Gender and Language Theories

(Difference, Dominance, Deficit, and Discursive)

Dominance Theory- Robin Lakoff. suggests that men’s use of language ‘dominates’ the weaker
female sex. Partly this stems from their higher position in the social hierarchy. Thus, either
consciously or subconsciously, men use language to exert power and maintain their dominance in
society. dominance model suggests that men’s use of language ‘dominates’ the weaker female
sex.
men often maintained control over conversations and that women asks many more
questions, almost as if they were asking permission to speak.
when men initiate conversations, they were much more likely to succeed and that
‘women had much more trouble getting conversations going.’ Her conclusions suggested that
women do much more ‘work’ in keeping conversations going (asking questions, supporting men
with their speech) whereas men tend to control the conversation, helping reinforce their
dominance and social power.
Discursive- Deborah Cameron. how versions of gender stereotypes can change according to
responses to shifts in the economic climate. Deborah Cameron, a linguist within the „Discursive‟
field of language and gender studies, demonstrates (from a feminist perspective) how versions of
gender stereotypes can change according to responses to shifts in the economic climate. She
shows how these shifts are interpreted and by whom influences the reproduction of patriarchal
ideology. Power structures inherent within patriarchy create gender behaviors which are
explained by that power; as Sattel explains: „[t]he starting point for understanding masculinity
lies, not in its contrast with femininity, but in the asymmetrical dominance and prestige which
accrues to males in this society‟ (Sattel in Thorne et al 1983, 119). Sattel‟s statement reveals the
„discursive‟ element to the reading of gender; a move away from the binary and towards a
broader conversation Cameron points out that whereby previously females were viewed as inept
communicators (as in the Deficit/Dominance approach) more lately men have been ascribed this
characteristic „not because the actual communicative behaviour of men and women is thought to
have changed‟ but that „male behaviour has been re-framed as dysfunctional and damaging‟
(2006, 138). Cameron‟s essay demonstrates how the „Discursive‟ approach considers
sociological factors within the study of language and gender. The three approaches: „Deficit‟,
„Dominance‟ and „Difference‟, consider how gender variances expressed through language
were visible within the physical manifestations of gender: of „men‟ and of „women‟. The more
recent „Discursive‟ approach looks at how gender is constructed through language within a
cultural framework.
Deficit Model- Lakoff suggested that these differences she noticed were part of ‘Women’s
Language’ and was general seen as inferior to men. The ‘Deficit Model’ refers to how this
language use contributes to women’s lower status and weaker position in society. suggest that so-
called features of ‘women’s talk’ suggest a weakness in the language
Another important study to consider was completed by O’Barr-and Atkins in 1980. In their
courtroom study, they tested Lakoff’s hypothesis that features of ‘Women’s Language’ would be
used more frequently by women. Their conclusions, however, suggested that these features were
more closely linked to power, social status and social class. This led to them suggesting that
‘Powerless Language’ would be a more accurate definition of the features Lakoff identified.
According to them, men would also often use these features and it was social status, not gender,
which determined their use.
• Hedge: using phrases like “sort of”, “kind of”, “it seems like”,and so on.
• Use (super)polite forms: “Would you mind...”,“I'd appreciate it if...”, “...if you don't mind”.
• Use tag questions: “You're going to dinner, aren't you?”
• Speak in italics: intonational emphasis equal to underlining words - so, very, quite.
• Use empty adjectives: divine, lovely, adorable, and so on
• Use hypercorrect grammar and pronunciation: English prestige grammar and clear
enunciation.
• Use direct quotation: men paraphrase more often.
• Have a special lexicon: women use more words for things like colours, men for sports.
• Use question intonation in declarative statements: women make declarative statements into
questions by raising the pitch of their voice at the end of a statement, expressing
uncertainty. For example, “What school do you attend? Eton College?”
• Use “wh-” imperatives: (such as, “Why don't you open the door?”)
• Speak less frequently
• Overuse qualifiers: (for example, “I Think that...”)
• Apologise more: (for instance, “I'm sorry, but I think that...”)

Difference Theory- Deborah Tannen. Many misunderstandings, arguments and disagreements

between men and women could be down to gender differences. It’s important to remember that
these gender differences are put forward as socially constructed, so are not down to biological
differences between men and women. Deborah Tannen believes the reason there is a difference in
language between men and women is because parents used words of emotion to girls and verbs
to boys. She says men and women belong to different sub-cultures.

SIX MAIN DIFFERENCES

1. Status vs. support - men see language as a means of asserting dominance; women see it
as a way of confirming/supporting ideas.
2. Independence vs. intimacy - men "go it alone"; women seek support.
3. Advice vs. understanding - men see language as problem solving; women see it as a
means of empathy.
4. Information vs. feelings - males are concerned with the facts; women with emotions.
5. Orders vs. proposals - men use imperatives; females use hidden directives.
6. Conflict vs. compromise - men will argue; women will try to find a middle ground.
Christine Howe believes
The differences between male and female conversation begins at socialisation, ages 3-4. Women
are more active listeners, minor interjections are used such as 'uh huh' and 'oh really' which is
called back-channelling, it's not classed offensive or competitive overlap - women like to feel
more involved with the other person talking. It's what supports the speaker and encourages them
to keep talking, it shows they're interested. Men have strategies for gaining power, men are more
likely to respond to what is being said, they're keen to put their views across. Christine Howe
says this is what makes it harder for the listener to participate in the conversation.

Ann Weatherall believes

Women's talk is co-operative in contrast to men's talk which is competitive. Women are more
likely to use hedging like 'sort of' and 'kind of' this suggests uncertainty, men use statements.
Women also speak for less time and are less likely to interrupt.
Females use more tag questions:
F: We're seeing Mum later, aren't we?
M: We're going to see Mum today.

Pilkington researched into all female and all male conversation in a bakery over a period of nine
months. He found:

 Women talk to affirm solidarity and maintain social relationships.

 Women focus on feelings, personal anecdotes and relationships.
 Women support, build on each others' points and complete others' utterances
 Women agree frequently.
 Men find long pauses (thinking time) acceptable.
 Men frequently disagree and challenge others' points.
 Their conversation is competitive to a point of verbal abuse. They take part in verbal
sparring, often using mock insults.