Tests for Convergence

Divergence Test. Given Σan , if lim an 6= 0, then Σan diverges

n→∞
a
Geometric Series. Σarn converges to the sum 1−r if and only if |r| < 1
∞
P 1
P-Series Test. np converges if and only if p > 1
n=1

Comparison Test. Given an ≥ bn

• If Σan converges, then Σbn converges
• If Σbn diverges, then Σan diverges
p
Root Test. Given Σan , let ρ = lim n |an |
n→∞

• If ρ < 1, then Σan converges

• If ρ > 1, then Σan diverges
• If ρ = 1, then the test is inconclusive
 
Ratio Test. Given Σan and an > 0, let ρ = lim  an+1
 
an 
n→∞

• If ρ < 1, then Σan converges

• If ρ > 1, then Σan diverges
• If ρ = 1, then the test is inconclusive
Alternating Series Test. The series (−1)n an converges if and only if three conditions are true:
P

1. an > 0,
2. an > an+1 (decreasing)
3. an → 0

an
Limit Comparison Test. Given Σan , if lim = a positive number, then Σan and Σbn converges or
n→∞ bn
diverges together. If limn→∞ abnn = 0, then Σbn can only be checked for convergence. If limn→∞ an
bn =
∞, then Σbn can only be checked for divergence.
P∞
Integral Test. The series f (n) converges if and only if f (n) is an always positive, decreasing, and
R∞n=c
continuous function; and c f (n)dn is finite.

Absolute/Conditional Convergence. Given Σan

• If Σ|an | converges, then Σan converges absolutely.
• If Σan converges, but not Σ|an |, then Σan converges conditionally.

Interval of Convergence. The interval of convergence is defined as the values of an additional variable
(usually x) for which the series converges. The radius of convergence is defined as some value r around
a point a such that the interval of convergence can be given as (a − r, a + r).

1
Taylor Series
The Taylor Series of an infinitely differentiable function f (x) centered at x = a is
∞
X f (n) (a) f 00 (a) f 000 (a)
(x − a)n = f (a) + f 0 (a)(x − a) + (x − a)2 + (x − a)3 + . . .
n! 2! 3!
n=0

The Maclaurin Series is defined as the Taylor Series centered at x = 0 and is

∞
X f (n) (0) f 00 (0) 2 f 000 (0) 3
xn = f (0) + f 0 (0)x + x + x ...
n! 2! 3!
n=0

Popular Maclaurin Series. Need-to-know Maclaurin series, given its interval of convergence:
∞
1 X
• = xn = 1 + x + x2 + x3 . . . −1<x<1
1−x
n=0
∞
X xn x2 x3
• ex = =1+x+ + ... all real x
n! 2! 3!
n=0
∞
X x2n+1 x3 x5 x7
• sin x = (−1)n =x− + − + ... all real x
(2n + 1)! 3! 5! 7!
n=0
∞
X x2n x2 x4 x6
• cos x = (−1)n =1− + − + ... all real x
(2n)! 2! 4! 6!
n=0
∞
X xn x2 x3 x4
• ln (1 + x) = (−1)n+1 =x− + − + ... −1<x≤1
n 2 3 4
n=1
∞
X x2n+1 x3 x5 x7
• tan−1 x = (−1)n =x− + − + ... −1≤x≤1
2n + 1 3 5 7
n=0

Error Bound. Error accumulates when infinite sums are truncated after a finite point:
N
(−1)n an , the error is less
P
• For the partial sum given by the convergent alternating series SN =
n=0
than the next term; that is E ≤ |aN +1 |

• For the nth order Taylor polynomial Pn (x) centered at x = a, the error bound is given by
rn+1 |x − a|n+1
|Rn (x)| ≤ M , where M is the maximum value of |f (n+1) (x)| on the given interval,
(n + 1)!
and r = 1

– Use the Extreme Value Theorem to find M by checking for critical points on the interval
(where f (n+2) (x) = 0), as well as endpoints of the interval.