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Frame of Reference
A coordinate system relative to which the measurements are taken is known as frame
of reference. A coordinate system in which the law of inertial is valid is known as inertial
frame of reference, while the accelerated frame is known as non-inertial frame of reference.
Special Theory of Relativity
Postulates of Special Theory of Relativity:
In 1905, Albert Einstein formulated his special theory of relativity in terms of two postulates:
1. Principle of Relativity
The laws of Physics have the same form in all frames of reference moving with constant
velocities with respect to one another. It can also be stated as
“The laws of Physics are invariant o a transformation between all inertial frames”
2. Principle of Constancy of Speed of Light
The speed of light in free space has the same value for all observers regardless of their
state of motion. It can also be stated as:
The speed of light in free space has the same value “c” in all inertial frames of references.
Relativistic Effects:
Theory of Relativity shows the effects of relative motion on physical quantities. These
effects are observed at relativistic speed. (The speed is called relativistic speed, where c
is speed of light.)
Discussion:
The first postulate shows that laws of Physics are absolute and universal and are same
for all inertial observers. So the laws of Physics that hold for one inertial observer can’t be
violated for any other inertial observer.
To understand 2nd postulate, consider three observers A, B and C at rest in three
different inertial frames.
A flash of light emitted by observer A is observed by him to travel at speed c.
If the frame of B is moving away from A at a speed of then according to Galilean
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B. Sc. Physics (H.R.K) Chapter 21: Special Theory of Relativity
However according to 2nd postulate all the three observers measure the same speed of
flash of light. However ordinary objects don’t obey 2nd postulate e.g.,
( ) ( ) ( )
But velocities of waves and particles moving at speeds close to c behave in this wave.
When Einstein put forward these postulates, there was no experimental test for the
verification of these postulates. However, in 1964 a proton accelerator produced a beam of
neutral pions ( which rapidly decay into :
Now are electromagnetic waves and move with the speed of light. The speed of
moving Pions was measured equal to .
According to Galileo, the emitted in the direction of motion of Pions should have a
speed equal to But the measured speed of was equal to . This is
consistent with 2nd postulate.
Galilean Transformation
Consider two observers in two different inertial frames and . Frame is at rest
and is moving with uniform velocity along x-axis with respect to frame . Suppose at
, the origins of two frames coincide.
Both the observers observe the same event. The
position and time of event observed by is denoted by
and position and time of the event observed
by is denoted by . According to Galilean
Transformation:
{ }
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B. Sc. Physics (H.R.K) Chapter 21: Special Theory of Relativity
position and time of the event observed by is denoted by . Consider a wave of
light starts from and at with speed . Let the wave reaches a point P after time
from and takes the time to reach at P from point . Then the distance covered by light
ray from point to point :
| |
This is the fundamental equation of special theory of relativity given by Einstein in 1905.
( )
{ }
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B. Sc. Physics (H.R.K) Chapter 21: Special Theory of Relativity
and
In equation (1) and (2), if we know values of ‘ ’ and ‘ ’, then we can find the relations
between and , which satisfy equation (A).
To find ‘ ’ and ‘ ’, we put the value of from equation (1) in equation (2), we get:
[ ]
[ ]
( )
[ ( )]
Putting the values of and from equations (1) and (3) in equation (A):
[ ] [ ( )]
[ ( ) ( ) ]
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B. Sc. Physics (H.R.K) Chapter 21: Special Theory of Relativity
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
[ ( ) ] [ ( )] [ ]
This relation must hold for all values of and . So the coefficients of , and
must be zero separately. So we get three equations:
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
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B. Sc. Physics (H.R.K) Chapter 21: Special Theory of Relativity
√
√
[ ( )]
[ ( { })]
√
[ ( )]
√
[ ( )]
√
( )
√
( )
√
Conclusion:
The set of transformation equations
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B. Sc. Physics (H.R.K) Chapter 21: Special Theory of Relativity
( )
{ }
is called Lorentz’s Transformation. When i.e., , the Lorentz Transformations
transform into Galilean transformation. Thus the Galilean Transformations is special case of
Lorentz Transformation.
{ ( ) }
From equation (4):
[ ( )]
( )
( )
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B. Sc. Physics (H.R.K) Chapter 21: Special Theory of Relativity
[ ( )]
( )
( )
( )
( )
{ }
Important Note:
We can obtain the inverse Lorentz Transformations just by interchanging primed and
unprimed coordinates and replacing by – .
Transformation of Velocities
The equations of Lorentz Transformations can be used to get a relation between
velocity of a particle measured by an observer in frame and velocity of the same
particle measured by an observer in frame who is moving with velocity with respect to .
Suppose according to , particle moves from to and
according to , the particle moves from to .
The -component of velocity measured by will be:
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B. Sc. Physics (H.R.K) Chapter 21: Special Theory of Relativity
Also,
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
As
Putting values in equation (2), we get:
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
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B. Sc. Physics (H.R.K) Chapter 21: Special Theory of Relativity
Similarly,
( )
( )
( )
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B. Sc. Physics (H.R.K) Chapter 21: Special Theory of Relativity
( ) ( )
And
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
Consider two frames of references and . is at rest and is moving with uniform
velocity with respect to . Suppose an event occurs at one and same place ‘x’ in frame .
The duration of event measured by the observer in frame is .
The duration of same event measured by the observer in frame is .
By using Lorentz Transformation:
( )
( )
Now
( ) ( )
( )
[ ]
Because the event occurs at the same place, therefore: . Equation (1) takes the form:
[ ]
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B. Sc. Physics (H.R.K) Chapter 21: Special Theory of Relativity
√ √
Since
√
So,
Hence the observer in frame will conclude that the clock in frame is slowed down i.e.,
time is dilated.
Relativity of Length (Length Contraction)
Consider a rod lying at rest along x-axis in stationary frame S. Let the coordinates of its ends
in this frame be and . Then, length of the rod is called proper length and described as:
Let the length of the rod seen in moving frame moving with velocity be . Let the
coordinates of ends of the rod in frame of reference (FOR) are and . Then the length
of the rod observed with respect to will be:
It should be noted that the measurements are made simultaneously in both frames.
By Lorentz Transformation, we have
i.
ii.
Subtracting (1) and (2), we have
[ ]
[ ]
[ ]
√ √
Therefore,
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B. Sc. Physics (H.R.K) Chapter 21: Special Theory of Relativity
i.e., the length of the rod appears to be reduced in moving frame . This effect is called
Length Contraction.
Relativity of Mass
The Einstein’s Energy-Mass relationship is described as:
Let the work is done on the object by the force F which displaced it through distance dr.
As the work done on an object appears in the form of change in its energy , therefore,
we can write:
By Newton’s second law of motion, the applied force on an object is equal to time rate of
[ ]
[ ]
[ ]
( )
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B. Sc. Physics (H.R.K) Chapter 21: Special Theory of Relativity
( )
∫ ∫
( )
∫ ∫
( )
| | | ( )|
| | | ( ) |
( )
( )
( )
( )
This is the expression relativistic mass that describe mass variation with respect to velocity.
Equivalence of Mass and Energy (or Proof of )
Suppose a force acts on a body and as the result of this force, the body covers a distance
in direction of force. The work done by this force is:
⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗
By Work-Energy Theorem, the work done on a body result in increase of its kinetic
energy :
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B. Sc. Physics (H.R.K) Chapter 21: Special Theory of Relativity
Equating (1) and (2), we have:
By Newton’s 2nd Law of Motion, the time rate of change of linear momentum of body is
equal applied force:
( )
( )
( )( ) ( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
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B. Sc. Physics (H.R.K) Chapter 21: Special Theory of Relativity
Putting values in equation (4), we get:
This equation shows that when , the body still possess some energy equal to ,
called rest mass energy. Here is called total energy. Equation (6) takes the
form:
√ √
( )
( )
The linear momentum a particle having mass moving with velocity is described as:
( )
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Subtracting equation (1) and (2):
( ) ( )
( )
( )
√
This is the expression of relativistic energy.
Sample Problem 6: What is momentum of a proton moving with speed of ?
Solution:
Rest mass of proton
Speed of Proton
Momentum
As
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