Research Design

Md. Inaam Akhtar

Deptt. of Political Science,

Faculty of Social Sciences,

Jamia Millia Islamia,

New Delhi

Abstract

A research is valid when a conclusion is accurate or true and research design is the conceptual
blueprint within which research is conducted. A scholar for his research, prepare an action plan, it
constitutes the outline of collection, measurement and analysis ofdata. Research design is not
associated to any particular technique ofdata collection or any particular type of data. When
designing research it is necessary that we recognize the type of evidence required to answer the
research question in a reasonable way.1

This

chapter has sketched the purpose, its importance and types of

research design.

Keywords: Origin, Exploratory, Descriptive, Explanatory,

Experimental

Introduction

Research design can be considered as the structure of

research it is the “Glue” that holds all of the elements in a research

project together, in short it is a plan of the proposed research work.

Research design is defined by different social scientists in different

terms; some of the definitions are as: according to Jahoda, Deutch &

Cook “A research design is the arrangement of conditions for the

collection and analysis of data in a manner that aims to combine

relevance to the research purpose with economy and procedure”.2

Research design is the plan, structure and strategy and investigation

concaved so as to obtain ensured to search question and control

variance”.3 Henry Manheim says that research design not only

anticipates and specifies the seemingly countless decisions

connected with carrying out data collection, processing and analysis

but it presents a logical basis for these decisions.4

Zikmund defined

as “a master plan specifying the methods and procedure for collecting

Research in Social Science: Interdisciplinary Perspectives

69

and analyzing the needed information”.5

The definitions stress

systematic methodology in collecting right information for

interpretations with economy and procedure. In-fact the research

design is the conceptual within which research is conducted:

1. The blueprint for the collection.

2. Measurement and

3. Analysis of data.

Aresearch design should be based more or less on some methodology the research design should be
made once the topic and problem of research have been selected and formulated, objectives have
been properly outlined, concepts have been properly defined and the hypothesis have been
properly framed. The research design should be able to provide answers of the following reserve
queries:

1. What is the study about and, what type of data is required?

2. What is the purpose of study?

3. What are the sources of needed data?

4. What should be the place or area of the study?

5. What time, approximately, is required for the study?

6. What should be the amount of materials or number of cases for the study?

7. What type of sampling should be used?

8. What method of data collection would be appropriate?

9. How will data be analysed?

10. What should be the approximate expenditure?

11. What should be the specific nature of the study?6

Origins

Research design emerged as a recognizable field of study in

the 1960s, at first marked by a conference on Design Method at

Imperial college, London in 1962. It led to the founding of the Design

Research Society (DRS) in 1966. John Christopher Jones founded a

postgraduate Design Research laboratory at the University

Manchester Institute of Science and Technology (who initiated the

1962 conference) and L. Bruce Scher founded the postgraduate

Department of Design Research at the Royal College of Art, London

and became the first professor of Research Design.7

Some of the

origin of design methods and research design lay in the emergence

after the and world management decision making technique the most

fundamental challenge to conventional ideas on design has been the

Research in Social Science: Interdisciplinary Perspectives

70

grouching advocacy of systematic methods of problem and the

development of design solutions. Herbert Simon (1969) established

the foundations for a science of design which would be a body of

intellectually tough, analytic, partly formalizable, partly empirical,

teachable doctrine about the design process.8

Features

1. It is a plan that specifies the sources and type of information

relevant to the research problem.

2. It is a strategy specifying which approach distill be used

gathering and analyzing data.

3. It also includes the time and cost budgets since most studies are

done under these two constraints.9

In brief research design must at least contain1. A clear statement of research problem.

2. Procedures and technique to be used for gathering data or

information.

3. The population to be studied.

4. Methods to be used in processing & analysis data.10

Phases in Research Designing

The Research process proceeds in six phases:

1. Specifying the problem/topic to be studied

2. Framing research design

3. Planning a sample (probability or non-probability or combination

of the two)

4. Collecting the data

5. Analyzing the data (editing, coding, processing, tailgating)

6. Preparing the report11

Types of Research Design

Typology of Research study

1. Exploratory or Formulative

1. Exploratory or Formulative Research

2. Descriptive Research or Statistical Research

3. Explanatory Research

4. Experimental Research or Analytical Research

Exploratory Research

It is the primary stage of research and the purpose of this

research is to achieve new insights into a phenomenon. This research

is one which has the purposes of formulating a problem for more

accurate investigating a problem for more accurate investigation or for

developing a hypothesis. This is applied when there are few or no

earlier research/studies to which references can be made for

information. The focus of this research is on gaming insights and

familiarity with the subject area fair more rigorous investigation later.

Exploratory studies are usually more appropriate in case of problem

about which little research knowledge is available, for instance, there

is little knowledge available about social interaction pattern of

members of a most monastery an enterprising researcher may be

interested in such a problem to obtain insights in the face of little

knowledge available about it.18

Steps of Exploratory Research

We have already noted the exploratory research should be

considered the initial step in a continuous research processes rather

than a detached exercise. The following methods may be is helpful for

exploratory research:-

Survey of Literature

An exploratory is concerned with an area of subject matter in

which hypothesis have not got been formulated. The researcher‟s

task then is to review the available material with an eye on the

possibilities of developing a hypothesis from it. In some areas if the

subject matter, the hypothesis may have been stated by previous

research works. The researcher has to gather these various

hypothesis with a view to evaluate their usefulness for further

research and to consider whether they suggest new hypothesis.

The Experience of Survey

Many people in the course of their day-to-day experience, by

virtue of their peculiar placement as officials, social workers,

professional etc., are in a position to observe the effects of different

policy –actions and to relate these to problems of human welfare.19

Following are the ways of Experience Survey

Best Hypothesis

By the help of experience survey best hypothesis can be

made.

Behavioural Possibility

It introduces the different study of behavioural possibility.

Knowledge of Facilities

By the help of knowledge of facilities source of important

knowledge can be found.

Control Factor

By the help of related factors controlled and un-controlled knowledge

can be found.

Knowledge of Helping Persons

By the help of this we found that type of knowledge which is

related to the agencies, business worker and another person which is

helpful of study.

Research in Social Science: Interdisciplinary Perspectives

75

Case Study

In a case study, the insight-stimulating cases should be

selected for special study. For particular problems, certain cases may

be found more appropriate than others. The observations of strangers

or foreigners may be very valuable, with reference to a certain

community or culture. In case study, the researcher himself has to be

very alert.20

Under the case study method, the subject matter studied in

all its dimensions & ramifications. The researcher may take into

account in this method, the transitional case, pathological cases,

complicated may take into account in this method, the transitional

case, pathological cases, complication and simple cases and

description by foreigners and marginal individuals. The aim of the

case study is to know precisely the factors and causes which plain the

complete behavioral patterns of unit and the place of the unit in its

surrounding social miller. It gives enough information about a person

or a group or a unit the case study technique, generally, studies the

subject-matter qualitatively and covers all aspects of a single entity.21

However, it we can say that, exploratory research leads to insights

and formulation of hypothesis, but the hypothesis is not tested in such

studied/research for testing hypothesis, we revise more carefully

controlled studies/research. The results of exploratory research are

not usually useful for decision-making by themselves, but they can

provide significant insight into a given situation. Although the results

of qualitative research can give some indication as to the „why‟, „how‟

and „when‟ something occurs, it cannot tell us “how often” or „how

many‟.22
Descriptive Research

It is also known as statistical research, this describes

phenomena as they exist. It is used to identify and obtain information

on characteristic of a particular issue like community, group or people.

In other words, we can say that this type of research describes social

events, social structure, social situations, etc. The observer observe and describe what did he find?
Descriptive research answers the questions, what, who, where, how and when. It is used to study
the current situation. It is widely used in the physical and natural science. But it is used more
common in the social sciences, as in socioeconomic survey and job and activity analysis.23

Descriptive research aim at portraying accurately the characteristics of a particular group or

situation, one may undertake a descriptive study about the works in a factory, their age distribution,
their community-wise, distribution, their educational level, their state of their physical health and so
on also one may study the conditions of work in a factory health, safety and welfare. One may
undertake to describe the organization of industrial establishment or if a trade union congress. A
descriptive study may be concerned with the attitude or views (of a person) towards anything e.g.,
attitudes presidential form of government, right to strike, capital punishment, prohibition, college
autonomy etc.24

Steps of Descriptive Research

A descriptive research involves the following steps:

The Clear discrimination of objective of Research

First step is to select the main purpose of research it is

necessary because for proper study of research. Without main aim

and purpose research cannot go properly.

Determination of the Method of Data Collection

For any research method, data collection is necessary which

type of research the researcher want, he must have to select the

method like questionnaire observation, interview etc. of their

research.

Selection of Sampling

The place which is selected by the researcher, there must be

many people so it is difficult to make contact with all persons this the

researcher select some people these selected people are known as

sampling selection of sampling have some essential terms.

Real Collection of Data

For real collection of data, the researcher must have to in his

real research field, and it is collected in a selected step at the time of

data collection reality is necessary for investigation.

Analysis of Achieved conclusion

After the collection of data the researcher makes the

conclusion of the whole research or investigation for conclusion

coding, tabulating and graph representation is used.25

Limitation of Descriptive Research

The Research may make description an end itself research

is essentially creative and demand the discovery of the facts in order

to lead to a solution of the problem. Another limitation lies in going to

the other extreme, and generally is associated weather the statistical

technique dominates. This limitation arises because statistics, which

is partly a descriptive tool of analysis can aid, but not always explain

causal relation. Thus, the major goal of a descriptive research is to

describe events, phenomena and situation. Since the description is

made on the basis of scientific observation, it is expected to be more accurate and precise than
casual. Descriptive research cannot be used to create a causal relationship, where one variable
affects another; in other words, description research can be said to have a low requirement for
internal validity.26

In short, descriptive research concern with the whole thing that can be studied and counted. But
there are always limitations to that other research must have an impact on the lives of the people
around us. If a investigator is studying a community which is familiar and his research area is to
represent accurately and in detail the character of a particular institution, group or an event in the
community, the suitable research design is called Descriptive research design sometimes, descriptive
design form a second step of research the first being explanatory design thus, sometimes, research
design is formulated through explanatory design and to test the research design, description design
is formulated.27

Explanatory Research Design

When the purpose of the study is to explore a new universe,

one that has not been studied earlier, the research design is called

explanatory. The research is mainly concerned with causes or „why‟

factor about some phenomenon. It does not involve comparison and

factors of change.28 For instance, research on „violence against

bloomed‟ conducted by this author described not only varieties of violence like criminal assault,
lettering, kidnapping, murder, dourly death, etc. but also explain why men commit violence because
of personality traits like dominance, suspicion, possession, etc. and situational factors like
resourcefulness, alcoholism, maladjustment strains, and stresses, and so on.

The research purpose in this case is to gain familiarity in unknown areas. Often explanatory research
design is used to formulate a problem for specific investigations, or aim at formulating

research Design thus, often when the universe of study is an

unidentified community, this design forms the first step of research,

after which other types of research designs can be used. The

hypothesis in an explanatory research that states the relationship

between two or more variable, i.e., not only it is hypothesized that A is

related to B but rather that A has some particular effect on B. In other

words, we can say an explanatory study thus focuses on determining

the „why‟ aspect of correlationship.29 Example; we can say that the

study of voting behavior of people in parliamentary elections, held in

March 1998 and September 1999 respectively, were explanatory

student because these explained how people so voted because of,

programmers and policies of political parties, language or alignments,

caste, political ideology, committed image and honest of the

candidate, etc. The important variable between two periods was

Kargil was because of which there was a swing in votes in famous of

NDA, led by BJP this research was conducted into two situations at

the times, but it was focused on causal factors of more votes in favor

of the BJP due to Kargil war, Decision of congress into two groups

after Sharad Pawar‟s forming a separate political party, and alignment

of the BJP with more regional party.30 Thus, explanatory studies have

not confused with empiricism, with fact gathering, i.e., unrelated to

sociological theory. Explanatory research also, many kinds of designs

could be appropriate, e.g. two-cell, four-cell design, marching design.

The explanatory study always carries with it a set of concept that

guide the researcher to look for the facts.31

Experimental Research Design

The Research design that is used to test a Research Design

of causal relationship under controlled situation is called experimental

design. We should remember that an experiment is an observation

under controlled conditions or in other words, we can say that it is a

design in which some of the variables being studied are manipulated

or which seek to control the condition within which persons are

observed. Controlling of conditions means that the phenomenon or

the condition should not be allowed to change while the

experimentation is going on. In experimentation, various types of

evidence have to be, controlled so that the alternative hypothesis can

be tested, and causal relationship may be found out. In short, here

„control‟ means holding once factor constant while others are free to

vary in the experiment. Independent variable are manipulated and its

effect upon dependent variable is measured, while other variables

which may confound such a relationship are controlled.32

Types of Experimental Research

1. After-only experimental design

2. Before – after experimental design.

3. Ex-post facto design

4. Panel study

In the first type of experimental design, the experimental group and the control group are similar
the uncontrolled extreme factors may affect both the group causal. The experimental group is
exposed to the assumed causal variable (X) but the control group is not exposed. After the
experimentation is over, both groups are compared, and it may be noticed that some effect (Y) is
produced in the experimental group, but not in the control group the groups are assumed to be
exactly similar. This may not be true. Secondly, it is possible that Y is produced not by X, but by some
other external factors, or by the joint interaction of X & other external factions.33

In the second type, the dependent variable, i.e. effect is measured both a before and after the
exposure of group, groups to experiment. This experiment may use one group or several groups.

There may be one control group or more than one control group. The greatest weakness of this
design is that during experiment, a group may be influenced by the external factor in a different way
than the
other group, for there is nothing to ensure uniform change. However,

this design is more reliable than after-only design.34

In the third type of experimental research design, researcher

depend on historical background because sometimes it is not

possible to divide the population into two clear and similar groups this

may be the case where the entire society consisting of different

varieties of people and conditions are involved. It may be necessary

to study the entire historical background of a country in the export

facto design past is studied through the present.35

And the last type of experimental research design is panel

study. It is a method of study of aparticular subject over time by using

different kinds of data. In this, the researcher may secure direct

evidence of time relationship among variables. It involves repeated

observations on the same subject at different period of time. In after

sense it is a time-series study. In the panel technique, the variation in

the result may be attributed to a real change in phenomena. It is

continuous, through deep & reliable, it has also many limitations, e.g.,

loss of panel members, non-representativeness, rigid attitude of the

members and so on.36

Thus, we find that the experimental research are affected by

several limitations Human Society reveals inequalities in many

choose and find out homogeneous groups for experiments. The

purpose of experimental research is to test the hypothesis of a causal

relationship between variables. For an experimental study/research,

two groups are required, and compared in terms of the assured effect
of the experimental variable the validity of an experiment depends on

the equivalence between control group & the experimental group

chosen.

Conclusion

From the above defined notes we can say that design

means “drawing an outline” or arranging or planning details. It is the

method of building decisions before a situation arises in which the

Research in Social Science: Interdisciplinary Perspectives

81

decision has to be carried out.37 Research design is the preparation of

a strategy of conducting research these are the important points to be

considered in formulating any research. All these steps are to be put

on paper to avoid ambiguity at a later stage. The work in research

design, thus starts after the selection of problem and ends before

collection of data. The gap between two should be bridged carefully

with a well planned research design.

Thus, it can be said that a research design should contain

detailed information about Research topic, Objectives, Concepts and

their operational definition, Variables, Hypothesis, Method of data

collection & method of the data process, Analysis and interpretation,

Time dimension of study and approximate expenditure involve.

Reference

1. Ahuja Ram, (2010), Research Method, New Delhi: Rawat

Publication

2. Ahuja Ram, (2010), Research Methodology, New Delhi: Rawat

Publication

3. Borwankar P.V., (1995), Research Methodology, New Delhi: Seth

Publisher

4. Claire Selltiz and others, (1962), Research Methods in Social

Sciences, New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston: Published for

the Society for the Psychological Study of Social Issues

5. Coldwel D. and Herbst F.J., (2004), Business Research, Cape

Town: Juta and Company Ltd

6. Crotty, M., (1998), The foundations of social Research: Meaning

and Perspective in the Research Process, London: Sage

Publication

7. Dawson Catherine, (2002), Practical Research Methods, New

Delhi: UBS Publisher‟s Distributors

8. Gupta Mukul and Gupta Deepa, (2011), Research Methodology,

New Delhi: PHI Learning Private Limited

9. Khanzode V.V., (1995), Research Methodology: Technique &

Trends, New Delhi: APH Publishing Corporation

10. Kothari C.R., (2010), Research Methodology: Methods and

Technique, New Delhi: New Age International Publishers

11. Kumar Ranjit, (2005), Research Methodology-A Step-by-Step

Guide for Beginners, (2nd.ed.), Singapore: Pearson Education.

Research in Social Science: Interdisciplinary Perspectives

82

12. Manheim Hanry, (1977), Sociological Research: Philosophy and

Methods, Illinois: The Dorsey Press

13. McNabb David E., (2010), Case Research in Public

Management, New York: Routledge Publication

14. Michael Crotty, (1998), The Foundations of Social

Research: Meaning and Perspective in the Research Process,

New Delhi: SAGE Publications

15. Mustafa A., (2010), Research Methodology, Delhi: A.I.T.B.S

Publishers

16. Sam Daniel P. and Sam Aroma G., (2011), Research

Methodology, Delhi: Kalpaz Publication

17. Sharma Vimlesh, (2003), Residual Sighted Children, New Delhi:

Discovery Publishing House

18. Shrivastva T.N. and Rogo Shailaja,(1958), Business Research

Methodology, New Delhi: Tata McGraw Hill Private Limited

19. Singh Tejinde Jeet and Sahu Shantanu Kumar, (2015), Research

Methodology, Agra: SBPD Publication

20. Trivedi R.N. and Shukla D.P., (1998), Research Methodology,

Jaipur: College Book Depot

21. Trochim William, Donnelly James P. and Arora Kanika, (2015),

Research Methods: The essential Knowledge Base, United

Kingdom: CENGAGE Learning

22. Vaus David de., (2001), Research Design in Social Research,

New Delhi: Sage Publication

23. Zikmund William, (1988), Business Research Methods, Chicago:

The Dryden Press.

Foot Notes

1. Vaus David de., (2001), Research Design in Social Research,

New Delhi: Sage Publication, p.16

2. Claire Selltiz and others, (1962), Research Methods in Social

Sciences, New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston: Published for

the Society for the Psychological Study of Social Issues, p. 70,

Also See: Gupta Mukul and Gupta Deepa, (2011), Research

Methodology, New Delhi: PHI Learning Private Limited, p. 32

3. Ahuja Ram, (2010), Research Methodology, New Delhi: Rawat

Publication, p. 121

4. Manheim hanry, (1977), Sociological Research: Philosophy and

Methods, Illinois: The Dorsey Press, p. 140

Research in Social Science: Interdisciplinary Perspectives

83

5. Zikmund William, (1988), Business Research Methods, Chicago:

The Dryden Press, p. 41

6. Kothari C.R., (2010), Research Methodology: Methods and

Technique, New Delhi: New Age International Publishers, p. 31

7. Sam Daniel P. and Sam Aroma G., (2011), Research

Methodology, Delhi: Kalpaz Publication, p. 91

8. Selltiz ,op.cit., p. 71

9. Kothari, (2010), p. 32

10. Ibid

11. Ahuja Ram, (2010), Research Method, New Delhi: Rawat

Publication, p. 125

12. Trochim William, Donnelly James P. and Arora Kanika, (2015),

Research Methods: The essential Knowledge Base, United

Kingdom: CENGAGE Learning, p. 219,220

13. Kothari, p. 32

14. ibid

15. Ibid

16. Coldwel D. and Herbst F.J., (2004), Business Research, Cape

Town:Juta and Company Ltd, p. 37, 38

17. ustafa A., (2010), Research Methodology, Delhi: A.I.T.B.S

Publishers, p. 86,87

18. Sellitz op.cit., p. 50

19. Mustafa, op.cit., p. 91

20. Borwankar P.V., (1995), Research Methodology, New Delhi: Seth

Publisher, p. 45

21. Michael Crotty, (1998), The Foundations of Social

Research: Meaning and Perspective in the Research Process,

New Delhi: SAGE Publications, p. 5

22. Sellitz op.cit., p.72, Also see, Singh Tejinde Jeet and Sahu

Shantanu Kumar, (2015), Research Methodology, Agra: SBPD

Publication, p. 9

23. Khanzode V.V., (1995), Research Methodology: Technique &

Trends, New Delhi: APH Publishing Corporation, p. 35

24. Ibid

25. Borwankar, op.cit., p.46

26. Crotty, M., (1998), The foundations of social Research: Meaning

and Perspective in the Research Process, London: Sage

Publication, p. 115

Research in Social Science: Interdisciplinary Perspectives

84

27. Shrivastva T.N. and Rogo Shailaja,(1958), Business Research

Methodology, New Delhi: Tata McGraw Hill Private Limited, p.

1.19

28. Trivedi R.N. and Shukla D.P., (1998), Research Methodology,

Jaipur: College Book Depot, p. 54.

29. McNabb David E., (2010), Case Research in Public

Management, New York: Routledge Publication, p.29

30. Singh and Sahu, op.cit., p.40

31. Sellitz op.cit., p.73

32. Kothari, op.cit. p.39

33. Ibid, p. 40

34. Ibid, p. 41

35. Ibid, p. 42

36. ibid

37. Sharma Vimlesh, (2003), Residual Sighted Children, New Delhi:

Discovery Publishing House, p. 48