COMPUTATIONAL

ELASTICITY
Theory of Elasticity
and
Finite and Boundary Element Methods

Mohammed Ameen

Alpha Science International Ltd.

Harrow, U.K.
 Contents
Preface vii
Notation xi

PART A: THEORETICAL ELASTICITY

Chapter 1 Introduction 1
1.1 Analysis and Design of Structural Systems 1
1.2 Introduction to Elasticity 3
1.3 Levels of Observation 4
1.4 Problems of Elastostatics 4
1.5 Types of Loads 5
1.6 The Displacement, the Strain and the Stress Fields 6
1.7 The Constitutive Relations 7
1.8 Cartesian Tensors and Equations of Elasticity 7
1.9 Two-Dünensional Problems of Elasticity 7
1.10 Energy Theorems and Variational Principles 8
1.11 Computational Elasticity 8
Chapter 2 The Displacement Field and the Strain Field 11
2.1 Introduction 11
2.2 Elementary Concept of Strain 12
2.3 Strain at a Point 15
2.4 Principal Strains and Principal Axes 21
2.5 Compatibility Conditions 27
Summary 30
Problems 31
Chapter 3 The Stress Field 33
3.1 Introduction 33
3.2 State of Stress at a Point 33
3.2.1 Notation and sign Convention for stresses 34
3.3 Stress Components on an Arbitrary Plane 36
3.3.1 Stress transformation 41
3.4 Differential Equations of Equilibrium 43
3.5 Principal Stresses and Principal Planes 49
3.6 State of Stress Referred to the Principal Coordinate
System 54
3.6.1 Stress Ellipsoid 55
3.6.2 Stress Quadric 57
3.6.3 Octahedral stresses 58
3.6.4 Maximum shear stress 59
XIV COMPUTATIONAL ELASTICITY

3.6.5 Mohr's circle 60

3.7 Hydrostatic and Deviatoric Components 62
3.8 Traction boundary conditions 63
Summary 64
Problems 65
Chapter 4 The Constitutive Relations 67
4.1 Introduction 67
4.2 Generalised Hooke's Law 68
4.3 Isotropie Elasticity 73
4.4 Orthotropic Elasticity 74
Summary 76
Problems 77
Chapter 5 Cartesian Tensors and Equations of Elasticity 78
5.1 Introduction 78
5.2 Transformation Laws of Cartesian Tensors 79
5.2.1 Zeroth Order tensors—scalars 79
5.2.2 First order tensors—vectors 80
5.2.3 Second order tensor—dyadic 88
5.2.4 n"1 order tensor 90
5.3 Special Tensors and Tensor Operations 90
5.3.1 The Kronecker's symbol 90
5.3.2 The permutation symbol 90
5.3.3 The e-<Sidentity 91
5.3.4 Symmetry and skew-symmetry 91
5.3.5 Contraction 93
5.3.6 Derivatives and the comma notation 93
5.3.7 Gauss' theorem 93
5.3.8 The base vectors and some special vector
Operations 94
5.3.9 Eigenvalue problem of a Symmetrie second
order tensor 96
5.4 Equations of Elasticity 99
5.4.1 Equations of equilibrium 99
5.4.2 Stress-strain relations 102
5.4.3 Strain-displacement and compatibility relations 105
5.4.4 Boundary conditions 108
5.5 Boundary Value Problems of Elasticity 108
5.5.1 Lame-Navier equation 109
5.5.2 Beltrami-Michell equations 110
- 5.6 Coaxialityof the Principal Directions 112
Summary 112
Problems 113
 CONTENTS xv

Chapter 6 Two-Dimensional Problems of Elasticity 115

6.1 Introduction 115
6.2 Plane Stress and Plane Strain Problems 116
6.2.1 Plane stress problems 116
6.2.2 Plane strain problems 118
6.3 Solution of Plane Problems in Rectangular
Coordinates —The Stress Function Approach 119
6.3.1 Airy's stress function 122
6.3.2 Solution by polynomials 125
6.3.3 Saint Venant's principle 126
6.4 Two-Dimensional Problems in Polar Coordinates 134
6.4.1 Equations of equilibrium in polar coordinates 134
6.4.2 Stress function approach 137
6.4.3 Stress-strain relations 138
6.4.4 Strain-displacement relations 139
6.4.5 Problems of symmetrical stress distributions 143
6.4.6 Lame's problem 145
6.4.7 Pure bending of curved bars 148
6.4.8 Bending of a curved bar by a concentrated force 151
6.4.9 Rotating circular disk 155
6.4.10 Stress concentration around circular holes 156
6.4.11 Concentrated force at a point of a straight
boundary of a semi-infinite continuum 161
Summary 165
Problems 166
Chapter 7 Torsion of Prismatic Bars 168
7.1 Introduction 168
7.2 Saint Venant's Semi-Inverse Method 168
7.3 Prandtl's Membrane Analogy 179
7.3.1 Narrow rectangular cross-section 183
7.3.2 Torsion of Thin Rolled Profile Sections 186
7.3.3 Torsion of Rectangular Bar 187
7.3.4 Torsion of Hollow Shafts 192
7.3.5 Approximate Analysis of Torsion of Thin Tubes 196
7.3.6 Hollow Tubes with Multiple Holes 197
Summary 201
Problems 202
Chapter 8 Energy Theorems and
Variational Principles of Elasticity 203
8.1 Introduction 203
8.2 Strain Energy and Complementary Energy 204
8.3 Clapeyron's Theorem 207
XVI COMPUTATIONAL ELASTICITY

8.4 Virtual Work and Potential Energy Principles 210

8.5 Principle of Complementary Potential Energy 216
8.6 Betti's Reciprocal Theorem 219
8.7 Principle of Linear Superposition 220
8.8 Uniqueness of Elasticity Solution 222
Summary 223
Some of the Classical Books on the Theory of Elasticity 224

P A R T B : COMPUTATIONAL ELASTICITY

Chapter 9 Introduction to Computational Elasticity 229

9.1 "Exact" Methods and "Approximate" Methods 229
9.2 The Finite Element and the Boundary Element
Methods—Advantages and Limitations 232
9.3 Weighted Residual Methods 234
9.3.1 Some basic terminologies and definitions 235
Summary 248
Chapter 10 Finite Element Method in a Nutshell 249
10.1 Introduction 249
10.2 Governing Equations of Elasticity 250
10.3 Basic Steps Involved in Finite Element Analysis of
Elastostatic Problems 253
10.3.1 Details of the ConstantStrainTriangle Element 261
10.3.2 Assemblyof Equations 265
10.4 Some of the Programming Preliminaries 267
10.5 A Simple Computer Program in C++ Using
Triangulär Elements 276
10.5.1 Plotting the Mesh 289
10.5.2 Another Example 292
10.6 Additional Aspects 293
10.6.1 Prescribed nonzero degrees offreedom 293
10.6.2 Sparsity of Stiffhess Matrix—
Proper node numbering 294
10.6.3 Stress Computation 297
10.6.4 Support Reactions 298
Summary 299
Problems 300
Chapter 11 Isoparametric Formulation 301
11.1 Introduction 301
11.2 Sub, Super and Isoparametric Formulations 303
11.3 The Isoparametric Formulation 304
11.4 Four-Noded Quadrilateral Element for Plane Problems 309
 CONTENTS xvu

11.5 OOP Using Vector and Matrix Classes 310

11.5.1 Object Oriented Programming 311
11.5.2 A Vector Class 311
11.5.3 A Matrix Class 320
11.6 Computer Code with Isoparametric Quadrilateral
Elements 328
11.7 Isoparametric Lagrangian Elements for Plane Problems 342
11.8 Serendipity Elements 343
11.9 Transition Elements 345
Summary 346
Problems 346
Chapter 12 Advanced Topics in Finite Element Analysis 347
12.1 Introduction 347
12.2 General Rule of Transformation 347
12.3 Static Condensation 349
12.4 Analysis ofLarge Structures—Substructuring 351
12.5 Skew Supports 352
12.6 Setting Identical Displacement Boundary Conditions at
Two or More Distinct Nodes 354
12.7 Analysis of Symmetrie Structures 355
12.8 Some Aspects Regarding Finite Element Mesh 357
12.8.1 Automatic mesh generation programs 357
12.8.2 Element connection and grading 362
Summary 363
Some of the Populär Books on Finite Element
Method 364
Chapter 13 Boundary Element Analysis of Elastostatic Problems 366
13.1 Introduction 366
13.2 The Reciprocal Theorem and the Somigliana Identity 367
13.3 Boundary Integral Equation 372
13.4 Numerical Solution of Boundary Integral Equations 374
13.5 Boundary Elements and Interpolation of
Displacements and Tractions 377
13.6 Stresses on the Boundary 381
13.7 Body Forces 383
13.2.1 Constant gravity force 384
13.2.2 Centrifugal force 385
13.8 Piecewise Homogeneous Bodies 386
13.9 Modelling Traction Discontinuities 388
Summary 389
Problems 390
XVU1 COMPUTATIONAL ELASTICITY

Chapter 14 Boundary Elements, Interpolation Functions and

Singular Integrals 391
14.1 Introduction 391
14.2 Two-Dimensional Problems 392
14.2.1 Constant dement 393
14.2.2 Linear isoparametric dement 396
14.2.3 Higher order isoparametric elements 399
14.3 Three-Dimensional Problems 401
14.3.1 Constant triangulär elements 401
14.3.2 Linear and higher order triangulär elements 403
14.3.3 Quadrilateral elements 406
14.3.4 Higher order elements 407
14.3.5 Three-dimensional volume elements 408
14.4 Discontinuous Boundary Elements 410
Summary 411
Chapter 15 Computer Codes For Two-Dimensional Boundary
Element Analysis 412
15.1 Introduction 412
15.2 Computer Code with Two-Noded Linear Boundary
Elements 413
15.2.1 The main program 414
15.2.2 Thefünctions 426
15.2.3 Gauss elimination Operator for unsymmetric
matrices 430
15.3 Computer Code with Three-Noded Isoparametric
Quadratic Boundary Elements 431
15.3.1 The main program 432
15.3.2 The function qfuncs 442
15.3.3 The functiony'acs 447
15.3.4 The function boundaryStresses 448
15.3.5 Functions for plotting the boundary
element mesh 448
15.4 Sample Problems 449
15.5 An Improved Boundary Element Formulation with
Relative Displacements 462
Summary 464
Problems 465
Some of the Books on Boundary Element Method 465
Chapter 16 Coupling Finite Element and Boundary
Element Methods 467
16.1 Introduction 467
16.2 Coupling Finite Element and Boundary Element
Solutions 468
 CONTENTS XIX

16.2.1 Symmetrising Ä 5 using a direct algorithm 470

16.2.2 Symmetrisation using an iterative algorithm 470
16.2.3 An alternative way of coupling 471
16.3 An Example Application-Analysis of Reinforced
Concrete Structural Elements 472
Summary 476
Appendix A Interpolation Polynomials 477
A.l Introduction 477
A.2 Lagrangian Interpolation in One Dimension 477
A.3 Two-Dimensional Interpolation 481
Appendix B Numerical Integration 486
B.l Standard Gauss Quadrature 486
B.2 Logarithmic Gauss Quadrature 488
Appendix C Integral Equations 490
C. 1 Definition and Classification of Integral Equations 490
C.2 Cauchy Principal Value of an Integral 491
Appendix D Fundamental Solutions 493
D. 1 Laplace Equation 493
D.2 Fundamental Solution of Elastostatic Problems 497

Subject Index 501