Integrated Humanities Notes

Superpowers
What is Imperialism?
Imperialism is an action that involves a country (usually an empire or a kingdom) extending
its power by the acquisition of territories. It may also include the exploitation of these
territories, an action that is linked to colonialism. Colonialism is generally regarded as an
expression of imperialism.
It is different from New Imperialism, as the term imperialism is usually applied to the
colonization of the Americas between the 15th and 19th centuries, as opposed to the
expansion of Western Powers (and Japan) during the late 19th and early 20th centuries.
However, both are examples of imperialism.

What is Colonialism?
Colonialism is the policy of a nation seeking to extend or retain its authority over other
people or territories, generally with the aim of developing or exploiting them to the benefit of
the colonizing country and helping the colonies modernize in terms defined by the colonizers,
especially in economics, religion and health.
The European colonial period was the era from the 15th century to 1914 when Spain,
Portugal, Britain, France, the Netherlands, Germany and several smaller European countries
established colonies outside of Europe. The system practically ended 1945-1975 when nearly
all colonies became independent. At first, the countries followed a policy of mercantilism,
designed to strengthen the home economy at the expense of rivals, so the colonies were
usually allowed to trade only with the mother country. By the mid-19th century, however, the
powerful British Empire gave up mercantilism and trade restrictions and introduced the
principle of free trade, with few restrictions or tariffs. Christian missionaries were active in
practically all the colonies. By the late 19th century Japan was an active colonizer.

What is the difference between the two?

"The word 'empire' comes from the Latin word imperium; for which the closest modern
English equivalent would perhaps be 'sovereignty', or simply 'rule'". The greatest distinction
of an empire is through the amount of land that a nation has conquered and expanded.
Political power grows from conquering land; however, cultural and economic aspects flourish
through sea and trade routes. A distinction about empires is "that although political empires
were built mostly by expansion overland, economic and cultural influences spread at least as
much by sea". Some of the main aspects of trade that went overseas consisted of animals and
plant products. European empires in Asia and Africa "have come to be seen as the classic
forms of imperialism: and indeed most books on the subject confine themselves to the
European seaborne empires". European expansion caused the world to be divided by how
developed and developing nation are portrayed through the world systems theory. The two
main regions are the core and the periphery. The core consists of high areas of income and
profit; the periphery is on the opposing side of the spectrum consisting of areas of low
income and profit. These critical theories of Geo-politics have led to increased discussion of
the meaning and impact of imperialism on the modern post-colonial world. The Russian
leader Lenin suggested that "imperialism was the highest form of capitalism, claiming that
imperialism developed after colonialism, and was distinguished from colonialism by
monopoly capitalism". This idea from Lenin stresses how important new political world order
has become in our modern era. Geopolitics now focuses on states becoming major economic
players in the market; some states today are viewed as empires due to their political and
economic authority over other nations.
The term "imperialism" is often conflated with "colonialism"; however, many scholars have
argued that each have their own distinct definition. Imperialism and colonialism have been
used in order to describe one's superiority, domination and influence upon a person or group
of people. Robert Young writes that while imperialism operates from the centre, is a state
policy and is developed for ideological as well as financial reasons, colonialism is simply the
development for settlement or commercial intentions. However, colonialism still includes
invasion.[9] Colonialism in modern usage also tends to imply a degree of geographic
separation between the colony and the imperial power. Particularly, Edward
Said distinguishes the difference between imperialism and colonialism by stating;
"imperialism involved 'the practice, the theory and the attitudes of a dominating metropolitan
centre ruling a distant territory', while colonialism refers to the 'implanting of settlements on
a distant territory. Contiguous land empires such as the Russian or Ottoman have traditionally
been excluded from discussions of colonialism, though this is beginning to change, since it is
accepted that they also sent populations into the territories they ruled. Thus it can be said that
imperialism includes some form of colonialism, but colonialism itself does not automatically
imply imperialism, as it lacks a political focus.
Imperialism and colonialism both dictate the political and economic advantage over a land
and the indigenous populations they control, yet scholars sometimes find it difficult to
illustrate the difference between the two. Although imperialism and colonialism focus on the
suppression of an other, if colonialism refers to the process of a country taking physical
control of another, imperialism refers to the political and monetary dominance, either
formally or informally. Colonialism is seen to be the architect deciding how to start
dominating areas and then imperialism can be seen as creating the idea behind conquest
cooperating with colonialism. Colonialism is when the imperial nation begins a conquest over
an area and then eventually is able to rule over the areas the previous nation had controlled.
Colonialism's core meaning is the exploitation of the valuable assets and supplies of the
nation that was conquered and the conquering nation then gaining the benefits from the spoils
of the war. The meaning of imperialism is to create an empire, by conquering the other state's
lands and therefore increasing its own dominance. Colonialism is the builder and preserver of
the colonial possessions in an area by a population coming from a foreign region.
Colonialism can completely change the existing social structure, physical structure and
economics of an area; it is not unusual that the characteristics of the conquering peoples are
inherited by the conquered indigenous populations.

What is Balance of Power?

The balance of power theory in international relations suggests that national security is
enhanced when military capability is distributed so that no one state is strong enough to
dominate all others. If one state becomes much stronger than others, the theory predicts that it
will take advantage of its strength and attack weaker neighbours, thereby providing an
incentive for those threatened to unite in a defensive coalition. Some realists maintain that
 this would be more stable as aggression would appear unattractive and would be averted if
there was equilibrium of power between the rival coalitions.
When confronted by a significant external threat, states that wish to form alliances may
"balance" or "bandwagon". Balancing is defined as allying with others against the prevailing
threat, while states that have bandwagon have aligned with the threat. States may also employ
other alliance tactics, such as buck-passing and chain-ganging. There is a longstanding debate
among realists with regard to how the polarity of a system impacts on which tactic states use,
however, it is generally agreed that bipolar systems as each great power has no choice but to
directly confront the other. Along with debates between realists about the prevalence of
balancing in alliance patterns, other schools of international relations, such as constructivists,
are also critical of the balance of power theory, disputing core realist assumptions regarding
the international system and the behaviour of states.

How did World War 1 start?

The immediate cause for World War 1 was the assassination of the Archduke Franz
Ferdinand of Austria and his wife Sophie. Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria was the
nephew of Emperor Franz Josef and heir to the throne of Austria and Hungary. The
assassination was planned by a Serbian terrorist group, called The Black Hand and the man
who shot Franz Ferdinand and his wife was a Bosnian revolutionary named Gavrilo Princip.

However, there were many other causes for the start of World War 1.

• Before WW1 was triggered, a number of defence alliances existed between the major
European countries. What this meant was that if one country declared war on another, the
other countries would also have to enter the conflict because it was in the treaty they agreed.
• Britain, France, Ireland and Russia were part of an alliance called the Triple Entente, while
Germany aligned itself with Austria-Hungary – known as the Central Powers.
• The assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand in Sarajevo on 28th June 1914, it triggered a
chain of events that resulted in World War 1.
• After the assassination, Austria-Hungary threatened war on Serbia. They set out some very
harsh demands that Serbia must meet. Germany sided by Austria-Hungary, while Russia
sided with the Serbians. At this point, Europe was at the brink of going to war.
• One month after the Archduke’s assassination – on July 28 1914 – Austria-Hungary declared
war on Serbia with the backing of Germany. Germany then declared war on Russia on
August 1, and on France on August 3.
• On August 4 1914, the German troops marched on France and the route they took went
through Belgium. Since Britain had agreed to maintain the neutrality of Belgium, they
immediately declared war on Germany.
• British and Germany forces first fought at the Battle of Mons in Belgium. This was the first
of many battles between Britain and Germany on the Western Front and is when World War
1 started for Britain.

What was the Holy Roman Empire?

The Holy Roman Empire (Latin: Sacrum Imperium Romanum; German: Heiliges Römisches
Reich) was a multi-ethnic complex of territories in Central Europe that developed during
the Early Middle Ages and continued until its dissolution in 1806. The largest territory of the
empire after 962 was the Kingdom of Germany, though it also came to include the Kingdom
of Bohemia, the Kingdom of Burgundy, the Kingdom of Italy, and numerous other territories.
On 25 December 800, Pope Leo III crowned the Frankish king Charlemagne as Emperor,
reviving the title in Western Europe, more than three centuries after the fall of the Western
Roman Empire. The title continued in the Carolingian family until 888 and from 896 to 899,
after which it was contested by the rulers of Italy in a series of civil wars until the death of
the last Italian claimant, Berengar, in 924.
The title was revived in 962 when Otto I was crowned emperor, fashioning himself as the
successor of Charlemagne and beginning a continuous existence of the empire for over eight
centuries. Some historians refer to the coronation of Charlemagne as the origin of the empire,
while others prefer the coronation of Otto I as its beginning. Scholars generally concur,
however, in relating an evolution of the institutions and principles constituting the empire,
describing a gradual assumption of the imperial title and role.
The precise term "Holy Roman Empire" was not used until the 13th century, but the concept
of translation imperia, the notion that he held supreme power inherited from the emperors of
Rome, was fundamental to the prestige of the emperor. The office of Holy Roman
Emperor was traditionally elective, although frequently controlled by dynasties. The
German prince-electors, the highest-ranking noblemen of the empire, usually elected one of
their peers as "King of the Romans", and he would later be crowned emperor by the Pope; the
tradition of papal coronations was discontinued in the 16th century. The empire never
achieved the extent of political unification formed in France, evolving instead into a
decentralized, limited elective monarchy composed of hundreds of sub-
units: principalities, duchies, counties, Free Imperial Cities, and other domains. The power of
the emperor was limited, and while the various princes, lords, bishops, and cities of the
empire were vassals who owed the emperor their allegiance, they also possessed an extent of
privileges that gave them de facto independence within their territories. Emperor Francis
II dissolved the empire on 6 August 1806, after the creation of the Confederation of the
Rhine by Napoleon.

What is Mercantilism?
Mercantilism was a type of national economic policy designed to maximize the trade of a
nation and specially to maximize the accumulation of gold and silver. Mercantilism was
dominant in modernized parts of Europe from the 16th to the 18th centuries.
It promoted governmental regulation of a nation's economy for the purpose of augmenting
state power at the expense of rival national powers. Mercantilism includes a
national economic policy aimed at accumulating monetary reserves through a
positive balance-of-trade, especially of finished goods. Historically, such policies frequently
led to war and also motivated colonial expansion.
Mercantilist theory varies in sophistication from one writer to another and has evolved over
time. High tariffs, especially on manufactured goods, are an almost universal feature of
mercantilist policy.
 Resource Management
What is a Resource?
In literal terms, a resource refers to something that can prove as an asset. In other words, it is
something that is a source of support or supply (Resource, n.d.), and it can help carry out
processes. For instance, a resource can be a raw material, such as Coal, Oil, Raw Iron, Wood
etc. This is because it is these raw materials that are processed in all sorts of ways to create
the final product we find in our homes. A resource can also be human labour. Human labour
is needed in factories for production of materials, products etc.

What is an Industry?
An industry can be described as a field of production of certain goods or services (Industry,
n.d.). Examples of certain industries are the Banking Industry, IT industry, Airline Industry
etc. The terms ‘industry’ and ‘factory’ are often confused with each other. Although they can
sometimes be exchanged with each other, they do not mean the same. Factory refers to the
place where the manufacturing/processing actually takes place, whereas Industry refers to the
production or category of production of these goods/services.

What are the different types of industries?

There are five different types of industries. These sectors are:
• Primary – First
• Secondary - Second
• Tertiary - Third
• Quaternary - Fourth
• Quinary – Fifth
The primary sector of the economy deals with having to extract resources from the earth.
This could be extracting raw materials from the earth, such as coal, oil, natural gas etc.
However, the primary sector, especially in countries like Pakistan has to do with agriculture,
or the growing and harvesting of crops. The secondary industry has to do with the
processing/manufacturing of these unearthed materials. For instance, as part of the primary
industry, workers might extract raw materials such as gold, silver, tin, neodymium etc. The
assembling and production of, say, an iPhone, comes under the secondary industry. Then, as
part of the tertiary industry, the iPhone, in this case, is sold to different people, such as the
wholesaler, agent, retailer, and eventually, the consumer. The tertiary industry is also known
as the service sector. Under this sector of the industry, services are provided to the consumers
who pay for the goods, services and/or assets. Transportation, sale, media, insurance, law etc.
all comes under this category of industries. Next comes the quaternary industry. This type of
industry has to do with the provision of information technology (Rosenberg, 2017). Examples
of services under this category of industry are computing, Research and Development (R&D)
etc. Finally, there is the quinary industry. This category of industries has to do with the most
important decision-making in the economy. It includes the medicine industry, media etc. The
quinary industry is only regarded as a “sector of the economy” by only some economists.
What is meant by the term “Resource Management”?
Resource Management refers to the effective use and allocation of valuable resources in the
economy. These resources can be in people (Human Resources), raw materials (including
coal, oil, rare metals etc.), production resources, computers etc. One of the main things that
should be done properly in order to ensure that resources are managed is allocation of
resources. Allocation of resources refers to the designation of resources for different tasks. If
too many resources are allocated for one task, output will be reduced, and the producer will
be in loss (Resource management, n.d.).

What is Sustainable Development?

Sustainable Development is attained when development is made that benefits the present
generations, but only in such a way that it does not harm the ability of future generations to
be able to develop as well. Since sustainable development is to preserve the ability of future
generations to develop, it does not limit our ability to develop. We, people from this
generation, can develop as well, but we should do it using ways that do not affect future
generations, for instance by using environment-friendly technology.

However, as it may seem, Sustainable Development is not just about preserving the
environment. It aims to help future generations socially as well as environmentally. It aims to
help them socially by providing equal opportunities to all, so that one region is not extremely
developed, whereas another is suffering, due to inequity (What is sustainable development,
n.d.).

Why do we need industries?

Industries are, as discussed before, fields of production of certain goods/services/assets.
Industries are extremely important for us, and we, in today’s world, need them in our lives.
This is because it is only because of industries that we are able to get the products that we
find in supermarkets, or pay money to gain. For instance, cars. If one of us needs a car for his
transport, we contact an automobile retailer, and buy a car. But where does that car come
from? It is only able to reach us because it is developed by people who belong to the vehicle
industry. In this way, any good, service or financial asset that we need comes from a specific
industry. All the transactions made by consumers who buy products that are created by
industries come together to form markets. When all these markets come together, the
economy is formed (Dalio, 2013).

How do humans extract resources?

Humans extract resources from the natural environment. They do this by different methods of
resource extraction. Different methods of underground mining are used to extract resources
that exist below the earth’s surface. Blasting is carried out to remove hard, waste rock that is
attached to the valuable mineral. Different methods of extraction for different types of
materials. Surface extraction is the process of extraction of resources that are near the surface
of the earth (Mineral Extraction, n.d.). Surface extraction usually causes a lot of blowing up,
and soil erosion and destruction. Whilst underground extraction is generally more dangerous
for human labour, surface extraction generally causes more destruction to the environment.

Why do humans extract resources?

The reason for why humans extract resources is obvious. Humans extract resources from the
natural environment so that they are able to produce items that they can sell to other humans
for some profit. They use this profit they earn to do many things, including paying off debts,
buying wants and needs etc. The creation of these items that are sold are the instigators of the
economy. It is safe to say that if these natural resources did not exist in the world, the global
world economy would not exist the way it does right now. It is also safe to say that humans
would not exist at all if not for these natural resources, as they are vital for creating all that
humans need in order to survive, or in some cases, humans directly consume these natural
resources (Corn, 2014).

Why do we need to manage resources?

We, as humans, must manage resources. Resource management not only refers to saving
resources by efficient use, but also refers to the allocation of resources in such a way that the
gap between the amount of resources present in different places/fields/activities is as minimal
as possible (Makhdum, 2012). It is extremely important to manage resources because if they
are wasted, products cannot be created in such abundance. As a result, products will not be
sold, and consumers will not be able to buy the products. Since one person’s spending is
another person’s income (Dalio, 2013), incomes will drop, there will be lesser products, and
eventually the economy will be subject to disaster. In addition, if resources are not allocated
properly, especially on the scale of countries of the world, some countries might be left
underdeveloped and would not be able to fulfil their needs, if they are not given a fair share
of resources.

How have consumerism and capitalism affected resource management?

To understand how consumerism and capitalism have affected resource management, it is
first necessary to understand what the two are. Consumerism has many definitions – but the
main one is as follows. Consumerism is the theory and/or belief that the greater the amount of
consumption, the more the economy is benefitted (Consumerism, n.d.). Capitalism, on the
other hand, refers to the system through which most of the trade and production is managed
privately instead of the government doing so. Capitalism aims to do this, and maximise profit
in the way. Almost every country in the world now runs using the system of capitalism, the
exceptions being Russia, China, Cuba etc. (Nickolas, 2017)

Consumerism affects resource management in the following way. When consumers are
induced with the belief that they need to buy products, despite the fact that they may have it.
When this happens, consumers want to buy more, and producers want to sell more. And if
producers want to supply more, they obviously need more resources. Hence resources are
overused, and there can be a shortage of needed resources in the future.

Capitalism affects resource management in the following way. In capitalism, or a free

market, many producers are competing to sell their product in more abundance, so that they
can earn more profit than the others. Since each producer wishes to do so, they use more and
more resources to create more and more products. In doing so, resources are wasted, and that
causes a misbalance of resources throughout the balance (Columbia University, n.d.).

What implications does resource extraction have on the environment?

Resources of energy can be extracted in many ways. One of the most common ways of
extracting resources of energy is mining. Mining is the process of extracting valuable
elements and minerals from the ground (Mining, n.d.). Mining generally has a negative
impact on the environment. Mining can result into loss of the lives of many creatures, the
breaking of the fragile balance in the ecosystem etc. Also, when the mining causes too much
pollution, “coal fires” often erupt, and they cause a lot of carbon dioxide (and other
greenhouse gasses) to spread in the air.
Similarly, drilling for oil causes climate change. The drilling results in the spreading of
methane and black carbon. These two gasses are perhaps the most dangerous of all
greenhouse gasses, and have the most adverse effect on climate change (Walsh, 2012).
Greenhouse gasses (such as carbon dioxide, methane, water vapour etc.) have a huge impact
on climate change. This is because these gasses trap the Sun’s heat. When the rays of the Sun
hit the Earth, these greenhouse gasses trap a lot of these and prevent them from leaving the
atmosphere. This results in global warming, which makes the Earth a warmer place.

Trees are another resource of energy. Trees are arguably renewable or non-renewable
resources of energy. If they are cut down faster than they regrow, they are considered to be
non-renewable resources. Trees are cut down at an enormous rate. It is said that every 10
seconds, an area of trees in the Amazon rainforest equivalent to one football field is cut down
(Amazon destruction: six football fields a minute, 2005). Deforestation has an adverse impact
on climate change as well. Trees take in a lot of greenhouse gasses in the atmosphere,
including carbon dioxide, methane etc. When trees are cut down at such a massive rate, the
amount of greenhouse gasses in the environment will increase exponentially (as they are
now). It is estimated that due to deforestation, 1.5 billion tons of greenhouse gasses are
released into the atmosphere (Madaan). Also, with lesser trees, there will be lesser
“evapotranspiration”. This is a process by which trees cool the air. Because trees have
reduced so much, the world will become even warmer (Trimarchi, 2008).

Does resource extraction have implications on our relationship with other human beings?
Resource extraction does not have many implications on our relationship with other human
beings. There is to some extent. For instance, as I mentioned earlier, the conditions in which
resources, such as coal, are extracted are absolutely horrible. The miners, especially in 3rd
world countries like Pakistan, have to go through many difficulties and disgusting conditions.
We, as humans, feel very sorry for them, and this makes us sympathetic towards them. They
could have one more implication. Since all humans are fighting for resources these days, their
relationship could deteriorate even more in the future.

With the growing population and growing needs, is the current rate of
extraction and exploitation of resources sustainable?
The Earth’s natural resources, specifically non-renewable resources, such as fossil fuels. The
earth’s population is growing almost exponentially, and with it, the needs of these people. It
is said that people living in Western parts of the world use about 57 kilos of newly-
mined/extracted resources every day (Depletion Of Natural Resources Statistics, n.d.).
Human beings are extracting way too many resources and this rate is definitely not
sustainable. If resources are continued to be extracted at this rate, future generations might
not have enough resources to survive.

Can our choices affect resource management for the society as a

whole?
It is surely true that our choices, or rather, our personal desires can affect resource
management for the society as a whole. This is because we humans have a natural instinct to
want more. Especially in places where people are generally wealthier, or come from a well-
off family, products are consumed at an increasingly faster rate. People, since they have the
money, just want to buy more. Even if they do not, they are practically told that they need to.
When people buy more and more products to satisfy their wants, and the demand of these
increases, the producers have to fulfil the demand by increasing the supply. In order to do so,
more resources are used up, and resources are mismanaged.

With the growing population and growing needs, is the current rate of
resource extraction and exploitation necessary?
With the growing population and growing needs, the current rate of resource extraction and
exploitation is really unnecessary. True, that today, people need more resources and more
technology than they did in earlier days, but the amount of products that people in today’s
world consume is extremely unnecessary. They can fulfil their needs, but their wants are
unrestricted – especially wealthier people. Many times, consumers do not want to buy, but
they are cunningly persuaded by producers to do so, so that they (the producers) are able to
earn some profit. To generate enough products, a huge amount of resources has to be
extracted. Hence, one can come up with the conclusion that these many resources do not need
to be extracted and/or exploited.

Has unequal distribution of resources affected development?

Unequal distribution of resources has surely affected development. 1st world countries of the
world, such as USA, Canada etc. have had more access to resources throughout most of the
15th century and onwards. On the other hand, 3rd world places of the world, such as some
poor Asian countries have not had enough opportunities to resources. Due to this, they have
not been able to develop at the rate at which other countries have. In some cases, countries
have had resources, but they been denied a right to them. Perhaps the best example of this is
the continent of Africa. Africa is the richest of continents of the world in terms of natural
resources, holding untapped resources such as gold, copper, silver etc. (Mapping Africa's
natural resources, 2016). However, the western world has occupied its resources, and Africa
ironically is not able to benefit from its own resources.

Describe the types of sustainable energy

Sustainable energy refers to the energy that does not harm the environment, and is renewable,
unlike fossil fuels. Some examples of sustainable energy include wind, solar, tidal etc.

In Pakistan, Hydroelectric Power, or HEP is the most used type of sustainable energy.
Hydroelectric Power is created when the hydro-turbines inside HEP Plants are rotated using
the pressure/force of inflowing water. The shaft also spins rapidly due to the rotating turbine.
The shaft does so inside a strong magnetic field, and this causes the generator to help form
electricity.

Solar Power is another commonly used source of sustainable power. Solar power is generated
by solar panels that use photovoltaic cells to help capture the energy that comes from the sun.
This energy is used to power homes, offices, schools etc.

Wind power is another example of sustainable energy. Wind energy is generated by

windmills used on wind farms. When the wind blows, the windmills rotate as well. This
causes the turbine to move, and hence electricity is generated. There are many other sources
of sustainable energy too (Sethi, 2007).
Distinguish between renewable and non-renewable resources of
energy
As the names suggest, renewable and non-renewable resources of energy are complete
opposites. Both these words are self-explanatory. Renewable resources of energy are those
which can quickly be replenished, and will never run out, even if we keep using them.
Examples of these are wind, sunlight etc. Non-renewable resources of energy are those which
cannot be replenished as fast. Some examples of non-renewable resources of energy include
fossil fuels, i.e. coal, oil, natural gas. These will eventually run out, and take millions of years
to form.

Explain the processes of resource extraction

Humans extract resources from the natural environment. They do this by different methods of
resource extraction. Different methods of underground mining are used to extract resources
that exist below the earth’s surface. Blasting is carried out to remove hard, waste rock that is
attached to the valuable mineral. Different methods of extraction for different types of
materials. Surface extraction is the process of extraction of resources that are near the surface
of the earth (Mineral Extraction, n.d.). Surface extraction usually causes a lot of blowing up,
and soil erosion and destruction. Whilst underground extraction is generally more dangerous
for human labour, surface extraction generally causes more destruction to the environment.
Mining, drilling etc. are all examples of processes of resource extraction.

Discuss the role of choice in resource management

Our personal choices can affect resource management for the society as a whole. This is
because we humans have a natural instinct to want more. Especially in places where people
are generally wealthier, or come from a well-off family, products are consumed at an
increasingly faster rate. People, since they have the money, just want to buy more. Even if
they do not, they are practically told that they need to. When people buy more and more
products to satisfy their wants, and the demand of these increases, the producers have to fulfil
the demand by increasing the supply. In order to do so, more resources are used up, and
resources are mismanaged.

Analyse the impact of lack of resource management in facilitating

equity
Equity refers to the quality of fairness and impartiality. A lack of resource management leads
to a lack of equity. When resources are not allocated to different places fairly, there is a
difference in the development of different places around the world. Hence, equity, or fairness
is not achieved.

Why do we need resources?

As discussed several times earlier, we need resources to live. Resources include everything
we use in our daily lives. We need resources to consume and live our daily lives. Resources
are also used to create the products that we, as consumers, buy and use. We need these to live
our daily lives. As producers, these resources are required to be used in creating products that
are to be sold for a profit.

How have resources helped in economic growth and development?

Throughout history, resources have helped us gain economic growth and economic
development. After the industrial revolution, many new ways were found to extract
resources. Because more resources were found, they were able to be used to sell more and
more products, which led to more and more profit. This caused economic growth, and the
global economy improved drastically. Because of this, economic development took place as
well. Through more resources, people were able to buy more products that helped to raise
their living standards and improve their quality of life. After the industrial revolution, many
new things were created, such as the telephone. This caused both economic growth and
economic development.

What would happen if we consumed all our resources?

I do not think this is possible. This is because renewable resources will always remain there.
However, other resources might. If this happened, we would cease to exist, as we would need
things to consume and/or sell. Without resources, we are unable to do either.

Urban Settlements
What are Urban Settlements?
An Urban settlement is a concentrated settlement that constitutes or is part of an urban area. It
is an area with high density of human-created structures. These geometrical patterns are
usually in squares and rectangles and are well laid out.
The term has official meanings in various nations, including:

• Municipal urban settlement, a type of subdivision such as Cape town in Western Cape
• Urban settlement, an official designation for a certain type of urban locality used in some
of the republics of Africa such as Southern Africa.
• Municipal urban settlement, a type of municipal formation in Russia
• Urban settlement, a synonym for urban localities in Russia
• Urban-type settlement, an official designation for a certain type of urban locality used in
some of the former republics of the Soviet Union

What causes urbanisation?

Urbanisation occurs because people move from rural areas (countryside) to urban areas
(towns and cities). This usually occurs when a country is still developing.

Prior to 1950 the majority of urbanisation occurred in MEDCs (more economically

developed countries). Rapid urbanisation took place during the period of industrialisation that
took place in Europe and North America in the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries.
Many people moved from rural to urban areas to get jobs in the rapidly expanding industries
in many large towns and cities. Since 1950 urbanisation has slowed in most MEDCs, and
now some of the biggest cities are losing population as people move away from the city to
rural environments. This is known as counter-urbanisation. You can read more about this
process here.
Since 1950 the most rapid growth in urbanisation has occurred in LEDCs (Less Economically
Developed Countries) in South America, Africa and Asia. Between 1950 and 1990 the urban
population living in LEDCs doubled. In developed countries the increase was less than half.

The three main causes of urbanisation in LEDCs since 1950 are:

1. Rural to urban migration is happening on a massive scale due to population pressure and
lack of resources in rural areas. This are 'push' factors.

2. People living in rural areas are 'pulled' to the city. Often they believe that the standard of
living in urban areas will be much better than in rural areas. They are usually wrong. People
also hope for well paid jobs, the greater opportunities to find casual or 'informal' work, better
health care and education.

3. Natural increase caused by a decrease in death rates while birth rates remain high.

The UN predicts that by 2030 60% of the world's population will live in urban environments.

What is Gentrification?
Gentrification is a process of renovation of deteriorated urban neighborhoods by means of the
influx of more affluent residents.[1][2] This is a common and controversial topic in politics and
in urban planning. Conversations surrounding gentrification have evolved, as many in the
social-scientific community have questioned the negative connotations associated with the
word gentrification. One example is that gentrification can lead to community
displacement for lower-income families in gentrifying neighborhoods; however, every
neighborhood faces unique challenges and reasons for displacement vary. Generally,
gentrification is considered to improve the neighborhood for the people moving into the area.

The gentrification process is typically the result of increased interest in a certain

environment. Early "gentrifiers" may belong to low-income artist or boheme communities,
which increase the attractiveness and flair of a certain quarter. Further steps are increased
investments in a community and the related infrastructure by real estate
development businesses, local government, or community activists and resulting economic
development, increased attraction of business, and lower crime rates. In addition to these
potential benefits, gentrification can lead to population migration.

What is Urban Stress?

Living in an urban environment is long known to be a risk factor for psychiatric diseases such
as major depression or schizophrenia. This is true even though infrastructure, socioeconomic
conditions, nutrition and health care services are clearly better in cities than in rural areas.
Higher stress exposure and higher stress vulnerability seem to play a crucial role. Social
stress may be the most important factor for the increased risk of mental disorders in urban
areas. It may be experienced as social evaluative threat, or as chronic social stress, both of
which are likely to occur as a direct consequence of high population densities in cities. As for
the impact on mental health, social stress seems to outweigh other urban stressors such as
pollution or noise. Living in crowded areas is associated with increased social stress, since
the environment becomes less controllable for the individual. Social disparities also become
much more prominent in cities and can impose stress on the individual. Further, disturbance
of chronobiological rhythmsis is more frequent in cities than in rural areas and has a negative
influence on mental health and beyond. A recent meta-analysis showed that urban dwellers
have a 20 per cent higher risk of developing anxiety disorders, and a 40 per cent higher risk
of developing mood disorders. For schizophrenia, double the risk has been shown, with a
‘dose-response’ relationship for urban exposure and disease risk. Longitudinal studies on
patients with schizophrenia indicate that it is urban living and upbringing per se, rather than
other epidemiological variables, that increase the risk for mental disorders.

As urbanisation of our world is inevitable, we urgently need to improve our understanding of

the threatening – as well as the health protective – factors of urban living. Evidence is
beginning to surface that indicates that the urban population shows a stronger brain response
to stress, and stronger cognitive impairment under stress. A recent fMRI study in the
journal Nature, conducted by a German research group, showed that these effects seem to
occur irrespective of age, gender, general health status, marital or income status. In this study,
the amygdala (a brain region that regulates emotions such as anxiety and fear) showed higher
activation under stress in healthy individuals from large cities compared to their counterparts
from rural regions. Interestingly, activation grew with the size of the current home city.
Further, activity in another brain region associated with depression, the perigenual anteriour
cingular cortex, was positively correlated with the time that an individual had spent in a large
city as a child. The more years someone had spent growing up under urban conditions, the
more active this brain region tended to be.

What is Urban Sprawl?

Urban sprawl or suburban sprawl describes the expansion of human populations away from
central urban areas into low-density, monofunctional and usually car-dependent communities,
in a process called suburbanization. In addition to describing a particular form of
urbanization, the term also relates to the social and environmental consequences associated
with this development. In Continental Europe the term "peri-urbanisation" is often used to
denote similar dynamics and phenomena, although the term urban sprawl is currently being
used by the European Environment Agency. There is widespread disagreement about what
constitutes sprawl and how to quantify it. For example, some commentators measure sprawl
only with the average number of residential units per acre in a given area. But others
associate it with decentralization (spread of population without a well-defined centre),
discontinuity (leapfrog development, as defined below), segregation of uses, and so forth.
The term urban sprawl is highly politicized, and almost always has negative connotations. It
is criticized for causing environmental degradation, and intensifying segregation and
undermining the vitality of existing urban areas and attacked on aesthetic grounds. Due to the
pejorative meaning of the term, few openly support urban sprawl as such. The term has
become a rallying cry for managing urban growth.

What is a CBD?
Central business district (CBD) is the commercial and business centre of a city. In larger
cities, it is often synonymous with the city's "financial district". Geographically, it often
coincides with the "city centre" or "downtown", but the two concepts are separate: many
cities have a central business district located away from its commercial or cultural city centre
or downtown.
The CBD is often also the "city centre" or "downtown", but this is also often not the
case. Midtown Manhattan is the largest central business district in New York City and in the
world; yet Lower Manhattan, commonly called Downtown Manhattan, represents the second
largest distinct CBD in New York City and is geographically situated south of Midtown. For
example, London's "city centre" is usually regarded as encompassing the historic City of
London and the medieval City of Westminster, whereas the City of London and the
transformed Docklands area are regarded as its two CBDs. Mexico City also has a historic
city centre, the colonial-era Centro Histórico, along with two CBDs: the mid-late 20th
century Paseo de la Reforma - Polanco, and the new Santa Fe. In Taipei, Taiwan, the area
around its main railway station is regarded as the historic city centre while the Xinyi Planned
Area located to the east of the said railway station is the current CBD of Taipei, being both
the financial district and the premier shopping area, and the location of Taipei 101, Taipei's
tallest building.
The shape and type of a CBD almost always closely reflect the city's history. Cities with
strong preservation laws and maximum building height restrictions to retain the character of
the historic and cultural core will have a CBD quite a distance from the center of the city.
This is quite common for European cities such as Paris or Vienna. In cities in the New
World that grew quickly after the invention of mechanized modes such
as road or rail transport, a single central area or downtown will often contain most of the
region's tallest buildings and act both as the CBD and the commercial and cultural city centre.
Increasing urbanization in the 21st century have developed megacities, particularly in Asia,
that will often have multiple CBDs scattered across the urban area. It has been said that
downtowns (as understood in North America) are therefore conceptually distinct from both
CBDs and city centers. No two CBDs look alike in terms of their spatial shape, however
certain geometric patterns in these areas are recurring throughout many cities due to the
nature of centralized commercial and industrial activities.