Composite Structures 189 (2018) 627–634

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Composite Structures
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/compstruct

Friction spot welding of carbon fiber-reinforced polyetherimide laminate

⁎
Yongxian Huang , Xiangchen Meng, Yuming Xie, Zongliang Lv, Long Wan, Jian Cao, Jicai Feng
State Key Laboratory of Advanced Welding and Joining, Harbin Institute of Technology, Harbin 150001, PR China

AR T IC L E I N F O AB S T R AC T
Here, carbon fiber-reinforced polyetherimide (PEI) laminate was joined via friction spot welding (FSpW). The
Keywords:
Friction spot welding
feasibility and fracture mechanism of the FSpW joints were investigated. The sound joint with smooth surface
Carbon fiber-reinforced composites and without hook defect was achieved. The strong bonding formed at the sleeve stirring zone and thermo-
Thermoplastic composites mechanically affected zone, resulting from the macromolecular interdiffusion and interlocking of the smashed
Polyetherimide carbon fiber at the bonding interface by thermo-mechanical behavior. Increasing rotational velocity enhanced
the mixing degree of the carbon fiber at the interface and strengthened the bonding interface, which improved
tensile shear properties. The maximum tensile shear load of the FSpW joint with a joining area of 66.4 mm2
reached 1600 N, which was comparable to the strength of state-of-the-art welding. The fracture surface
morphologies revealed a typical ductile fracture containing the deformation of polymer and the pull-out of the
carbon fiber. The FSpW has feasible and potential to join carbon fiber-reinforced thermoplastic composites
laminate.

1. Introduction frictional heat. The frictional heat is beneficial to softening or melting

Global trends in CO2 emission and gas price have attracted extensive
attentions from the manufacturing fields of automotive, aerospace and
so on, to produce lighter, safer and environmental friendly vehicles.
Carbon fiber-reinforced thermoplastic composites have become the
potential candidates to replace traditional metal materials due to stress-
to-weight ratios and toughness [1]. Inevitably, it becomes necessary to
the joining process for the production of larger and complex work-
pieces. Adhesive bonding and mechanical joining are the main joining
techniques of thermoplastic composites [2,3]. The adhesive bonding
owns simplified process and excellent fatigue properties, while the
adhesive bonding joint is susceptible to temperature or other environ-
mental conditions [3]. The mechanical joining presents a high sus-
ceptibility to stress concentration, and a bonding part, such as screw
bolt or rivet, is detrimental to light weight, as described by Huang et al.
[4]. Moreover, the state-of-the-art welding techniques including ultra-
sonic welding [5] and laser welding [6] are restricted due to the types
of polymers or polymer matrix composites and geometries of work-
pieces to be welded.
Friction spot welding (FSpW) is invented and patented by the
Helmholtz Zentrum Geesthacht (HZG) research center of Germany,
which owns the advantages of short welding times, high joint quality
and low energy consumption [7–10]. The welding tool of FSpW consists
of a clamping ring, sleeve and pin. During FSpW process, friction be-
tween the welding tool and thermoplastic composites generates
thermoplastic composites and then improving macromolecular inter-
diffusion. Meanwhile, the material flow induced by the plastic de-
formation enhances mechanical interlocking [8]. Moreover, a keyhole
defect during conventional friction stir spot welding (FSSW) can be
eliminated under the synthesis effects of the clamping ring, sleeve and
pin, which increases the area of load bearing and reduces the stress
concentration associated with the hole’s notch effect. Oliveira et al. [7]
validated the feasibility of FSpW in poly methyl meth acrylate (PMMA)
and stated that the joint quality of the FSpW is comparable and the
joining time is equivalent or shorter compared with other welding
techniques. Amancio-Filho et al. [8] also employed FSpW to join carbon
fiber-reinforced poly amide 66 laminate (CF-PA 66). They expounded
that a long holding time guaranteed the enough time to cool down
under pressure, which was propitious to obtaining a sound joint with
good surface finishing due to a low polymer shrinkage. Up to present,
the researches on defect formation, microstructural evolution, joining
features and fracture mechanism for the FSpW joint of thermoplastic
composites are infancy.
In this study, carbon fiber-reinforced polyetherimide (CF-PEI) la-
minate, extensively utilized in the aerospace skin and stringer parts
because of high strength, rigidity and chemical resistance as well as low
water absorption, was chosen as the research object. The feasibility,
joining and fracture mechanisms for the FSpW joint of thermoplastic
composites were investigated to provide technical support for en-
gineering application of the FSpW in thermoplastic composites

⁎
Corresponding author.
E-mail address: yxhuang@hit.edu.cn (Y. Huang).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compstruct.2018.02.004
Received 25 November 2017; Received in revised form 25 January 2018; Accepted 5 February 2018
Available online 06 February 2018
0263-8223/ © 2018 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Y. Huang et al.
Fig. 1. Schematic of the FSpW process of the CF-PEI laminate.
laminate.
2. Materials and methods
The base material (BM) was PEI laminate sheet reinforced with 45%
of 5-harness (5H) satin weave carbon fibers, whose dimensions were
2 mm × 80 mm × 20 mm. The stacking sequence of carbon fiber layers
were configuration of [(0.90)/( ± 45)]3/(0.90). The tensile strength
and in-plane shear strength of the BM were 600 MPa and 115 MPa,
respectively. Welding tool is made of titanium alloy to reduce the heat
loss, which consists of a clamping ring, sleeve and pin. The clamping
ring with an outer diameter of 18 mm and a width of 9 mm was em-
ployed to improve the clamping effect. The outer and inner diameters of
the sleeve were 9 mm and 6 mm, respectively. The diameter of the pin
was 6 mm. A plunge depth of the sleeve of 2.2 mm and dwelling time of
2 s were constant. Rotational velocities of the both pin and sleeve were
800 rpm, 1000 rpm and 1200 rpm, respectively. Schematic of the FSpW
of CF-PEI is displayed in Fig. 1.
The metallographic specimens were prepared in accordance with
standard grinding and polishing procedures and then observed by an
optical microscope (OM). Aiming at the composite, the pores and voids
as well as smashed carbon fiber in the molten and re-solidified PEI
result in the impossible to measure microhardness. The bigger indenter
maybe contact with the fiber or pores, leading to inaccurate hardness
values. Therefore, nanoindentation was employed to evaluate the local
mechanical properties of the composites at the joining interface. The
nanoindentation experiment was carried out using a nano indenter
(G200, USA) with a load capacity of 10 N. A Berkovich diamond in-
denter was applied. The maximum indentation depth of 1 μm was
constant and the maximum indentation load corresponding to the
maximum indentation depth was recorded. Both the hardness and
stiffness of the molten and re-solidified PEI matrix were calculated.
Worth mentioning is that all the indents were far from the carbon fiber.
Shear tensile specimen was prepared referenced with ASTM D3163
[11]. A binding fixture was fabricated and employed to guarantee the
accuracy of tensile shear test. Schematic of the tensile shear test with
auxiliary fixture is exhibited in Fig. 2. The shear tensile test was per-
formed at room temperature under a constant crosshead speed of
1 mm/min. A nominal joining area of the sleeve was determined ac-
cording to the designed tensile shear specimen since the real joining
Fig. 2. Schematic of the tensile shear test for the FSpW joint.
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Composite Structures 189 (2018) 627–634
area of the shear tensile specimen were unknown. Therefore, the dif-
ference between the maximum tensile shear load and the sleeve area
was used for the calculation of shear stress. The fracture surface of the
tensile shear specimen was observed by a scanning electron microscope
(SEM). For the SEM observation, a very thin gold layer was coated on
the fracture surface.
3. Results and discussion
Fig. 3a exhibits the surface appearance of the typical joint and 3D
morphologies of the FSpW joints using different rotational velocities are
displayed in Fig. 3b, c and d. An uncompleted filling defect forms at the
surface with a low rotational velocity of 800 rpm. The thermoplastic
materials cannot be completely softened at a low frictional heat and
then present brittle feature, which are difficult to be refilled and then
result in the surface groove featured by a maximum unfilled depth of
580 μm, as shown in Fig. 3b. With increasing rotational velocity to
1000 rpm, the size of the unfilled defect significantly reduces and only
appears at the partial border of the sleeve, and the maximum unfilled
depth is 180 μm (Fig. 3c). The softened and plasticized materials are
achieved due to the increase in frictional heat induced by increasing
rotational velocity. Sound and flat surface morphology without the
unfilled defect is obtained with increasing rotational velocity to
1200 rpm (Fig. 3d). This is because that sufficient heat input can
guarantee the refill of sleeve stirring zone (SSZ) by the adequately
softened and plasticized materials as well as smashed carbon fiber.
Meanwhile, the micro heave appears at the surface of joint due to the
expanding with heat and contracting with cold. Amancio-Filho et al. [8]
discussed that a proper holding time was beneficial to obtaining good
surface finishing.
The macrostructures in cross-section of the FSpW joints using dif-
ferent rotational velocities are displayed in Fig. 4. Different from FSSW
[12–14], the keyhole defect is successfully refilled by the FSpW, which
eliminates the hole’s notch effect and then improves the area of load
bearing significantly. The unfilling defect or thickness reduction ap-
pears at the pin refilling zone (PRZ) on the surface of joint at a rota-
tional velocity of 800 rpm due to insufficient softened or molten ma-
terials, as presented in Fig. 4a and b. Meanwhile, the cavity defect
appears at the middle of surface, which results from that the loss of the
softened or molten materials leads to the reductions of axial forces of
the sleeve and pin, which are difficult to compact the materials in the
stirring zone (SZ). The unfilling defect is eliminated with increasing
rotational velocity to 1000 rpm because of the improvement of material
flow induced by the increase in frictional heat (Fig. 4c and d). However,
the cavity defect in the SZ of the joint is not completely avoided. This is
because that the insufficient softened or molten polymer at the refilling
stage cannot be completely pushed by the pin to refill the cavity left by
the sleeve due to the relative low frictional heat. The expanding with
heat and contracting with cold may be another main reason, attributing
to the formation of the cavity defect. Sound joint without the cavity
defect and thickness reduction can be achieved at a rotational velocity
of 1200 rpm, which benefits from the improvement of tensile proper-
ties, as displayed in Fig. 4e and f.
In addition, the lack of adhesive joining defect appears at the
Y. Huang et al. Composite Structures 189 (2018) 627–634

Fig. 3. (a) Surface appearance of the typical joint; 3D morphology of the FSpW joints with different rotational velocities: (b) 800 rpm, (c) 1000 rpm and (d) 1200 rpm.
interface between the upper and lower sheets, resulting from the tensile
stress induced by the polymer shrinkage at the cooling stage, as marked
by red line in Fig. 4a, c and e. During FSpW process, the rotational pin
begins to retract when the sleeve plunges into the composites, and the
cavity is filled with the softened or molten polymers induced by the
retraction of the rotational pin (Fig. 1b). The sleeve and pin return to
the original position when the sleeve reaches the designed plunge depth
and then dwells several seconds. A plunge force induced by the pin
squeezes the softened materials flow into the cavity caused by the re-
traction of the sleeve, completing the joining process (Fig. 1c). How-
ever, since the rotational pin does not contact with the materials in the
lower sheet, only the pressure force induced by the rotational pin exerts
at the softened or molten polymers. Meanwhile, the lower thermal
conductivity of the polymer is difficult to make frictional heat conduct
to the middle interface between the upper and lower sheets, and then
the lack of adhesive joining forms. The length of the lack of adhesive
joining gradually decreases with the increase of rotational velocity due
to the improvement of thermo-mechanical behavior (Fig. 4), which is
propitious to enhancing the ability of the load bearing of the FSpW
joint. Meanwhile, the voids defect forms at the SZ due to air entrapment
in the molten polymer during solidification. The viscosity of the molten
polymer reduces and air can become entrapped in the molten layer

Fig. 4. Macrostructures of the FSpW joints under different rotational velocities: (a) and (b) 800 rpm, (c) and (d) 1000 rpm, (e) and (f) 1200 rpm.

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since the peak temperature during the joining cycle is relatively high.
During the solidification phase, extremely fast cooling rate causes that
the entrapped air is difficult to escape from the molten layer, leaving
the voids of air pockets after solidification. The formation of the regular
voids as a result of thermal degradation and decomposition is especially
reported in the laser joining between thermoplastics and metal [6].
Moreover, the hook defect formed at the FSpW of aluminum alloys does
not occur in this study due to the low plunge depth of 0.2 mm in the
lower sheet, which is propitious to delaying the rapid initiation and
propagation of crack at the joining area of thermo-mechanically af-
fected zone (TMAZ) during tensile shear test.
The macrostructure of the FSpW joint in cross-section is divided into
SSZ, PRZ and TMAZ, in which the SSZ and PRZ belong to the SZ, as
displayed in Fig. 4e. The microstructure of the CF-PEI composites pre-
sents a laminate of long or circular fiber due to stacking sequence, as
exhibited in Fig. 5. The SSZ contains complex mixtures with the molten
and re-solidified polymer as well as the smashed carbon fibers in ar-
bitrary orientation (Fig. 6a). Meanwhile, some incomplete smashed
carbon fibers appear at the PRZ due to without the stirring action of the
Fig. 5. Microstructure of the FSpW joint of the CF-PEI laminate composites.

Fig. 6. Microstructures at the SSZ and TMAZ of the FSpW joints using different rotational velocities: (a) SSZ and (b) TMAZ at the 800 rpm; (c) SSZ and (d) TMAZ at the 1000 rpm; (e) SSZ
and (f) TMAZ at the 1200 rpm.

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Y. Huang et al.
Fig. 7. Schematic of joining area for the FSpW joint.
Fig. 8. Lengths of the kissing bond and joining area in cross-section of the FSpW joint.
pin, as displayed in Fig. 6c. Moreover, rotational velocity plays no
obvious influence on the distribution of the smashed carbon fibers at
the SSZ, as depicted in Fig. 6a, c and e. The TMAZ displays the de-
formed and bended carbon fibers along the material flow direction
induced by the sleeve motion under the thermal cycle and mechanical
stirring (Fig. 6b, d and f). No obvious microstructural evolution is ob-
served outside the TMAZ due to the low thermal conductivity. It is the
Fig. 9. Joining interface characteristics of the FSpW joints using different rotational velocities: (a) 800 rpm, (b) 1000 rpm and (c) 1200 rpm.
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Composite Structures 189 (2018) 627–634
fact that the thermal conductivity of conventional polymer is lower
than 0.5 Wm−1K−1, and thermal conductivities of aluminum or alu-
minum alloys are higher two orders of magnitude than conventional
polymer [15]. Strand [16] also reported that no heat affected zone
(HAZ) was observed for FSW joint of polypropylene polymer. The
joining area forms near the TMAZ besides the SSZ (Fig. 6b, d and f),
which is attributed to interdiffusion of molecular caused by thermo-
mechanical behavior and then benefits from increasing the area of load
bearing. Schematic of the joining area is displayed in Fig. 7. The
thermo-mechanical joining zone, sleeve joining zone and lack of joining
zone are abbreviated as the TMJZ, SJZ and LoJZ, respectively. The
joining area consists of the TMJZ outside the sleeve and the partial SJZ
induced by insufficient refill. With increasing rotational velocity from
800 rpm to 1200 rpm, the joining area gradually increases due to the
improvement of thermo-mechanical effects (Fig. 8), which benefits
from the ability of load bearing. The LoJZ inside the sleeve gradually
decreases due to the sufficient material flow induced by the improve-
ment of frictional heat. Moreover, Fig. 9 shows the joining interface
between the upper and lower sheets at the SSZ. An effective adhesive
bonding without the crack induced by the molten and re-solidified
polymer forms at the joining interface. Importantly, the smashed
carbon fibers dispersedly distribute at the joining interface and then
improves mechanical intermixing, which strengthen the joining inter-
face strength and then enhance the ability of load bearing. Moreover,
increasing rotational velocity is beneficial to improving the distribution
density of carbon fibers at the interface, further raising mechanical
interlocking.
Fig. 10 exhibits the results of nanoindentation taken from different
regions owning the thermoplastic PEI in the typical FSpW joint to ex-
plain the microstructural and mechanical variations. Therein, Pmax
presents the achieved maximum load in the experiment, and hmax ex-
presses the maximum indentation displacement [17,18]. The ability of
load bearing, modulus and hardness of the molten and re-solidified
polymer at the SJZ and TMJZ slightly decrease compared with BM,
which are attributed to the relatively low crystallinity or thermal de-
gradation. Friction between the sleeve and the hard carbon fiber pro-
duces instant higher peak temperature during FSpW of CF-PEI laminate.
The higher peak temperature may be higher than the degradation-
commencement temperature of the PEI and then results in the thermal
degradation, leading to the decrease in hardness value. Oliveira et al.
[7] reported that a significant decrease in hardness about 5–10% during
FSpW of polymethyl methacrylat (PMMA) was obtained due to the
thermal degradation and the reduction in molecular weight. However,
there is only slight variation for the polymer of the SJZ and TMJZ after
experiencing thermo-mechanical cycle, which results from that the
smashed carbon fiber acts an efficient nucleating agent to improve the
crystallization of the polymer and then increase hardness value. Gao
et al. [19] also stated that the dispersed multi-walled carbon nanotubes
(MWCNTs) led to the increase of crystalline phases from the surface of
the MWCNTs when preparing MWCNTs/ high density poly ethylene
(HDPE) composites by submerged friction stir processing. Moreover,
Y. Huang et al.
Fig. 10. Nanoindentation results at different regions owning the PEI of the typical FSpW joint at a rotational velocity of 1200 rpm: (a) load-displacement curves and (b) average and
standard deviation of nanoindentation modulus and hardness.
Fig. 11. Tensile shear results of the FSpW joints: (a) force-displacement curves and (b) tensile shear properties.
there is no obvious variation for the modulus and hardness of the
polymer at the border of TMJZ (Fig. 10b), which means that no HAZ
appears and then validate the results of Strand [16].
Fig. 11 shows the results of tensile shear test of the FSpW joints.
With the increase of rotational velocity, the tensile properties gradually
increase (Fig. 11a), which are closely correlated with the welding de-
fect, joining area induced by the molten and re-solidified PEI, and
mechanical interlocking induced by the smashed carbon fiber at the
interface. Low frictional heat results in small joining area and the oc-
currence of the insufficient joining at a rotational velocity of 800 rpm,
and then leads to low tensile shear properties. With increasing rota-
tional velocity to 1000 rpm, the improvement of effective joining length
benefits from joint strength compared with the rotational velocity of
800 rpm. Moreover, the cavity defect forms at the middle of the PRZ
rather than the joining interface, paralleled to the direction of tensile
shear force, which does not affect the joint strength. Sound joint with
big joining length attributes to the superior strength with further in-
creasing rotational velocity to 1200 rpm. As present, the maximum
fracture stress is 45 MPa, which is comparable or higher to the state-of-
the-art welding techniques [20]. It indicates that the FSpW has poten-
tial to join carbon fiber-reinforced composites laminate.
Meanwhile, the fracture energy of the FSpW joint by calculating the
area under the load-extension curve until maximum fracture force is
achieved, which shows the ability to absorb mechanical energy of
material in unit volume up to failure [15,21,22]. The increase of rota-
tional velocity results in the improvement of the fracture energy be-
cause of the augments of the fracture force and extension, as exhibited
in Fig. 11b. This is attributed to the larger joining area and the sharper
intermixing of the smashed carbon fiber at the joining interface. The
fracture energy at a rotational velocity of 1200 rpm reaches the
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Composite Structures 189 (2018) 627–634
maximum value of 296 mJ, revealing the higher toughness of the joint.
Fig. 12 displays the fracture surface morphologies of the tensile
shear specimens. Fracture locations of all the samples locate at the
joining interface between the upper and lower sheets (Fig. 12a, e and i).
The fracture surface of the joint on the composites laminate looks like a
circle, in which un-molten polymer surface at the center of the partial
circle is surrounded by the molten and re-solidified polymer, as in-
dicated in Fig. 12a, e and i. Meanwhile, the crack initiates at the LoJZ
outside the TMJZ, and propagates along the SJZ (Fig. 12b). The fracture
surface morphologies indicate the two fracture modes at the different
joining regions. The marginal of the joining area outside the TMJZ
shows relatively smooth surface, which means that no plastic de-
formation happens and the main crack rapid initiation, indicating
brittle fracture (Fig. 12b). The joining areas at the main TMJZ and SJZ
exhibit the rough surfaces and the pull-out of carbon fiber, which are
attributed to the large plastic deformation under the tensile force,
presenting ductile fracture (Fig. 12c). Moreover, the middle at the
fracture surface in Fig. 12d of the FSpW joint describes the smoother
surface than Fig. 12c due to the lack of joining, which easily becomes
the crack rapid propagation before the complete fracture and then de-
teriorates the load bearing of joint. Meanwhile, worth emphasizing is
that increasing rotational velocity accelerates the plastic deformation
degree of polymer and the pull-out of carbon fiber, benefiting from the
load bearing of the joint at a rotational velocity of 1000 rpm, as in-
dicated in Fig. 12f, g and h. With increasing rotational velocity to
1200 rpm, the amounts of the pull-out of carbon fiber appear at the
fracture surface morphologies at the different joining areas (Fig. 12j, k
and l), revealing the improvement of mechanical interlocking and
tensile properties. These fracture surfaces also conform to the results of
tensile shear properties.
Y. Huang et al. Composite Structures 189 (2018) 627–634

H '11<=1''(1 ,,, !Klt' -.,·-

-., Y •. 1r;, �---�-,, •1••" "'F ":,1adaFF-

Fig. 12. Fracture surfaces of the typical FSpW joint at different rotational velocities: (a) macro fracture surface, micro surfaces of (b) marked by “b”, (c) marked by “c” and (d) marked by
“d” at the rotational velocity of 800 rpm; (e) macro fracture surface, micro surfaces of (f) marked by “f”, (g) marked by “g” and (h) marked by “h” at the rotational velocity of 1000 rpm; (i)
macro fracture surface, micro surfaces of (j) marked by “j”, (k) marked by “k” and (l) marked by “l” at the rotational velocity of 1200 rpm.
4. Conclusions restriction of certain types and geometries of polymer matrix compo-
sites during the state-of-the-art laser welding or ultrasonic welding. The
CF-PEI composites laminate was joined via FSpW to eliminate the joint formation, joining mechanism and mechanical property were

633
Y. Huang et al.
investigated. Based on the present investigation, the conclusions can be
extracted.
(1) The FSpW has feasible and potential to join carbon fiber-reinforced
thermoplastic composite laminate. The sound joint with smooth
surface was achieved at a high rotational velocity of 1200 rpm and
a small plunge depth of 0.2 mm.
(2) The macromolecular interdiffusion and intermixing of carbon fiber
at the interface between the upper and lower sheets attributed to
the main joining mechanism. The improvement of thermo-me-
chanical behavior induced by increasing rotational velocity was
beneficial to enhancing the joining area and the degree of me-
chanical intermixing of the carbon fiber, promoting tensile shear
properties.
(3) The maximum fracture stress at the rotational velocity of 1200 rpm
reached the maximum value of 45 MPa due to the bigger joining
area and the stronger intermixing of the carbon fiber, comparable
to the state-of-the-art ultrasonic welding joint.
(4) The LoJZ outside the joining zone at the TMAZ tended to be the
crack source and rapidly propagated along the joining interface,
resulting in the joint fracture. The fracture surface presented mixing
fracture modes, containing brittle fracture at the TMAZ and ductile
fracture at the SSZ.
Acknowledgements
The work was jointly supported by the National Natural Science
Foundation of China (No. 51575132) and the Fund of National
Engineering and Research Center for Commercial Aircraft
Manufacturing (No. COMAC-SFGS-2016-33214).
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