insulin and glycogen
into the blood)

Diseases:

 Stomach cancer
 Colon cancer

Instruments used:

 Gastroscopy
 Sigmoidoscopes/Colonoscopes
 Laparoscopic Cholecystectomy sets
 Laparoscopes
 Cholangiogram – gallstones detection that block the common bile duct
 Colostomy
 NGT vs PEG

NERVOUS SYSTEM

 Organized to detect changes in the internal and external environment, evaluate that
information, and react by initiating changes in muscles or glands
 The master controlling and communicating system

1. Detects changes occurring inside and outside of the body creating stimuli-sensory input.

2. Integration where it processes and interpret sensory inputs equating to decision - what to
do next

3. Motor output - when it effects a response, activating muscles or glands.

 Brain
- one of the largest organs in the body, is the seat of both consciousness and
creativity
- controls all body movement

(3) Sections of the Brain

 Cerebrum
- largest part of the brain and is the center of consciousness
 - located on upper portion of head which consists of the right and left hemispheres

 Right Hemisphere - controls imagination and 3-D forms

 Left Hemisphere - controls numbering skills, posturing and reasoning
 Cerebellum
- functions in maintaining coordination and balance
- located below/behind the cerebrum

 Brain Stem

- critical part of the brain

- essential vital functions for life controlled - such as breathing, heartbeat, digestion and
blood pressure

(2) Major Groups of the Nervous System:

 Central Nervous System

- comprised of the brain and spinal cord

- system gives instructions to all parts of the body about what to do and when to do it

 Peripheral Nervous System

- made up of nerves cells or neurons that are wired together throughout the body
- nerves that connect the brain and spinal cord to other parts of the body, sending
information forming responses (signals)
- cranial and spinal nerves

Peripheral Nervous System

1. Motor - carries impulse from CNS to effector organs and muscles

1. Somatic - voluntary (skeletal muscles)

2. Autonomic involuntary (smooth and cardiac muscles)

1. PARASYMPATHETIC

2. SYMPHATHETIC

2. Sensory - nerve fibers from sensory receptors of boc parts to the CNS temporal

STRUCTURE OF A NEURON

-Neurons are also called nerve cells, are highly specialized to transmit messages (nerve impulses)
from one part of the body to the other

-Neurons differ structurally but with many common features

-all contains nucleus which is the metabolic center of the cell

CSF

Cerebrospinal fluid- watery "broth" similar in its make up to blood plasma, from which it forms.
However it contains less protein, more vitamin C and ion composition is different

- It forms a watery cushion that protects the fragile nervous tissue from blows and trauma

Two Types of Nerves:

 Motor Nerves
- carry messages from the brain to organs and muscles
 Sensory Nerves
- carry information to the brain

Diseases:

 Herniated Spinal Discs (slipped disks)

 Brain and Spinal Tumors
 Cerebrovascular accident
 Mengitis

Instrument used:

 Drills
 Craniotomes
 Craniotomy sets
 Craniectomy

SENSORY ORGANS

- are highly specialised extensions of the nervous system that allow humans to perceive their
internal and external environments.

2) Major Categories of Sensory Receptors:

 Simple
- Distributed throughout the skin
 (senses touch. pressure, pain and temperature)
 Complex
- Specialized sensory organs
 (senses of smell, taste, hearing, equilibrium, and vision)
Sense of Smell

- Olfactory reception is probably the least important of the senses but more
important in detecting odor

Sense of Taste

Taste Buds- special organs of taste mostly found on tongue. Some located in the roof of the
mouth and walls of the pharynx

Epithelial Cells - taste cells act as receptors

o (4) Taste Sensations

Sweet /sugar taste (located near tip of tongue)

Sour vinegar taste (located margins of tongue)

Salty / table salt taste (tip and upper front of tongue)

Bitter/ caffeine taste (located at the back of tongue)

Sense of Sight

- Eyes are organs that refract and focus the incoming light waves onto the sensitive
photoreceptors at the back of the eye
 Lacrimal Fluid
- fluid that is secreted around the eye to help lubricate, moisten and protect from
infections
 Iris
- Thin diaphragm composed largely of connective tissue and smooth muscle fibers
 colored portion of the eye
 Has (2) groups... These muscles control the size of the pupil, which is the
opening that light passes through
 Circular Set
- acts as a sphincter, decreases light
 Radial Set
-increases light through
 Scelera
- white of the eye
 Cornea
- is transparent and convex to permit the passage and cause the refraction of
incoming light waves
 Eyeball
- consists of the fibrous tunic, vascular tunic and the retina
 Retina
- contains visual receptor cells, where light is reflected/focused and image is seen
 Optic Nerve
- exits through the scelera, at the back of the eyeball. Bundle of over one million
nerve fibers that carry visual message from the retina to the brain
 Blind Spot
 - Optic disk (located in the middle of the optic nerve)

Sense of Hearing:

- Ear has (3) parts and plays a role in equilibrium

 Outer Ear/ External Part

- vibrations enter the external auditory meatus, then sound waves pass inside tube.

 Middle Ear

- consists of the tympanic cavity, tympanic membrane (eardrum) and 3) small bones.
(Malleus or Hammer), (Incus or Anvil), and (the Stapes or Stirrup)

 Inner Ear
- when fluid vibrates within the inner ear, it stimulates the hearing receptors
- complex system of interconnecting chambers and tubes called a labyrinth which
contains the cochlea and helps in hearing function

- EUSTACHIAN TUBE

 Connects the middle ear to the throat)

Sense of Equilibrium:

- Involves (2) senses.

 Sense of Static Equilibrium
- function to sense the position of the head (stability and posture when
motionless)
 Sense of Dynamic Equilibrium
-detects motion and aid in maintaining balance.

Diseases:

 Blocked Eustachian Tubes

 Eye Cataracts

Instrument Used:

 Myringotomy Sets
 Nasal Sets
 Corneal Transplant Trays
 Basic Ear Sets
 Intraocular Lens Set
 Cataract Sets
 Delicate Ear Instruments
ENDOCRINE SYSTEM

 Glands that secrete chemicals (hormones)... .. directly into the blood

 works closely with the nervous system
 can regulate most cells in the body
 have no ducts (known as ductless glands)

Produces (2) types of hormones...

 Steroid
- molecules made from cholesterol (cortisol, aldosterone, estrogen)
 Non-Steroid
- made from amino acids (insulin, parathyroid & growth hormone)

Exocrine Glands

- secrete products into ducts. Exocrine glands include the sweat sebaceous, and mammary glands,
and the glands that secrete digestive enzymes.

- Exocrine glands are glands which produce secretions destined for the surface of an organ, as
opposed to endocrine glands, which secrete compounds into the bloodstream.

Pituitary Gland

 located in the brain, the size of a pea,

 also called the “Master Gland" because it coordinates all activity in the endocrine system
 Helps in controlling growth

Pineal Gland - Small flat gland located in the brain produces melotonin helps in maintaining

normal sleep and the circadian rhythm and serotonin - a neurotransmitter that plays an

important part in the regulation of learning, mood, sleep and vasoconstriction (constriction of blood
vessels)

Thyroid Gland

- butterfly shaped gland located in the neck

- secretes thyroxine which controls the rate of metabolism

Parathyroid Glands

- two small paired endocrine glands located behind the thyroid gland
 - secretes parathyroid hormone – “parathyrine" that concerned with the metabolism
of calcium and phosphorus

Adrenal Gland

- found above each kidney

- secretes steroid and adrenaline which help control heart rate, blood pressure and
the way the body uses food, and other vital functions.

Pancreas

- tongue shaped, glandular organ located behind and below the stomach
- secretes insulin and glucagon of which both help regulate blood sugar
- enzymes are also involved in the digestion of proteins in the small intestine

Thymus Gland

- rich in lymphocytes and epithelial cells

- produces T-Lymphocytes only up to puberty
- these T-lymphocytes govern cellular immunity which means they help cells
recognize and destroy invading bacteria, virus, etc., abnormal cell growth such as
cancer, and foreign tissue

Disease:

- Diabetes

Instruments used:

- Insulin pumps
- Thyroidectomy trays

URINARY SYSTEM

 One of the major system of the body

 Purpose is to eliminate wastes products, by products of metabolism (urea/uric acid)
 Regulates Blood Volume and Pressure.
 Controls the level of Electrolytes and Regulates the PH
 Regulate pH and volume of body fluids and
 Control red blood cells production and blood pressure
 Blood Filtration
The principle organs of the urinary system are the;

 Kidneys
- are shaped like lima beans. The left kidney is often slightly larger than the right
kidney. The formation of urine by the kidneys eliminates wastes and helps maintain
the body's water and chemical balance. Urine production is influenced by blood
flow, blood pressure, hormones, and various general rhythms and cycles of the body
such as sleeping and waking.
 Ureters
- are tubes that lead from the kidneys to the urinary bladder. Muscular peristaltic
waves force the urine along the length of each ureter. These waves are initiated by
the presence of urine in the renal pelvis, and their frequency is related to the rate of
urine formation. When such a peristaltic wave reaches the urinary bladder, it causes
a jet of urine to spurt into the bladder.

 Urinary Bladder
- is a hollow muscular organ. It is a storage sac for urine and can be easily infected,
particularly in women because of their short urethras.
 Urethra
- brings urine from the urinary bladder to the outside of the body. The female urethra
is a simple tube about 4 centimeters (cm) long. It empties urine through the urethral
opening. The male urethra serves both the urinary system and the reproductive
system.

Disease:

 Kidney Stones
 Bladder Infection(cystitis/Cancer)
 Prostate Cancer
 UTI
 Incontinence
 Enuresis

Instrument Used:

 Ureteroscope
 Cystoscope

REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

 Considered to be Biological Centerpiece

  The only system that can be surgically removed without threatening a person's life
 Vital to the continuation of the human species
 Primary sex organs for both sexes are called gonads, that produce the gametes (sperm and
ova)

Disease:

 Endometriosis
 Cervical Cancer
 Ovarian Cysts
 Prostate Disease

Instrument Used:

 Vaginal Delivery Sets

 Caesarean Section Trays
 Hysteroscope

SUMMARY

Understanding of Anatomy / Physiology of the Human Body provides SPD Technicians with.

 knowledge that will help them prioritize instruments for scheduled surgeries
 recognize how and where the instrumentation is used
 become more rounded and informed members of the healthcare team