CELL BIOLOGY

CELL STRUTURE

Cell boundaries Cytoplasm Nucleus

Cell wall
Glycocalyx
Cell membrane

Hyaloplasm Trophoplasm
(Cytosol)

Cell organelles
Non living cell inclusions
Mitochondria (Vacuoles) (Deutoplasm)
Reserve products
Golgibody
Carbohydrate
Lysosomes
Nitrogenous products
E. Reticulum
Fats & oil
Plastids
Excretory products
Cilia, Flagella
Alkaloids
Centrosome
Essential oil
Ribosome
Gums
Microbodies Glycoside
Latex
Organic acid
Resin
Tanin
Mineral crystal
Secretory Products
Colouring matter
Nectar
 Nucleus control metabolic activity of cytoplasm by sending mRNA in cytoplasm.

1
 CELL WALL
 Cell wall was discovered by Robert-Hooke.
 Outer most but dead Boundary of plant cell is wall.
 Bacteria included in plants because they have cell wall.

Primary wall : Outermost layer, thin elastic composed

of cellulose, Hemicellulose & Pectin.
Secondary Wall : Rigid, thick & composed of cellulose,
Hemi- cellulose, Pectin.
Cell wall (S1, S2, S3) (absent in Meristem cells)

Tertiaty wall : Present only in tracheids of

Gymnosperm.
Composed of Hemi cellulose & xylan.
Middle lamella : Common layer between two cells.

 Middle lamella is consist of Ca & Mg

pectates (plant cement) . Amount of Ca
is more.
 Fruits become soft and juicy due to
dissolve of middle lamella.
 Cellulose is a main constituent of cell
wall but addition to cellulose-
Hemicellulose, cutin, Pectin , Lignin,
Suberin are also presents in cell wall.
 Cellulose microfibrils and macrofibrils
arranged in layers to form skeleton of
cell wall. In between these layers other
substances like pectin, hemicellulose
may be present. These form matrix of
cell wall.
 Middle lamella is cement material between two adjacent cells in multi cellular plants or
outermost layer of cell wall. (primary wall is consider as outermost layer in a cell)
 Martinez and palamo (1970) discovered cell-coat in animal cells, Which is Known as
Glycocalyx. [Made by sialic acid, mucin and hyaluronic acid (animal cement) ].
 Cell wall worked as frame or protective layer of cell.
 Network of cellulose fiber forms skeleton of cell wall.
35-100 cellulose chain=1 micelle.
20 micelle=1 Microfibril
250 micro fibril= Macrofibril in cell wall.
 Cell wall materials (Cellulose, Hemicellulose, Pectin, and lignin) are synthesized in plant
golgibobies or dictyosomes.
Materials of lipid nature (cutin and suberin) are synthesized in sphaerosome.
 Formation of cell wall I occur by two methods: -
(1) Intussusception: - This is a deposition of wall material in the form of fine grains.
(2) Apposition : - Deposition of layers.
 Primary wall is formed mainly by intussusception, While secondary wall formed by both
methods. Growth of all ready formed cell wall is occurs by only intussusception.
 A Special protein called expansin helps in growth of cell wall by loosing the cellules
microfibril and addition of new cell wall material takes place in the space, Thus expansion
is called ad” cell wall loosening factor”

2
Specialisation of cell wall:
(1) Lignification : Lignin (coniferyl alcohol) is
a cellulose derivative
carbohydrate which
deposits on walls of
Sclerenchyma, vessels
and tracheids. Excess of
lignin is decrease the
economic importance of
pulp.
PITS

Pits are formed in lignified cell wall. Deposition of lignin occurs throughout the cell wall
leaving some small thin walled areas called pits are generally formed in pairs on the wall
of adjacent cells. Two pits of a pair are separated by a thin membrane called pit
membeaneS (completely permeable) (earlier composed of middle lamella and primary
wall). But, after some time primary wall may be dissolve. There are two types of pit pairs-
(i) Simple pits- When diameter of a pit cavity is uniform throughout its length then
such type of pits are called simple pits.
(ii) Bordered pits- When diameter of pit cavity increases from inside to outside then
such pits are called Bordered pits. In such pits, pit membrane have a thickening,
composed of suberin called Torus. Torus functions like a valve to regulate the flow
of materials.

 Pits occur in sclerenchyma, vessels and tracheids. Tracheids in gymnosperms have

maximum number of bordered pits.
(2) Suberisation: Subeisation occues on cork and casparion strips of ennndodermal cells.
Suberin is highly impermeable material, It is water tight and air tight material. So
suberisation also leads to death of cell. Maximum suberisation occurs in middle lamella.
It reduces the transpiration rate in plants.
(3) Cutinisation: Cutin-is also hydrophobic, waxy substance Cutinisation is that
deposition of cutin on cell walls of leaf epidermis. It reduces the transpirationrate in
plants.
(4) Cuticularistion: Deposition of cutting on the surface of leaf. It leads to formation of
cuticle.
(5) Mucilage deposition: Mucilage deposits on the surface of hydrophytes.
(6) Deposition of silica: Occurs on the Leaves of grasses, Equisetum, Atropa, Diatoms,
rice.
Primary wall Secondary wall
(1) Cellulose microfibrils are arranged in (1) Microfibrils are parallel to long axis of cell.
a dispersed manner. (2) Hemicellulose less (25%)
(2) Hemicellulose more (50%) (3) Proteins and lipids either absent or in little
(3) Permicellulose wall have lipds (5-10%) amount.
(4) Forms by Intussusception (4) By both methods.
(5) Primary wall is universal layer (5) Absent in meristem cells

BIOMEMBRANES OR CELL-MEMBRANES

 All the living cells are covered by a thin, delicate, elastic, selectively-permeable and living
boundary, which is called cell membrane (by Nagli & Kramer) or plasma lemma (By J. Q.
plower) or Bio membrane or plasma membrane,
 Term-” Unit- membrane” was proposed by Robertson.

3
STRUCTURE OF BIOMEMBRANES:
(1) Lipoidal theory: -Overton (1902) suggested that plasma membrane is a continuous single
layer of lipids only (Based on permeability)
(2) Sandwitch or Trilamellar model: - By Davson & Danielli (1935) .
 Acco. to this model, the plasma-membrane is made up of three layers in which a bimolecular
layer of lipid is sandwitched between two layers of proteins.
 Acco, to this model each protein layer is 20A and bilayer of phospholipid is35A. Thus total
thickness is 75A (PLLP-structure, 75-100Aaverage)
 Phospholipi molecule called as amhipathic molecule use of presence of two type of parts
(hydrophilic head and hydrophobic tail) .
 Hydrophilic head of the phospholipid binds with protein layer by hydrogen and ionic bonds.
 Hydrophobic tail of phospholipid are attached to each other by Vander wall force.

(3) Unit membrane model: -By Robertson-1959.

Acco. to this model all the cellular and orgaeller membranes are structurally & functionally
similar (difference in chemically & size) .
 All these models are rejected because they fails to explain the elasticity and selective
permeability of plasmalemma.
(4) Fluid mosaic model: By singer & Nicolson (1973)
 This is latest & most widely accepted model for the structure of plamalemma.
 According to fluid mosaic model protein are arranged in phospholipid as mosaic pattern.
 Thus membrane is termed as “ protein icebergh in a sea of phospholipid” or “ Gulab
jamun (Protein) in a concentrated solution (phospholipid) of sugar”
(1) phospholipids:
 Phospholipid is the main component of cell membrane because it forms continuous
structural frame of cell membrane. Main type of phospholipids are phosphatidyl serine,
phosphatidyl choline (Lecithin) , P-ethanol amine (cephalin)
 Phospholipid layer provides fluidity to plasma membrane because phospholipids are rich in
unsaturated fatty acid which are liquid in nature,
 Cholesterol is also present in plasma membrane. Cholesterol are more rigid than
phospholipid . So it helps in stability of membrane structure.
 Cholesterol is absent in membrane of prokaryote. Thus hopanoidea (pentacyclic sterol)
provides stability to prokaryotic cell membrane.
(2) Proteins:
Two types of protein are present in plasma membrane.
 (a) Integral or intrinsic protein (70%)
 These proteins are tightly binds with phospholipid. Thus nt easily released from
membrane.

4
 Some intrinsic protein is confined in lipid bilayer (Stable protein) .
 Some integral proteins traverse the complete thickness of membrane. These type of protein
are called as tunnel protein which passage water soluble material across the membrane.
 Some intrinsic protein extending from outside to inside are called as trnsmembrane protein
eg. Glycophorin, porins founds in outer mitochondrial Membrane and Bacterial Membrane.
(b) peripheral or extrinsic protein (30%)
 These ate superficially arranged on outer side and can be separate easily. These protein have
enzymatic activity. Extrinsic protein can move freely in membrane structure.
 Some protein like permeased and translocase function as carriers for the transport of
materials. Spectrin are helical type of membrane and attached to intrinsic protein.
Spectrums are part of cytoskeleton.

 However phospholipid bilayer has fluid property but no evidence of flip flop mechanism
for protein molecule (Flip Flop means exchange of molecules from one monolayer with
those in the monolayer on the other side) .
 Rotational diffusion and lateral diffusion of protein and lipids is possible in membrane.
 Absennnnce of flip flop movement detected by electro spin resonance (ESR) spectroscopy.

Lipids- 40% (phospholipids, cholesterol, glyeolipids)

Proteins- 58-59% (Arfinine, Lusine rich)
Carbohydrates- 1-2%

 Oligosacccharides of the glycolipids & glycoprotrins on the outer surface of plasma

membranes are involved in cell to cell recognition mechanism. Best example of cell
recognition is fertillisation, (where sperm & egg recognize to each other ) and blood-
Antigens.
 Plasma membrane have approximate 30 types of enzyme in which ATP ase (ATPhydrolysing)
is more important.
ATP ase enzyme helps in active transport of materials.
 Plasme membraneis an asymmetrical structure because carbohydrate is presents on outer
surface and spectrin protein is present only in inner surface of plasme membrane.

5
 Expertmental Demonstration-
Fluid nature of cell membrane has been demonstrated by a simple experiment by Frye and
Edidin in 1970. Amouse cell was labeled with a green fluorescent antibody or a pigment
fluorescein, and a human cell was labelled with red fluorescent. antibody or a rhodamine.
These cells were then fused. The composit cell so formed, called cybrid, was immediately
seen under a microscope. Its one half looked green and the other half red. It was kept at
370C an reexamined after some time it was found that the green and red colours had fully
mixed up. This could happen only if the lipid bilayer was fluid, and the labelled proteins
could move in it. If the fused cell kept immediately at00C, the colour did not mix because
lipids solidify at low temperature. This further proved the fluid nature of the cell membrane
When temperature was raised, the lipid bilayer regained fluidity and the colours mixed.

SPECIALISATION OF PLASMA MEMBRANE

(1) Microvilli: - These are Finger like evagination of P. M. Microvilli increase surface area of
absorption.
(2) Caveolae: - These are cave like invaginations on the cell surface. Increase surface area.
(3) Lomasomes: - Discovered by Moore and Mc Aear. These structure occurs in fungi. These are
also called border bodies” Lomasomes are located between the cell wall and cell membrane
and concern with cell wall synthesis.
(4) Mesosome present in Aerobic bacteria for respiratory ETS.

CELL SURFACE JUNCTONS

(1) Desmosomes (Zona adhrence): - These are thickened button shape structure on P. M. of
adjacent cells with radiating fibres in cytoplasm. These fibrils called tonofibrils. .
Desmosmes generally occurs in epithelial cells and provide cell adhesion.
(2) Tight junction or Zona occludence: - These are fused outer most layers of two P. M. at the
site of attachment. Fused membrane has a 5-layered structure. Tight junction occur in nerve
tissue at synapses.
(3) Gap junction or Nexus: These are fine protein channels (connexons) which joins two P. M of
adjacent cells with protein connexine.
Desmosomes, Tight junction and Gap junction occurs in animal cell.
(4) Plasmodesmata: - Name proposed by strasburger (1901). These are cytoplasmic connections
between two adjacent plant cells. Plasmodesmata are characteristic of multi- cellular plants
and they maintain continuity of cytoplasm between adjacent cells, E. S. tubles
(Desmotubules) helps in formation of continuity.
TRANSPORT THROUGH PLASMA MEMBRANE
 Plasma membrane is semi-permeable but now consider as selectively or differentially
permeable because it allows certain solues to pass through it and prevents others

6
 (i) Osmosis : - Movement of only solvent molecules from solution of lower concentration to
solution of high concentration across the plasma membrane is called osmosis.
(ii) Diffusion: -Movement of ions or molecules from their higher cone. to lower
concentration is called diffusion.
(iii) Facilitated or mediated diffusion: -This type of diffusion occurs according to
concentration gradient but it involves carriers like permeasea. Translocases etc (passive
transport) .
 Expendituer of metabolic energy/ATP. Is not involved in diffusion.
(iv) Active-transport: -In this type of transport movement of substances takes place active
transport
(v) Endocytosis (Bulk transport)
(a) Pinocytosis or Cell Drinking : -Term proposed by W. H. Lewis (1934) . Ingestion
of liquid material by plasmlemma in the formof the vesicles or bag like structure
(pinosome) is called pinocytosis.
(b) Phagoctosis or Cell eating: -Term given by Mechnik off. Ingestion of solid
complex materials by Memmbranes in the form of vesicles (Phagosome) iscalled
Phagocytosis.
(vi) Exocytosis/Emiocytosis/Cell vomitting : -Egestion of waste materials from cell
through plasma membrane.
(vii) Rophaeocytosis: -This is transfer ;of complex materials from one cell to another cell,
through membrane in vescicular form . (Transfer of Hb from Red Bone marrow cells to
maturing RBCs is good example of Rophaeocytosis) .

CYTOPLASM

 Term “ Cytoplasm” , was given by strasburger for the part of cell, presents between the
nucleus and cell membrane. Cytoplasm can be divided into two part.
 Ground plasm/Hyaloplasm/Cytoso  Liquid matrix of cytoplasm except organelles.
 Trophoplasm  part of cytoplasm containing organelles & non living Inclusions.

CELL ORGANELLES

Permanent Metabolucally active and living structures of cytoplasm are called

organelles.

MITOCHONDRIA
 Kollilrt (18890) first observed mitochondria as cytoplasmic granules in striped muscles of
insects
 Altmen (1894) established them as cell organelles and called Bioplast. Flemming and
Altman was credited for the disovery of mitochondria . Term ‘Mitochondria , was given by
c. Benda.
 F. Meves (1904) first observed them in plants (Nymphea)
 Kinsbury and Hogeboom (1948) related them with cell respiration.
 Seikevitz called them power house of cell.
 Number 1000-1600 per cell.
 One in Microasterias, Chlorella fusca (alga) .
 5 lakhs mitochondria in an Amoeba Chaos Chaos.
 All the mitochondria present in a cell are called chondriome.
 Usually plant cells have fewer mitochondria as compared to animal cell.
 In higher animals maximum mitochondria are found in flight muscles of birds.
 Mitochondria can make its shape as ellipsoidal, oval , spherical or spiral’

7
 Mitochondria
 Power house of cell or ATP –mill in cell
 Cell within cell/second larganelle
 Cellfuranaces or storage batteries
 Most busy and active organellein cell
 Semi autonomous cell organelle

STRUCTURE:
 Mitochondria is covered by double unit membrane. Outer membrane has more
phospholipids (Phosphatidyl choline) and cholesterol as compared to inner membrane.
Phospholipid in inner membrane is mainly diphosphatidyl glycerol and Inner membrane
have more protein.
 Each membrane is 60-75 Ao thick and separated by a space (80-100A0) called
perimitochondrial space. This space is rich in coenzymes and enzymes required for
oxidation of fats.
 If outer membrane of mitochondria is removed then structure is called as mitoplast.
 Outer surface of inner membrane is called C-face while inner surface called M-face.
 Some sessile particles attached to outer membrane are known as “ subunit of parsons” .
 Inner membrane is folded into a number of fonger olike cristae. Cristae are tubular finger
like but in fungi cristae are plate like while in Euglena cristae are vesicle shaped. Cristae
word coined by palade.
 In metabolically active mitochondria number of cristae is higher.
 Many electron carrier cytochromes are arranged in a definite sequence in Inner membrane of
mitochondria, which forms Electron transport system (ETS) for oxidative phosphoylation.
 Inner membrance is studded with pin head particled called oxysomes or elsmentary
particles or F1-F0 particles (104 to 106 in number) . These particles first described by
Fernandez Moran (1962) .
 Head of Oxysomes composed of ATPase (ATPsynthase) enzymes and
concerned with Oxidative phosphorylation(Recker 1967)
 Mitochondrial matrix have enzyme for kreb’s cycle. Beside these
enzymes matrix have a complete protein synthesis apparatus
(Ribosome-70-s, DNA & RNA, enzymes) so mitochondria called as
semi autonomous cell organelles.
 One to many (6 kb to 36 kb long) double stranded mainly circular
naked DNA present in
mitochondria matrix.
 Mitochondrial DAN is 1% of total DNA in a cell. It is rich in G-C content.
 Mitochondrial DNA can coda the synthesis of 10to37 different types of proteins. Rest of the
proteins and enzymes of mitochondria are synthesis under the control of nuclear gens
 Mitochondrial DNA was discovered by Nass and Margit.
 Enzymes for replication and transcription of DAN like Dan-polymerase and RAN-polumerase
are found in mitochondrial matrix.
 Mitochondria of mammals have 55s ribosmes (35s, 25s units)
In scurvy disease several mitochondria fu se to form large bodies called chondriospnere
In scurvy disease several mitochondria fu se to form large bodies called chondriospnere

FUNCTIONSOF MITOCHONDRIA:
(1) Most of the oxidative metabolism and ATP production occurs in mitochondria, thus
mitochondria are the power house of cell, where organic compounds are broken down to
release & storc metabolic in the form of molecules. (Resp. metabolism)

8
(2) Mitochondria help in Vitellogeness in oocytes, Mitochondria Kinase mades the yolk viscous
and insoluble for a longer duration storage. Mitochndria of oocytes called Yolk nuclei.
(3) In cytoplasmic inheritance.

Biogenesis of mitochondria-(1) By Division

 (2)Endosymbiotic origin from Purple sulphur or prokarytic cells, because mitochondria are
similar to prokaryotic cell (rickettsial bacteria) in-
(i) Structure of DAN and Fan sequences.
(ii) Typy of ribosome (70s)
(iii)Sensitivity of Antibiotic chloremphenicol with protein synthesis.
(iv) Divide by amitosis or fission.

GOLGI COMPLEX

 Discovered by V. Golgi (1898) -In nerve cells of owl and named” internal reticular apparatus “
(Golgi body first observed by L. S George)
 Golgi body also named as
 Golgi body  Daliton complex  Golgi complex
 Lipochondria (rich in lipids)  Baker’ body  Idiosome
 Dictyosome (plant golgi body)  Trophspogium
Number of Golgi body  One to many in a cell located near nucleus.

 The cytoplasm surrounding Golgi body have fewer or no other organelles. It is called golgi
ground substance or zone of exclusion. Golgi bodies are pleomorphic structures because
component of golgi body are differ in structure & shape in different cells.

9
STRUCTURE
Golgi complex is made up of four parts-
(1) Cisternae: -These are unbranched saccules likes smooth E. R, 4to 8 saccules are arranged
on a stack. Dense opaque material inside cisternae is called Nodes. Convex surface of
cisternae which is towards the nucleus is called cis-face or forming face.
 Concave surface of cisternae which is towards the membrane is called Transface or maturing
face.
(2) Tubules : -These are branched and irregular tube like structures associated with cisternae.
(3) Vacuoles: - large spherical structures associated to tubules.
(4) Vesicles: - Spherical structures arise by budding form tubules. Vesicles are filled with
secretory materials.

 Golgibody is single membrane bound cell organelle.

 About 60% proteins and 40% phospholipis occur in golgi body.
FUNCTIONS
(1) Cell Secretion : -Chief function of golgi body is secretion (export) of macromolecules.
Secretion involve three steps:
(a) Golgi body receives the materials from E. R. through it’s cis-face.
(b) Materials are chemically modified by golgi body, (For e. g. glycosidation (glycosidation) of
proteins and lipids takes place in golgi body and it yields glycosidation and
glycosidation )
(c) After chemical modifications materials are packed in vesicles. These vesicles are pinched
off from trans face of golgi body and discharged out side the cell (Reverse pinocytosis)
 Golgi complex involves secretion of zymogen granules from pancreas, secretion of lactoptein
from mammmary Glands.
 The secretion of hormone by endocrine glands is mediated through golgibodies.
All the macromolecules which are to be sent out side the cell, move through the golgi body .
So golgi body is terned as “ principal director of macromolecular traffic in cell” or middle
men of cell.
(2) Synthesis of cell wall Material (polysaccharide synthesis)
(3) Cell plate formation (phragmoplast) during cell formation.
(4) Formation of acrosome during spermiogensis, (form of male gametes)
(5) Vitellein membrane of egg is secreted by golgi body.

10
(6) Formation of Lysosome=It is collective function of golgi body and E. R.
(7) Mucilage secretion by root cells for lubrication to soil.
(8) Secretion of hormones by cells of glands.

LYSOSOME
 Christion De Duve (1955) discovered lysosome as cell organelle and also Lysosomes.
(Lyososme wre first observed by novikoff)
 With the excepion of mammalian RBC they were reported from all cells.
 In plant cells large central vacuole functions as Lysosome. So in higher plants lysosomes are
less frequent.
But number of lusosomes is high in fungi.
 Periplasmic Space: - space between cell wall and cell membrane in bacteria, may play
similar role.
 Lysosomes are spherical bag like structures (01-0. 8 m ) which is covered by single unit
membrane, They are larger in Phagocytes (WBC) (0. 8to 2 m ) .
 Lysosomes are filled with 50 different type of digestive enzymes termed as Acid hydrolases.
These acid hydrolases function in acidic medium . (pH = 5) Membrane of lysosome has an
active H+ pump mechanism which produce acidic pH in Iumen of lysosomse.
 Lysosomes are highly polymorphic cell organelle. Because, during functioning, lysosomes
have different morphological and physisological states.

TYPES OF LYSOSOMES
(1) Primary Lysosomes or storage granules : -These lysosomes store enzyme Acid Hydrolases
in the inactive form. (Enzymes synthesized on ribosomes in cytoplasm) these are newly
formed lysosome.
(2) Digestive vacuoles or Heterophagosomes: - These lysosome forms by the fusion of primary
lysosomes and phagosomes. These are secondary Lysosomes.
(3) Residual bodies: - Lysosomes containing undigesested material are called residual bodies,
These may be eliminated by exocytosis . These are also called as Telolysosomes . (Tertiary
lysosomes)
(4) Autopagic Lysosomes or Cytolysosomes or autophagosomes: - Lysosomes containing cell
organelles to be digested are known as Autophagosomes.
FUNCTIONS
(1) Heterrophagy: -This is digestion of foreign materials receiced in cell by phagocytosis and
pinocytosis.
(2) Autophagy: -Digestion of old or dead cell organelles. Autophagy also takes place during
stsrvation of cell.
[Ambilysosomes : - Lysosomes which perform both heterophagy and autphagy. ]
(3) Extracellular digestion: -
Lysosomes of osteoclast (bone eating cells) dissolve unwanted part of bones.
Extracellular digestion also occurs by fungal lysosomes. )

11
(4) Crinophagy: -
Excessive secretory granules of hormone in endocrine gland may be digested by
lysosomes. This event is called crinophagy. Thyroglobulin stores in thyroid gland with its
follicles and after crinooophagy by proteases it produces thyroxin.
(5) Cellular digestion (Autolysis) : -Sometimes all lysosomes of a cell burst to dissolve the ell
completely. Old cells are removed by autolysis. Unwanted organs of embryo are destroyed
by autolysis Cathepsin of lysosome digests the tail of tadpole of frog during
metamorphosis.
(6) Lysosomes are helpful in digestion of egg membrane to assist fertilisation
(7) Lysosomes also trigger the cell division or mitosis.
 Lysosomes of Liver in some people lack the enzymes for the digestion of glycogen. In such
persons excessive storage of glycogen occurs in liver . This is called Ponpe’s Disease.
 Membrane stabilizers are substances, which stabilize the lysosome membrane and stop
its rupture, thus prevents Autolysis. e. g. cholesterol, chloroquine etc.
 Membrane labilizers are substances which make the lysosome membrane fragile and
increase the chance of aut olysis e. g. Progesterone, testosterone , Vitamin A, D, E, K, U.
V. radiations , bile salts etc.
 Sometime Lysosomes burst it’s whole cell so lysosome called as suicidal bags of cell.
 Biogenesisof Lysosome Lysosomes originates from GERL- (Golgi associated Endoplasmec
Reticlumfrom which Lysosomes arise) .
E.R. 
 Go lg i body 
 Lysosome

ENDOPLASMIC RETICULAM
 “ Garnier (1897) first observed them and called Ergastoplasm. E. R. name proposed by “
porter” _1967) (Credit for discovery of ER goes to porter)
Components of E. R. ;-
(1) Cisternace –These are long Flattened and unbranched units arranged in stacks,
(2) Vesicles-These are oval membrane bond structures.
(3) Tubules-These are irregular, often branched tunded by membrane. Tubules may
free or associated with cisternae.
 Structure of E. R. is like the golgi body but in E. R. cisternae, vesicles and tubules are
isolated in cytoplasm and these do not form complex.
 Golgi body is localised cell organelle while E. R. is widespread in cyoplasm E. R. is often
termed as” System of Membranes “

Rough E. R. (Granular) Smooth E.R. (Agranular

(1) 80s ribosomes binds by their larger
subunit, with the help of two glycoroteins
(Ribophorin I and II) on the surface of
Rough E. R.
(2) More Stable structure
(3) Mainly composed of cisternae and vesicles
(4) Abundantly occurs in cells which are
actively engaged in protein synthesis e. g.
liver , pancreas, Goblet cells.
Smooth E. R. (Agranular)
(1) Ribososmes and Ribophorins abent
(2) Less Stable structure
(3) Mainly Composed of tules.
(4) Abundantly occurs in cells concerned with
glycogen and Lipid metabolism. e. g.
Adipose tissue, interstitialcells,Muscles
.Glycogen storing liver cells. and adrenal
cortex,

12
MODIFICATIONS OF E. R.
(1) Sarcoplasmic Reticukum (S. R. ) : - These smooth E.R. occurs in skeletal and cardiac
muscles. S.R. Stores Ca2+ and energy rich compounds required for muscle contraction.
(2) T-tubules:- These are transversely arranged tubules in skeletal andcardiac muscle cells.
These transmits stimulus for contraction of muscles.
(3) Ergastoplasm : -When the ribosomes are acculated on the small parallel cisternce of E. R.
then called Ergastoplasm, Ergastoplasm of nerve cells is called as Nissl’s bodies.
(4) Myeloid Bodies: -
Myeloid bodies are the specialised smooth E. R. which found in pigmented epithelial cells
of the retina. Myeloid body is light sensitive structure and may be involved in pigment
migration.
(5) Microsomes –These are pieces of E. R. with associated ribosomal particles (Claude 1951) .
These can be obtained by Fragmentation and high speed centrifugation of cell. They do
not exist as such in the living cell.

ENZYMES OF E.R.
Sucrases, NADH diphosphatase, Gulcose-6-phosphatase, NADH-cytochrome-C-reductase,
Mg+2activated ATPase, nucleotide diphosphatase, Ascorbic acid synthase are enzymes of
E. R
FUNTIONS OF E. R.
(1) Mechanical support : -Microfilaments, Microtubules and E. R. forms endoskeleton of
cell.

13
(2) Intracellular exchange : -E. R. forms intracellular conducting system. Transport of
materials in cytoplasm form one place to another occurs through the E. R.
 At some places E. R. is also connected to P. M. So can secrete the materials outside the ce
(3) Rough E. R. : - Provides site for the protein synthesis , because Rough E. R. has
ribosomes on its surface.
(4) Lipid Synthesis: -Lipids (cholesterol phospholipids ) synthesizes by the agranular
pgranular of E. R. (Smooth E. R) The major lipids synthesized by S. E. R. are
phospholipids and Cholesterol
(5) Release of Glucose from Glycogen: -Endoplasmic reticulum seems to play a in
breakdown of glycogen (glycogenolysis) . (The polymerisation of glucose to form glycogen
probably occur in the cytosol not in the wall of S. E. R. )
(6) Cellular metabolism: -The membranes of the reticulum provides anincreased surface for
metabolic activities with in the cytoplasm.
(7) Formation of nuclear membrane: -Fragmented vesicles of disintegrated nuclear
membrane and ER elements arranged around the chromosomes to form a new nuclear
membrane during cell division.
(8) Formation of lysosomes , Golgi-body & Micro-bdies. All the oganelles are form by E. R.
which have membrane except chloroplast and mitochondria (semi autonomous organelles)
(9) Detoxification –Smooth ER concerned with detoxification of drugs , Pollutants and
steroids.
 Cytochrome P450 in E. R. act as enzyme which function in detoxification of drugs and
other toxins
(10) E. R. provides the precursor of secrtory material to golgi body.
BIOGENESIS OF E.R.
 E. R. may originates as an in foldings of the cell membrane.
 Origin from Nebenkern (Germ center ) , Nebenkern is group of membranes arranged in
concentric rings just out side nuclear membrane.
PLSTIDS
 The term” Plastid “ first used by Haeckel’
 Schimper coined the term chloroplastid for green plastids Meyer called them Autoplast
 Chloropast name proposed by Erera.
TYPES OF PLASTIDS
(1) Chromoplasts : -These are plasties, which contain different types of pigments (carotenes,
Xanthophylls etc. ) Chlorophylls either absent or occur in very less amount .
Chromoplasts occus mainly in pericarp and petals. Red colour of chillies and red
tomatoes is due to the red pigment “ Lycopene “ of chromoplasts. Lycopene is a typeof
carotene. Yellowish –orange colours of fruits are due to  -carotene, and  -carotene and -
carotene -carotene is precursor of vitamin –A . Richest source of  -carotene are carrot
roots.
 Chloroplasts also occurs in petals but colour of petals are mainly due to water soluble
pigments occur in cell sap. E. g. Anthocyanin- (Blue or violet or red pigment ) Anthoclor
(yellow pigment ) .
(2) Chloroplasts-Green plastids with chlorophylls and other photosynthetic pigment.
(3) Lrucoplasts: -These store food in different forms like starch (Amyloplasts) , Fat and oil
(Elaioplasts ) and protein (Amyloplasts) . Pigments and lamellar structure absents in
Leucoplasts. Generally occurs in non green and underground plant cells.
 All types of plastids have common origin from proplastids, sac like ono –lamellar
structures.
 Different types of plastids may transform one to another . Because genetic material is
similar. But chromoplasts never transform to chloroplasts.
 Etioplasts: - These are plastids without pigments, stored food and lamellar structures ,
These occur in etiolated plants due to the absence of light.

14
 Chromatophores;- These are clusters of pigment granules in cytoplasm of photosynthetic
bacteria.
 In Blue-green algae pigments are located on membranous lamellar structures, scattered
in Cytopiasm. These structures are known as Chlorosomes or Lamellisones or
Carboxysomes.

STRUCTURE OF CHLOROPLAST

Shape of chloroplasts Plant types

Discoidal or oval - Higher plants

Girdle shaped - Ulothrix
Cup shaped - Chlamydomonas
Reticulate - Oedogonium
Spiral - Spirogyra
Stellate - Zygnema

 Chloroplast is a double membrane bound cell organelle, and is the largest organelle of
cell ( 4  3m  1  3m) (largest component is nucleus)
 Internally chloroplast contain stroma (Matrix) and thylakoids or lamellae. Matrix part of
chloroplast contains circular or rarely linear DNA, RNA, 70-sRibosomes, starch grains ,
enzymes of calvin cycle or dark reaction. Rubisco is the most abundant enzyme on the
earth. It made 16% protein of the chloropast.

 The number of chloroplast in cell of higher plants 20-40. (One in chlamydomoas)

15
 Thylakoids (Term by Menke 1962) are membrane lined flattend sacs. Whhich forms
stacks called granum (plu. grana) Each chloroplast contains about 20-100 granum , Fret
channel or stromal thylakoids is connection between two granum . Photosynthetic
(chlorophylls) are located in the thylakoid membranes.
 A photosynthetic functional unit , which consists of about 230 to 400 molecules of
various pigments (Chl-a . Chl-b, carotenes, xanthophylls etc. )
Is called as Quantasomes (By park & Biggins 1964) .
 Cchloroplasts has their own genetic system & complete prorin synthesis machinary (ds-
DNA, RNA, Ribosomes, enzymes , Amino Acids) , thus chloroplasts are called as
semiautonomus organelle of the cell.
 DNA of chloroplast (Plastidome) was discovered by Ris & Plaut. (Upto 14% DNA of cell)
 Chloroplast have more genes as compare to mitochondria (100 or more genes)
FUNCTIONS
(1) Photosynthesis: The chloroplasis trap the light energy of sun and transform it into the
chemical energy in the form glucose.
(2) Balancing of O2 & CO2 in nature.
(3) Chloroplasts can be changed into chromoplasts during ripening of fruits.
(4) Chloroplasts impart in cytoplamic inheritance.
(5) Chloroplasts impart the plrasing greenary to the earth.
(6) Chloroplasts store vitamin K, E, Rubisco protein and Fe etc.
BIOGNESIS
(1) From Propladted
(2) From Division of pre-existing plastids.
(3) Origin from Endosymbiotic origin by a cyanobacterium

CILIA AND FLAGELLA

 Cillia & Flagella are Mechanical, har hair lik cellulr appendages and locomotory structure.
Flagellar apparaty is consist of following parts.
(a) Shaft or ciliary part: It is projecting hair like part of ciliary apparatus. Clium is
composed of 11 microubules. (9 doublet +2 singlet) .
 Bundie of microtubules is called as axonema. Nine microtubules are peripheral
and each composed of two small tubules I, e. A tubule with two atms and B-
Tubules without arms.
 Microtubules is consists of a contractile protein tubulin similar to actin of muscles.
 Arms of A tubules consist of an enzmatic proein dyninen similar to muscle cells.
Dynien have ability of hydrolysis of ATP & liberates energy for ciliary movement.

16
(b) Kinetsosome or basal grnule or Blepheroplast or Basal body : It is membraneless
structure. Lies immediately below the plasmamembrane. Basal body exhibit cart wheel
stucture similar to centriole. (9 triplet fibriles connected to a cetral hub in basal bosal
body) .
 Arragement of microtubules is 9 (triple) +0, In basal grnul there occurs 9 microtubules on
periphery and each microtubulllllle is composed of three tubules I. e. A-tubule, B-tubule
and C-tubuke.
 Central part of basal granule is composed of cytosol called “ Central Hub”
 Microtubukes connected to central hub with the help of protein fibres called primary
fibres or spokes.
 Secondary fibres connect microtubles with each other.
 Each primary fiber have a thickening called X- thickening. In between X- thickenings
there occurs Y- thickening. X and Y- thickening are inter connected.
 The central tubules are connected by bridges and is also enclosed by a central
stheath, which is connected to one of the tubules of each peripheraldoulets are also
interconnected by radial spoke. Thus hey are nine radial spokes . The peripheral doublets
are also interconnected by linkers.
(C) Rootlet Rhizoplast : This is a conical bundle of protein fibers which arises from basal
body to different directions. Rootlet have dark bands composed of ATP ase.
Types of Flagella:
(1) Whiplash-When the lateral hair structures absent.
(2) Tinsel-When the flagella bears lateral hairs like structure (flimmers)
 Cilia and Flagella are similar in structure but some differences ay observed-
Cilia Flagella

1. The cilia are small in size (5-10 m ) 1 Flagella are long ( m )

2. Number of cilia per cell is very large.
3. Cilia beat in a coordinated manner
(sweeping or pendular move)
4. They take part in locomotion, attachment.
Feeding and sensation.
2 Few in number
3 Flagella beats independently (Non
coordinated manner)
4 Flagella involved only in locomotion

CENTROSOME OR CENTRIOLES
 Centrosome was discovered by Benden. Boveri named as Centrosome . Centrosome is
abent in higher plants.
 Two centioles located just outside the nucleus and lile at right (900) to each other.
Cytoplasm which srrounds centrioles called as “ Centrospher” centrioles and
centrosphere collectively called Centrosome or Microcentrum or diplosome . Each
centriole is surrounded by peri centriolar mass, which is called as massules or crown or
satellite.

 Centrioles are membrsaneless elongated structure which exhibit cart wheel structure
(just like body of cilia) . Basal body is also a type of centriole.

17
 Centriole mainly consist of 9 triplet fibers of tubulin. (9+0 arragement )
 Centrioles are self duplicatingunits, which contains DNA, RNA and protein synthesis
machinary.
 Centrioles DNA discocered by Randall and Disprey. Centriolar DNA is probably ds
circular and naked. Replication of centrile occur in s-phase.
Function: - In animal cells centrioles play important role in initiation of cell division by
arranging spindle fibres between two poles of cell. The location of centrioles during cell
division decides the plane of division. The plane of division is always at right angle to the
long axis of spindle. Thus centrioles is also lermed as “ cellcenters”

RIBOSOMES (ENGINE OF CELL)

 Claude (1947) first observed them and called Microsome . Palade (1955) coined the term
Ribosome.
 In plants Robinson and Brown (1953) first observed them in bean roots.
 Except memmalian RBC all living cells have ribosomes . (Both prokaryotes & Eukaryotes)
 Ribosomes are smallest cell organelles (150x250A0) Ribosomes are organelle without
membranes.
 Ribosomes are also called as “ Organelle with in an organelle” & “ protein factory pf
cell”
Types of Ribosomes:
(1) Eukaryotic ribosomes : - 80 s-Occur in cytoplasm of eukaryotic cells.
(2) Prokaryotic ribosomes: -70 s – Occur in cytoplasm of prokaryotes, and also in
mitochondria, and Chloroplast of eukaryotes, (55 S ribosome present in mitochodria of
mammals)
 Each ribosome composed of two subunits I, e . larfer and smaller subunits, Larger
subunit is dome shaped and smaller unit is ovold. Smaller subunit has a platform, a
cleft, a head and a base. The larger subunit has a protuberance, a ridge and a stalk.
Larger subunit also contains a tunnel which opens in cavity of E. R.
80s=60s+40s
70s=50s+30s
 Magensium ion is essential for the binding the ribosome sub unis. Mg+2 form ionic with
phosphate groups of r-RNA of two subunits. Mimimum 0. 001 M Mg+2 concentration is
required for structural formation of ribosomes . If Mg+2 concentration increased 10 times
then ribosome dimer are formed.
80s+80s=120s (Dimer)
70s+70s=100s (Dimer)
Chemical Composition of Ribosomes:
70s - 60% r-RNA+ 40% proteins
80s - 40% r-RNA +60%prteins
60s - r-RNA 28s , 5, 8s 5s
40s - r-RNA 18s
50s - r-RNA 23s , 5s
30s - r-RNA 16s
 At the time of protein synthesis , several ribosomes become attached to m-RNA with the
help of smaller subunits. This structure is called polyribosome or polysomee or
Ergosome. Ribosomes move along the m-DNA like beads on a string , during protein
synthesis . Larger subunit contains peptidyl trasferase enzyme which helps in the
formation of peptide during protein synthesis. This I an example of Ribozyme . (Noller
1992)
Two sites are found on larger sub units:
(i) A-site  Acceptor site for t-RNA
(ii) P- site  site for growing polypeptide chain

18
 S=Svedberg unit or Sedimentation rate

After synthesis on ribosomes , protein are transported in cytoplasm and organelles

The proper folding and transport of proteins is assisted by specific proteins called Chaperons.

MICRO-BODIES
 The cells of protozoa , fungi , plants, liver and kidney cells contain certain membrane
bounded spherical bodies of 0. 3 to1. 5  diameter , filled with enzymes are called as “
Micro-Bodies”
On the basis of functions micro bodies are of following types-
(1) Sphaerosomes: -
 Hanstein (1880) first observed them in ground nut and
called microsomes. Perner (1953) named them
sphaerosomes. Sphaerosomes. occur only in plant
cells. They are major site of lipid storage and synthesis
in plants.
 Sphaerosomes. Also have lysosome like activity so they
also termed as plant lysosomes.
(2) Peroxisomes or Uricosomes: -
Discovered by Rhodin and Tolbert. Urate oxidase,
Amino acid oxidase, Hydroxy acid Oxidase, Preoxidase,
Catalase enzymes occrs in it .
 In animal cells peroxisomes concerned with peroxide
(H2 O2) metaboism. Urate oxidase, Amine acid
oxidase, and peroxidase . peroxidase induces the
oxidation of amino acids to producing H2 O2. Catalase
degrade the H2 O2 in to water and oxygen.

 In plants, peroxisomes occurs in cells of green tissues and concerned with

photorespiration (glycolate pathway) .
 Peroxisomes may involved in -  oxidation of fatty acids.
(3) Glyoxisomes: -Discovered by , Beever in oil containing seeds, yeast cells, guard cells etc.
 Glyoxysomes occus only in plants especially in fatty seeds b (castor seed) , guard cells
of stomata and bunripe fruits. Glyoxylate cycle is linked with the TCA cycle and used for
production of acids in fruit.
 Glyoxysomes are considered as a highly specialised peroxisomes. Glyoxylic acid cycle
takeds place in glyoxysomes . The cycle convert fats into carbohydrats.
(4) Transosome : - Special microbodies in ovary cells of birds (concern with yolk formation) .
These covered by three unit membranes.

19
 MICROTUBULES
 De Robertis and Franchi (1953) discovered microtubules.
 Microtubules are composed of contractile protein , Tubulin.
 In plants microtubules. often associated with cell wall. Probably these transport cell wall
material from Golgi body to outside of cell. During cell division these microtubules form
spindle fibers.
MICROFILAENTS

Microfilaments are long rods 40-50 A0 in thickness and distributed throughout the
cytoplasm. They are composed of contractile protein, Actin which concern with muscle
contraction , and cyclosis, Microtubules and microfilament provides cytokeleton- base
of cell.

NUCLEUS
INTRODUCTION
 First of all Leeuwenhoek observed , nucleus in RBC s , o f fish
 Detail studied in orchid root cells and named by Robert Brown in 1831. Credit of
discovery goes to Robent Brown.
 “ Nucleus is double membrane bound dense Protoplasmic body , which controls all
cellular metabolism and encloses the genetic information of cell”
 Nucleus is consider as controller of director of cell . Importance of nucleus in control of
heredity , growth and nucleus is microtules very important and largest component of
cell.
 If the nucleus of a cell is, experientally removed, then unicellular organism will die after
some time, Thus nucleus is very important and largest component of cell.
 srasburgar stated that : -Nucleus arises from division of pre-existing nucleus only . The
study of nucleus is known as Karyology .
 enerally eukaryotic cell contain at least one nucleus but nucleus is absents immature
phloem sieve tube elements and mature RBCs of mammals . (exceptionally nucleus is
present in RBCs of camel & lama)
 Dikaryotic (Phycomecium) and muktikaryotic cells are also known. Multinucleated cells
may be following type:
(a) Coenocytic cells: - This type of cells, are formed by free nuclear divisions.
Example: - Phycomycetesfungi, Endosperm, rhizopus, vaucheria, etc.
(b) Syncytim: - Syncytion condition is formed by the fusion of cells.
Example: -Epidermis of nematods, striped muscles
STRUCTURE OF NUCLEUS:
:
(i) Nuclear membrane or nuclear envelope or
karyotheca.
(ii) Nucleoplasm / Karyoplasm/Karolymph.
(iii) Chromatin met
(iv) Nucleolus/ little nucleus/Ribosome factory
(i) Nuclear membrane: -Nucleus is surrounded by
two unit membranes, thus nucleus is double
membranous component of cell. Space (150 to
300Å) between two membranes is known as
perinuclear space. Outer membrane, of nucleus
also may found on it.

20
  Nuclear membrane is perforated by minute nuclear pores of size, 300 to 1000Å diameter.
Each nuclear pore is guarded by a octagonal discoid structure of nucleoplasmin protein
this structure is called as annulus or Bleb. (Annulus +Pore =Nuclear pore complex. )
 The inner side of inner nuclear membrane is lined by nuclear lamina. This structure is
formed by filaments of lamin protein.
 Pore complex provides the main channel, between nucleoplm and cyoplam, while
nucleoplasmin regulates nucleocytoplasmic traffic.
(ii) Nucleoplasm or Karyolymph (Term by strasburger 1882)
Nucleoplasm or Nuclear sap is a ground substance of nucleus which is a complex colloidal
formed of a number of chemicals like nucleotides, nucleotides, ATPs, proteis & enzymes of
RNA & DNA polymerases, endonucleases, minerals, (Ca++, Mg++) etc.
Nucleoplasm contain high concentration of Nucleotids in the form of triphosphate.
 Nucleoplasm also have enzymes for Glycolysis , thus nucleus may obtain energy by
glycolysis.
 Chromation net and nucleolus are ambeded in nucleoplasm. Nucleoplasm provides site
for proceess of transcription.

(iii) Chromation net: - (Term given by Flemming)

 It is an intranuclear, (stained with basic dyes) long , thread like fine fibres ,
whichembeded in nucleoplasm. Chromatin net is mainly formed of DNA and histone
protein complexes. Chromatin fibres contaion genetic information and condensed to form
constant mumber of chromosomes duing cell division.
 Chemically Chromatin consists of NDA (31%) RNA (205%) , Histone protein (36%) , and
non hisone (28%) , 20 to 30% part of histone is made up arginin and lysin there are five
type of Histone protein.
(H2 A, H2 B, H3 , H4 , H1 )
 Chromatin net has two type of chromatins (by Emil Heitz)
(a) Euchromatin: - This is lightly stained and diffused part of chromatin. Which is
transcriptionally or genetically or active. Generally euchromatin lies at central part of
nucleus.
(b) Heterochromatin: - This is dark stained , thick and condensed part of chromatin this
part have move histone and less acidic protein . Heterochromatin is genetically less
active chromatin and forms stop point in transcription. Heterochromatin occurs near
nucleus.
(i) Constitutive heterochromatin: -Occurs in all cells in all stages e. g. centromeric region.
(ii) Facultative heterochromatin: - Occurs in some cell in some stages e. g. barr body.
 Barr body in female cells is a facultative heterochromatin structure. (By M. Barr)
 Number of Barr body in nucleus of an individual is number of X –chromosome mine one.

Difference between Euchromatin and Heterochromatin.

Euchromatin Heterochromatin.

(i) Consist of thin, extended , light stained (i) Consist of thick coild, condensed part of
part of chromatin chromatin and dark stained.
(ii) Genetically more active chromatin (ii) Less active or inert chromatin .
(iii) Lies at centre of nucleus (iii) Lies near the nuclear membrane.
(iv) Less histone protein (iv) More histone protein
(v) Replicate in earl s phase (v) Replicate in late s phase
(vi) DNA  mRNA (vi) DNA  rRNA , t RNA

21
  Heterochromatin takes light stain during cell division stages (M-phase ) & takes dark
stain during Interphase.
(iv) Nucleolus: - Discovered by Fontana and Term by Bowman.
 Nucleolus is naked or membraneless, rounded or slightly irregular structure present in
nucleus ans usually attached to chromatin (on chromosomes ) of specific site called
Nucleolar organiser region/NOR,
 Number of nucleolus in a aucleus is one. Onion cell has 4, and in oocytes of amphibian
has 2000 nucleoli. Nucleoli absent in sperm cell, muscle cells etc. Human cell has 5
nucleoli.
 Calcium is essential for maintenance of nucleolus. Nucleolus disappears during prophase
and reappears in telophase.
 Chemistry of nucleolus: -
Proteins 85%
RNA 10%
DNA 5%
Electron microscope has shown nucleolus to be made of following parets:
(Ultrastructure of mucleolus) :
(i) Fibrilar region: - This is central fibrous part o f nucleolus , which is consist of mainly
rDNA andproteins.
(Nucleonema)
(ii) Granular region: - This is peripheral granular part of nucleolus which is consist of rRNA
and proteins.
(iii) Amorphous matrix or pars amorpha: -This is proteinaceous ground matrix, which
contains both fibres and granules.

FUNTIONS OF NUCLEOLUS:
Ribosome formation is the chief role of nucleolus, thus its called as Ribosme factory of cell,
the proteins of ribosomes are synthesised in cytoplasm but it diffused in to nucleus and reach at
nucleolus. Here r-RNA and ribosomal proteins are assembled to form ribosomes which move to
cytoplasm through nuclear pores.
 At the some places heterochromatin forms thickned dense granules which are known as
Karyosomes or chromo centre or false nucleoli.
FUNCTIONS OF NUCLES:
(i) Genetic information: -Nucleus contains genetic information in its chromatin. (store
house of genetis material)
(ii) Transmission of genetic information: -Nucleus takes part in transmission of genetical
information form parent cell to daughter cell or the one generation to next.
(iii) In cell-division: -Division of nucleus is pre-requisite to cell division.
(iv) Control of metabolism : -Nucleus controls metabolism of cell by sending mRNA in
cytosol (Basically biomolecule DNA controls cellular activities through directing synthsis
of enzyme) .
(v) Variation: -Vareiation develops due to change in genetic material o f nucleus.
(Evolutionary role) .

CHROMOSOMES

GENERAL INTRODUCTION
 At the time of cell division the chromatin material get condensed to form chromosomes, thus
chromosome is highly condensed form of the chromatin. Chromosomes are not visible
during inerphase stage.
 First of all, chromosomes was observed by Hofmeister (1818) and Kari Nin pollen mother cells
(PMC) of Tradescantia.

22
 Strsburger (1875) described chromosomes structure apperared in nucleus during cell
division . (Credit of discovery of chromosomes goes to strasburger)
 Term” chromosomes was proposed by Waldeyer in 1889. ( Term’ Chromatin , was
suggested by Flemming ) .
 Generally chromosomes are rod- shaped , elongated or dot like in shape with size of 0. 5
to 32  (Trillium plant has longest chromosomes)
 Chromosomes can be best studied at metaphase stage because size of chromosomes is
the shortest during metaphase due to highly chromosomes of chromatin threads by
gelation , dehydration and coiling .
(Shape of chromosome (V. L. J. I) is studied at Anaphase stage)
 Chromosomal theory of inheritance, was given by Sutton & Boveri.
 Generally chromosomes in plants are larger than chromosomes of animals, but number of
chromosomes is high in animals as compared to plants.
 The number of chromosomes has no relation with any specific like size , complexity of
organism.
Chromosomes number in some organisms:
Plants 2n n
Mucor hemelis (Fungi) 2 1
Haplopappus gracilis (Family compositae) 4 2
& Brachycome plant 4 2
Takakia (Bryophyta) 14 7
Pisum sativum (Pea) 20 10
Maize (Zea mays) 42 21
Wheat (Triticum ) 1262 631
Ophioglossum reticulatum (Pteridophyta)

Animals
Ascaris megalocephala (Round worm) 2 1
Drosophila melanogaster (Fruit fly ) 8 4
Chimpanzee /Gorilla 48 24
Homo sapiens 46 23
Aulocantha (a protozoan) 1600 800

 2n =number of chromosome in diploid cell . n= number of chromosome in haploid cell.

 X=Basic number in one set of earliest ancestor.
 The number of chromosomeis definite for each species. For example every normal human
being has 46 chromosome in each body cell.
 Gametes of all organisms contain only one of each chromosome. The number of
chromosomes in a gamete is called “ Genome” or haploid chromosome (Human 23) “ A
complete set (n) of chromosomes (all genes ) inherited as a unit form one parent is known
as genome, , .
 First of all T. D. Tijo and A. Levan (1950) reported that 2n -46 in human cell.
 Karyotype  karyotype is external morphology of chromosomes which is specific for
each species of living organisms, Karyotype can be studied in metaphase of mitosis.
 Karyotype includes the number of chromosomes, relative size , position of Centro mere,
length of the arms, secondary constrictions and banding batterns. Banding technique is
used to study of the specific pattern of bands and interbands on chromosome. This
includes the use of fluorochromes (flurescent dyes) .

23
 (i) Q-banding : It is obtained when chromosomes are stained with quinacrine
mustard . It stains A-T rich areas (developed by casperson for Y chromosomes) .
(ii) G-banding : chromosomes are stained with Giemsa. It stains sulphur rich protein
parts.
A variety of different bands obtained by the modification of Q-banding andG-
banding like C, T and N-bands. Q, C, G and R banding used for animal karyotypes
while cand Nbanding used in plants.
(iii) C-banding : - It is used to stain constitutive heterochromatin, usually in
centromeric region of the chromosome. The process involves denaturation of
chromosomeby heat or trisodium citrate and then apply giemsa stain.
(iv) R-banding: - The process involved incubation of the chromosomes ina buffer at
high temperature followed by use of Glemsa stain. This brings about the
visualization of sulphur deficient region of chromosomes thus named as reverse
giemsa.

NEW TECHNOQUES IDIOGRAM PREPARATION

Modern techniques used in karyotype preparation are ISH, FISH (Fluorescence in
Situ Hybridisation) , Mc FISH (Multicolour fluorescence in situ Hybridisation) and
flow cytometey.
Idiogram: -Diagrammatic representation of Kaeyotype . In idigogram of Drosophila sex
chromosomes are placed firt. Idiogram is specific for every species.
USE OF KARYOTYPING OR IDIOGRAM
(i) It suggests primitive of advanced features of an organism. If karyotype shows a
large size difference between the smallest and largest chromosomes of the set and
having fewer metacentric chromosomes then it is called asymmetric karyotype,
which is a reatively advance feature . Symmetric karyotype is primitive feature.
(ii) He karyotype of different species are compared and similarities in them represent
the evolutionary relationships.
(iii) Karyotype is helpful in detection of chromosomal abberrations and polyploidy.
(iv) In research of medical genetics Forensic science cytogenetics and
Antthropoenetics.

1. In situ Hybridization (FISH) : Using DNA probe labelled with radioactive molecule to
locate the position of DNA sequence on chromosome.
2. Fluorescence in Situ Hybridization (FISH) : DNA may also be labelled with
fluorochrome to locate the position of DNA sequence on chromosome.
3. Multicolour Fluourescene in Situ Hybridization (Mc FISH) : More fluorochrome colour
of locate the position of DNA sequence on chromosome.
4. Flow cytometry: This is recent technique . in this technique a suspension of many
thousands of chromosomes is made and the suspended chromosomeare stained with a
DNA binding flurochrome.
 These chromosomepass through the cytometer the fluorescence for individual
chromosome and the result is represented in the form of histogram.
 Each peak in this histogram represent or a group of chromosome of same size.
 This technique allow detection of difference as small as 1. 5 to 4. 0 Mega base pair.
 This technique allow detection of aneuploidy/duplication or deletion.

STRUCTURE OF CHROMOSOME (Parts which appears in metaphase chromosome) .

1. Pellicle- This is outermost , thin proteinaceous or sheath of chromosome.
2. Matris-This is a liquid nongenetic achromatic ground substance of chromosome , which
has different type of enzymes, minerals, water, Proteins.

24
3. Chromonema (singular chromonemata)  Term by
Vejdovsky. This is an important , genetical, highlycoiled
thread, throughout the length of a chromosome or
chromatid , It was called Chromonema. Chromonema lie
embeded in an achromatic matrix.
 Each. Chromonema is consist of single long threas of DNA
associated with histone.
 Sometimes bead like structure are seen on . Chromonema
fibres, which are called as . Chromomeres.

 Types of coiling in . Chromonema-

(i) Plectonemic- coiling : - When both the . Chromonema are
inter twined and can not be seperated eadily. ( in mitotic
prophase chromosomes)
(ii) Plectonemic- coiling : - Plectonemic- coiling : -When
both chromonema can be easily seperable. (In meiotic
prophase)

4. Centromere/Kinetochore: - (Primay constriction)

 Each chromosome (at metaphase) is consist of two half chromosome or two chromatids,
Both the chromatids of a chromosome are joined or connected by a tructure called
Centrocmere. At this point or centromere two protein discs are present which is called
kinetochore.
 Kinetochores constitute the actual site of attachment of spindles to chromosomes during
cell division. Centromeric DNA is called as alphoid DNA.
 At the region of centromere the chromosome is comparativelt narrower than remaining
part of chromosome. Thus it is termed as Primary constriction.
5. Chromatid –At metaphase stage each chromosome is consist of two cylindrical strucres –
called chromatids. Both sister chromatids or longitudnal half chromosome are joined
together by a common centromere, A chromosome, may have single chromatid
(inAnaphase or Telophase ) or two chromatid . (as in metaphase. )
6. Secondary constricion: Besides primary constrictions one or two , other constriction
may also occurs on some chromosome, which are known as cecondary constriction.
 Secondary constriction is also known as NOR (Nucleolar organizer region) (13, 14, 15,
21, 22 chromosome in human )

25
7. Satellite : part of chromosome remains after the NOR is known as chromosomes
satellite/Trabent.
 Chromosomes with satellite part are called as SAT chromosome (SAT=Sine Acid
Thymonucleinico)
8. Telomere: chromosomes have polarity and polar ends of chromosomes is known as
 Telomere. Telomere prevents fusion of one chromosomes to other chromosome . Telomere
rich in Guanine base.
 Enzyme Telomerease presents in telomere part of chromosome, which is a
Ribonucleopotein.

TYES OF CHROMOSOMES ON THE BASIS OF POSITION OF CENTROMERE

(i) Telocentric: - When centromere is terminal or located at tip of chromosome.

(ii) Acrocentric: -When the centromere is sub- terminal or located neat the tip .
(iii) Metacentric: -When the centromere is located at mid of the chromosome.
(iv) Sub metacentric: -When the centromere located near centre or mid point of chromosome.
 The ratio of length of the long arm to the short arm of a chromosome is called arm ratio,
Aem ratio is masimum in acrocenteric chromosome.

TYPES OF CHROMOSOMES ON THE BASIS OF NUMBER OF CENTROMERE

(i) Acentric ;- Chromosome without centromere.
(ii) Monocentric: - Chromosome with one centromere.
(iii) Dicentric: -When the number of centromere is two .
(iv) Polycentric chromosome: -When the number of centromere is more than two & diffused
in throughout chromosome length.

ULTRA STRUCTURE OF FINE STRUCTURE OR THE CHROMOSOME

Following theories was given for structure of chromosome: -

(i) Multstranded (Multineme) model: -This model was proposed by steffenson. According to
him each chromatid of chromosomeos consist of 16 DNA chains.
(ii) Singel strand models: - (Supported by crossing over)
(a) Uninemal model : - Given by Ris. According to this model each chromatid of
chromosome is consist of one DNA molecule.
(b) Foldedfibre model: -Proposed by Du Praw. According to this model , chromosome
is consist of highly folded single DNA molecule.

26
(c) Nucleosome model: -Bead like structure in chromatin was first observed by Olin’s etal
This model was proposed by Kornberg & Thomas in 1974, which is most important and
universally accepted model for the structure of chromosome . This model explain that how
giant DNA molecule & histone (Chromatin) packaged in a chromosome. Term nucleosome
was given by P, Oudet in 1975 . “ Nucleosome is a unit of chromatin (chromosome) which
is composed of about 200 base of the DNA and an Octamer (Core particle ) of four types
(H2A, H2B, H3 & H4) of histone proleins “ Nucleosome is also known as Nu-budy or  -
particle.

Nucleosome =Binding DNA (146bp) + Octamer + Linker DNA +H 1 Histone

(H2A, H2B, H3 , H4 × 2)

 6 Nuclesome unit united (or super coiling ) to forma Solenoid structure. ( by klug -1982)
 H1 histone protein ( sealing histone) joined the turns of binding DNA in nucleosome .
3
1
 Nucleosome unit have 1. 75 or 4 turns of binding DNA .

SPECIAL TYPE OF CHROMOSOMES

1. Salivary gland chromosome : - This type of chromosome was discovered by E. G.
Balbiani , in Chironomous larva of insect. Size of this chromosome may upto 2000 micron
(2mm) and number of chomatids reach. 512 to many thousands. Thus , this type of
chromosome also known as Giant chromosome.

 Koller named it as Polytene chromosome , because number of chromatids is very high.

27
 Swollen areas present at some places in polytene chromosome , which are called as
Baibiani rings or puffs. These puffs helps in synthesis of RNA & proteins.
 Salivary gland chromosome concerns with metamorphosis and moulting process of
insect larva. (This chromosome is related to a moulting hormone -Ecdyson)
2. Lamp brush chromosome-Discovered by Flemming and Ruckert form oocyes of
vertebeates (Amphibia ) during diplotene stage of cell division . These chromosomes look
like lamp-brush , thuscalled as lamp brush chromosome.
Size of these chromosome may upto 500 micron, and also called as giant chromosome.
 Axis of lamp –brush chromosome is consist of DNA, which matrix is consist of RNA &
proteins.
 Lamp brush chromosome is concerned with ‘Vitellogenesis” (Yolk formation)

3. B- Chromosome/Accessory chromosome/Superunemerary chromosome: -

 Discovered by Wilson in Metapodian Insect. Name suprtniemerary chromosome was given
by D. Jones 1975.
 These are heteochromatic & small sized chromosome. Thus , no phenotpic effects are
know.
(Morphological control)
 B- chromosomes also present in plants cells (Maize)
 They are supposed to be involved in Ecological adaptaion of organisms.
4. Mega chromosome: -
 Found in Hybrid species of Tobacco.
5. Isochromosome: -
 When the both arms of the chromosomes are identical or genetically similar. Then
chromosomes called as isochromosomes. If are of a telocentric chromosomeorid splitted
upto centromere then a metacentric chromosome with two identical arms is formed . such
chromosome is called isochromosome. Ring chromosome: - Prokaryotic chromosome
are ring chromosome or consists of circular fokded DNA without histone.
7. Sex chromosome: - May be XX or XY
8. HACs , MACs , YACs , BACs etc.

HUMAN CHROMOSOMES
 The normal diploid (2N) chromosome number in human being is 46. It was given by T. H.
Tijo and A. Levan in 1956.

 The chromosome complement of a cell depicting the number , size and form of the
chromosome as seen in metaphase of mitosis is called karyotype and diagrammatic
representation of karyotype is known as Idiogram orKaryogram. .

28
 The chromosomes are morphologically numbered in to 7 groups. (size and poditon of
centromere) by Denver and Colorado (1960)
Group (A) : 1-3 chromosomes of largest size and submetacentric or metacentic
centromere.
Group (B) : 4-5 chromosomes with less larger , submetacentric
Group (C) : 6-12 chromosomes with medium sized and submetacentric centromere.
Group (D) : 13-15 chromosomes, shorter than group ‘C’ with centromere near the end
(Acrometaceteric ) . They are SAT chromosomes or satellite.
Group (E) : 16-18 chromosomes, short sized , with medial (Metacenteric) or submedian
centromere (Submetataceteric)
Group (F) : 19-20 s, short sized with median centromere.
Group (G) : 21-22 chromosomes, smallest in size, Acrocentric and are also posess
satellites.
 X chromosome is placed in ‘C’ group due to its larger size and submedian centromere.
 Y- chromosome is placed in group ‘G’ due to its short size but satellite absent and is
Acrocentric type.

29
 EXERCLSE-1
CELL WALL, CELL MEMBRANE. GLYCOCALYX
1. Muramic acid is present in cell walls of : - 13. Dynthesis of cell wall material takes
(1) Bacteria and blue – green algae place in : -
(2) Green algae (1) Dictyosome (2) Mitochondna
(3) Yeast (3) Lysosome (4) E. R.
(4) All fungi 14. Tonofibrils are characteristic of which
2. Growth of cell wall during cell elongation juntion : -
takes place by: - (1) desmosomes (2) Plasmodesmata
(1) Appositon (3) Gap junction (4) Tight junction
(2) Intussusception 15. Acccording to fluid mosaic mode
(3) Both 1 and 2 (proposed by Singer & Nicolson ) plasma
(4) Super position membrane is composed of : -
3. Plasmodesmata are : - (1) Cellulose, hemicellulose
(1) Pores in cell wall (2) Phospholipid and integrated protein
(2) Pores in cell membrane (3) Phospholipid , extrinsic protein,
(3) Protoplasmic connections intrinsic protei
(4)1and 2 both (4) Phospholipid and hemicellulose
4. Which element mainly occurs in middle 16. Trus is composed of : -
lamella: - (1) Suberin (2) Chitin
(1) Ca (2) Mg (3) NA (4) K (3) Cutin (4) Lignin
5 Lignified cell wall is characteristic feature 17. Carbohydrates which present in th cell
of : - membrane take part in: -
(1) Vessels (2) Sieve cells (1) Transport of substance
(3) Sieve tubes (4) All the above (2) Cell recognition
6 Cell membrane have how many enzzymes : (3) Attachment to microfilament
(1) 20 (2) 30 (3) 40 (4)Morethan 50 (4) Attachment to microtubules
7. Cell membrane is composed of : - 18. Plasma membrane is fluid strcture due
(1) Proteina and cellulose to presence of : -
(2)Protins and phospholipids (1) Carebohydrate
(3)Proteins ans carbophydrates (2) Lipid
(4) Proteins , phospholipids and some (3) Glyco protein
carbohyrates (4) poly saccharide
8. Which of the following is main enzym e of 19. The most abundant lipid in cell
plasma membrane: - menbrane is : -
(1) TPPase (2) ATPase (1) Cutin (2) Cholesterol
(3) peptidyl trnsferase (4) Catalases (3) Steroid (4) phospholids
9. Percentage of intrinsic proteins in the 20. Cell wal of lignified cell is : -
total proteins of plasma membrane: - (1) Semipermeable and dead
(1) 70% (2) 20% (3) 10% (4) 90% (2) Permeable and living
10. Cell wall was discovered by : - (3) Impemeable and dead
(1) Robert brown (2) Malpighi (4) Impermeable and living 21. The
(3) Robert Hooke 4) Nageli chemical substance abundantly present
11. Cell wall is : - in middle lamella is : -
(1) Dead andimpermeable (1) Cutin (2) chitin (3) Lognin (4) pectin
(2) Dead and permeable 22. In which cell –surface junction fused
(3) Living and impermeable membrane reveals five –layered strucre: -
(4) Living and selective (1) Desmosomes
12. Carbohydrates are present in the (2) Zonaoccludence
plasmalemma inn the form of : - (3) Gap-junction
(1) Hemicellulose (4) Plasmidesmata
(2) Cellulose 23. Which type of cell surface junctions
(3) Starch abundantly occur in epithelial tissues: -
(4) Glycoprtein (1) Nexus (2) Desmosomes
(3) Zona occludence (4) plasmodesmata

30
24. The middle lamella is composed of : - 38. The singer’s Model of Plasma membrane
(1) Pectates (2) cellulose differs from the Robertson’s model in
(3) Lignin (4) Proteins the-
25. Cell wall is present in: - (1) Number of lipid layers
(1) Plant cells (2) procaryotic cell (2) Arranement of proteins
(3) Algal cell (4) all the above (3) Arrangement of lipid layers
26.Plasma membrane is : - (4) Absence of protein layers
(1) Selectively permeable 39. Ingestion of solid food by plasma
(2) Pereable membranes is called –
(3) Impermeable (1) Endosmosis
(4) Semipermeable (2) Pinocytosis
(3) Cytokinesis
27. Amphipathic molecule in plasma (4) Phagocytosis
membrane is : - 40. Plasma membrane exhilbits for external
(1) Protein (2) Carbohydrates substances-
(3) Phosphlipids (4) All the above (1) Diffusion
28. The average thickness of (2) Osmosis
plasmemembrane was proposed by: - (3) Exocytosis
(1) 70A (2) 75-100A (4) Endosmosis
(3) 100-150A (4) 200A 41. Plasma membrane exhibits for external
substance-
29. Unit membrane model of plasmembrane (1) Impermeabiltiy
was propsed by: - (2) Semi permeabiltiy
(1) Robertson (2) Singer (3)Permeabiliy`
(3) Danielli (4) Robert lamella (4)SelectiveSemipermeability
30. Pit membrane of simple pit is formed 42. Endocytosis includes-
by:- (1) Phagicytosis
(1) Secondary cell wall (2) Pinocytosis
(2) Middle lamella (3) Both
(4) None
(3)primarycell walll (4) Plasma membrane 43. In fluid mosaic model of plasma
31. Cell wall is made up of : - membrane : - [CBSE-2002]
(1) Several layers of microfibils (1) Upper layer is ono –polar and
(2) Several micellae hydrophilic
(3)Cellulosemolecules (2) Polar layer is hydrophobic
(4)Glucosemolecule (3) Phospholipids form a bimolecular
32. Term plasmodesmeta was first used by: - layer in middle part
(1) Leuwenhock (2) De duve (4) Proteins form a middla layer
44. Plsmodesmata connections help in : -
(3) Strabuger (4) Porter (1) Cytoplasmic streming .
33. primary cell wall formed by: - (2) Synchronous mitotic divisions.
(1) Intussusception (3) Locomotion of unicellular organisms.
(2) Apposition (4) Movement of substances between
(3) Intussusception & lignification cells.
(4) mineralization 45. According to widely acceteed “ fluid
34. The cells are held together by a Ca- mosaic model” cell membranes are semi-
pectate layer called: - fiuid , where lipids and integral proteins
can diffuse randomly . in recent years ,
(1) Primary cell wall this model has been modified In several
(2) Secondary cell wall respects , In this regard , which of the
(3) Middle lamella following statements is incorrect-
(4)Tertiarycell wall (1) proteins an also undergo flip –flop
35. Cell wall of prokarytes is made up of : - movements in the lipid bilayer
(1) Chitin (2) Cellulose [CBSE 2005]
(3) Glucose amine (4) Mucopeptide (2) Many proteins renian completely
36. Butter Sandwich model of plasma embeded within the lipid bilayer
(3) Proteins in cell membranws can
membrane was proposed by : - travel within the lipid bilayer
(1) Davson and Daniellli (2) Robertson (4) Proeins can remain confined within
(3 ) Singer and Nicolson (4) Benson certain domains of the membranes
37. Selective permeabilty occurs in – 46.Which one of the following is not a
(1) Cell wall (2) Plasma membarne constituent of cell menbrane?
(3) Cytoplasm (4) None of these (1) Cholestreol (2) Goycolipids
(3) Proline (4) Phospholids

31
 EXERCLSE-2

CYTOPLASM- METOCHONDRIA , GOLGLCOMPEX, LYSSOSOME, E, R.

1. In order to find out quickly whether the (1) Naked (2) Circular
cells are licing one must observe: - (3) Double stranded (4) All the above
12. Which strctrues are responsible for lipid
(1) Cell sap synthesis respectively in plants and
(2) Tonoplast animal cells: -
(3)Movementofcytoplasm (1) Smooth E. R.
(2) Smooth and rough E. R.
(4)Starch granules (3) Smooth E. R. and sphaerosomes
2. Mitochondria are also called a : - (4) Sphaerosomes and smooth E. R.
(1) Lipochondria (2) Sarcoplasm 13. Golgibody orginatates from: -
(1) E. R (2) Mitochondria
(3) Chondriosomes (4) Microbodies (3) Nucleus (4) Proplastid
3. Which one is widely disiributed in a cell: - 14. Lysosomes are not helpful in : -
(1) DNA (2) RNA (3) Plastids (4) Golgi (1) Osteogenesis
(2) Cellular digestion
4. Maximum enzymes are found in: - (3) Metamoprphosis in frog(4) Lipogenesis
(1) Lysosomes (2) Microbodria 15.Digestion of hormonal vesicle by
(3) Nucleus (4) E. R lysosome is called.
(1) Crinophagy (2) Heterophagy
5. Rough E. R. mainly responsible for: - (3) Autophagy (4) Autolysis
(1) Protein synthesis 16. Acrosome of sperm is derived from: -
(2) Cell wall formation (1) Golgi vesicle (2) Lysosome
(3) Golgi tuble (4) Cisternae
(3) Lipid syntesis (4) Cholesterol synthesis 17.Which cell organelle synthesises steroids:
6. Besides producing secretory vesicles, the (1) E. R (2) Golgibody
function of golgibody is: - (3) Peroxisomes (4) Lysosomes
18.In mammals, the mitochondrial
(1) Lysosome formation ribosomes are : -
(2) Fprmation of spindle fibers (1) 55s (2) 70s (3) 80s (4) 100s
(3) Formation of E. R. (4) All the above 19. Phospholipid synthetase enzyme occur
in : -
7. The flat structures consisting of cisternae (1) RER (2)SER
and lying clode to nucleus are: - (3)Golgibody (4) Giyoxysome
(1) E. R. (2) Golgibody 20. Which of the following provides
mechanical support and shape to the cell:
(3) Mitochondria (4) Centrosome (1) Golgi complex (2) Centrioles
8. Mitochondria supply most of the (3) Lomasomes (4) W. R.
necessary biological energy through: - 21. What would happen if lysosomes get
ruptured inside the cells, in which they
(1) Breaking down sugars are present : -
(2) Reducing NADP (1) Cella will swell (2) Cells willl die
(3) Oxidising Substeates of TCA cycle (3) Cells will shrink (4) Nothing would
22. Power house of cell is : -
(4) Breaking down proteins (1) Nucleus (2) DNA
9. Enzymes for ETS occur in (mitochondria) : (3) Mitochondria (4) ATP
(1) Matrix (2) Outer wall 23. Mitochondria are site of respiration first
reported by kingsbury and supported by
(3) Inner membrane Hogeboom Mitochondria are related with
(4) Between inner & outer wall the oxidation of :
10.Which cel organelle secretes zymogen (1) Carbohydrates (2) Fats
(3) Proteins (4) All the above
granules;- 24. Elementary particles of mitochondria
(1) Lysosomes (2) Golgibody are: -
(3) Smooth E. R. (4) Sphaerosomes (1) F1 particles (2) Ribosomes
(3) DNA (4) Lysosomes
11. Mitochodrial DNAis ;-

32
25. Wher does TCA cycle takes place: - (1) Sphaerosome (2) Peroxisome
(1) Cytoplasm (3) Lomasome (4) Golgi body
(2) Inner membrane of mitochondria 37. Lysosome containing bone cells are
(3) Outer membrane of mitochondria called: -
(4) Mitochondrial matrix (1) Osteo blast (2) Fibro blast
(3) Osteoclast (4) Condrioblast
26. Peptidyl transferase enzyme found on: -
(1) Cyroplasm (2) E. R. 38. Chemical modification of substance like
(3) Golgibody (4) Ribosomes glycosidation of protein and lipid occur
in: -
27. F1 –partuckes are composed of : - (1) Endoplasmic reticulum(2) Golgi body
(1) Pifment (2) ATP (3) Lysosome (4) Ribosome
(3) ATPase (4) FMN
39 The smooth E. R. is generally made up of
28.Hydrolytic enzymes are abundantly found :-
in which cell organelles: - [RPMT-2004] (1) Cisternae (2) Tubules
(1) Ribosome (2) Lysosome (3) Vesicle (4) All the above
(3) Oxysome (4) Endoplasic 40. Most of the cell –organelles are derived
29. Which of the following transport the cell from which strcture of cell: -
wall material from dityosome: - (1) Nucleus
(2) Endoplasmic reticulum
(1) Micirotubules (2) Microfilanent (3) Mitochondria (4) Chloroplast
(3) E. R. (4) Microbodies
30. Which of the following sets of cell 41. Smooth E. R. of animal cell does not
synthesize: -
organelles contain DNA: - (1) Cholesterol
(1) Mitochondria , peroxysome (2) Phosphlipid
(2) Plasma membrane, ribosome (3) Saturated fatty acid
(4) Unsaturated fatty acid
(3)Mitochondria(4)Chloroplast,dictuosome
31. Semiautonomous cell organelle is : - 42. Which of the following is known as :
(1) Mitochondria (2) Ribosome System of membrane”
(1) Lysosome (2) E. R.
(3) Plasma membrane (4) Peroxysome (3) Mitochondria (4) Chhloroplast
32. Golgibody is absent in : -
(1) Prokaryotes 43. Oxysome of mitochondria are concerned
with : -
(2) Mature mammalian R. B. C. (1)Photophosphorylation
(3) Akaryotes (4) all the above (2) Oxidative phosphrylation
33. Which cell orgenelles release oxygen: - (3) Photorespiration (4) Digestion
44. Ribophorin –I and II occur in the surface
(1) Mitochondria (2) Golgi-body of : -
(3) Chloroplast (4) Ribosome (1) Rough E. R. (2) Smooth E. R.
34. The presence of the mitochondria plant (3) Golgi body (4) None
was first demomstrated by : - 45. The term” Lipido chondria “ was
(1) Altmann (2) Kolliker suggested for : -
(3) F. Meeves (4) Hofmeisier (1) Mitochondria (2) E. r.
(3) Golgi complex (4) Ribosome
35. In which types of cell lysosomes are
abundantly found : - 46. The golgi components ara bound by: -
(1) Storage cell (2) Glandular cell (1) Single unit membrane
(2) Double unt membrane
(3) Phagocytic cell (4) Vascular cell (3) Cisternae by single, tubules and
36. One of the following is present outside vacuole by double
the plasma membrane but inside the cell- (4) Cistrnae and tubules by single and
vacuole by double
wall : -

33
47. During spermatoginesis golgi is thought (3) Base of F1 –particle
to be responsible for the formation of : - (4) All the above
(1) Tall (2) Myeloid piece 58. Mark the lysosomal stabilizer: -
(3) Head (4) Acrosome (1) Vitamin –K (2) Vitamin-A
48. At whihch pH lysosomal enzymes remain (3) cortisone (4) Progesterone
active: - 59. The nuclear membrane originate fro: -
(1) pH -5 (2) pH -7 (3) pH -8 (4) pH—10 (1) E. R. (2) Golgi cisternae
49. Synthesis of cellulose and hemicellulose (3) Golgi vesicle (4) Lysosome
tade place in : - 60. T-tubules of muscles are modificatin of :
(1) Micro bodies (2) Smooth E. R. -
(3) Golgi complex (4) Lysosome (1) E. R. (2) Golgibody
50, The cell organelles hacing abundance of (3) Microtubules (4) Microtilaments
oxidizing enzymes is : - 61 Cell organelle rich in hydrolases enzyme
(1) Golgi body is : -
(2) Endoplasmic reticulum (1) Mitochondria (2) Peroxisomes
(3) Centrioles (4) Mitochondria (3) Glyoxysomes (4) Lysosomes
51.In which part of mitochondria the enzyme 62. REE is well developed in cell engaged in
succinic dehydrogenase is present: - the synthesis of : -
(1) Outer membraane (1) Steroids(2) Fats (3) Vitamin(4) Proteins
(2) Inner membrane 63.Which of the following prevents the
(3) Matrix (4) Preimitochondrial space rupturing of lysosomal membrane: -
52. Main function of golgi –complex is : - (1) Cholesterol (2) Vit. A
(1) Fermentation (3) Testosterone (4) UV-rays
(2) Phosphorylation 64. Aerobic respiration is performed by: -
(3)Respitation (1) Mitochondria (2) Chloroplast
(4)Packagingof materials for secretion (3) Ribosome (4) Golgibody
53. Pleomorphic cell organelles is : - 65. Mitochondria originated from: -
(1) Ribosome (2) Lysosome (1) Purple sulphur bacteria
(3) Chloroplast (4) Lucleus (2) Cyanobacteria
54. Functional unit of protein synthesis is: - (3 Mycoplasma (4) Virus
(1) Dictyosome (2) Polyosome 66. GERL concerned with the biogenesis of :
(3) Peroxisome (4) Lysosome (1) Golgibody (2) E. R.
55. Which of the following is a main source (3) Mitochondria (4) Lysosomes
of cellular membrane: - 67. Golgibody first observed by: -
(1) Endoplasmic reticulum (1) L. S>George (2) C. Golgi
(2) Golgi body (3) Parker (4) Kolliker
(3) Mitochondria (4) Nucleus 68. Which cell organelle oxidise maximum
56. Mitochondria are present in the : - type of respiratory s ubstrates: -
(1) Aerobic organism only (1) Mitochondria (2) Lysosome
(2) Obligate anaerobic oranism (3) Peroxisome (4) Chloroplast
(3)Aerobicandobligate anderobic organism 69. Ground substance present inside the
(4) Angiosperm only mitochondria is called: -
57. ATP ase activity occur in: - (1) Stroma (2) Matrix
(1) Head of F – particle (3) Cell sap (4) Cytoplasm
(2) Stalk of F-particle

34
70. Fat metabolism tskes place in: - 83. Autodissolution and osteogenesis are
(1) Nucleus (2) Chlorplast function of
(3) Mitochondria (4) Glogibodies (1) Golgibodies (2) Ribosome
71. Which cell organelles takes part in the (3) Lysosomes (4) Mitochondria
formation of lysosomes: - 84. Semi autonomous cell organelles of cell
(1) Irregular function of endoplasmic are-
reticulum (1) Nucleus and chloroplast
(2) Storage of glycogen in lysosome (2) Chloroplast and mitochondria
(3) Deficiency of vitamin E (3) Vacuoles and golgi complex
(4) Hypersecretion of thyroid hormone (4) Ribosome and lysosome
73. Suicide bags of cells are : - 85 . The name mitochondria was first given
(1) Endoplasmic reticulum (2) Lysosome by : -
(3) Golgi bodies (4) Vacuoles (1) Robert Brown (2) Benda
74.Osteogenesis and removal of dead cells (3) Altmann (4) L. S. Jorge
are function of : - 86. Cristae are found in: -
(1) Ribosome (2) Lysosome (1) Surface of grana
(3) Cell membrane (4) Vacuoles (2) Surface of plasma membrane.
75. F1 subunit of oxysome is called: - (3)WallofMitochondria(
(1Head (2) Stalk (3) base (4) Filament (4)NuclearMembrane
76. Three morphological forms of golgi 87. A single unit membrane organelle is :
complex are: - (1) Ribosomes (2) Mitochondria
(1) Lamellae, tubules and vesicles (3) Chloropast (4) Lysosomes
(2) Cisternae, tubules and vesicles 88. Double layered organell are-
(3) Cisternae, tubules and lamellae (1) Ribosones (2) Mitochondria
(4) Granum , thalykoids and vesicles (3) Lysosomes (4) Centriole
78. During germination which cell organelle 89. Cisterne is found in-
converts fatty acid into soluble (1) Only mitochondria
carbohydrate: - (2)Oniy Endoplasmic Reticulum
(1) Per oxisome (2) Glyoxysme (3) Endoplasmic Reticulum and Golgi
(3) Sphaerosoes (4) Lysosome body
79. Labilisers found ao membrane of (4) Only Golgi body
lysosome are: -
(1) Cortisone and cortisol 90. Substance which is synthesized in golgi
(2) Cholesterol and hrogesterone body is –
(3) Testostrone and progesteron (1) Protein (2) Polusaccharides
(4) Cholesterol and progesterone (3) Fats (4) ATP
80. How many compoents present in fully
developed 91. Which structure mainly maintains
(1) 2 (2) 3 (3) 4 (4) 5 composition of mitochondrial matrix-
81.The endoplasmic reticulum is present in: (1) Outer membrane
(1) Nucleus (2) Chromosomes (2) Inner membrane
(3) Nucleolus (4) Cytoplasm (3) Both(1) &(2)
82. Cellular furnaces of cells are- (4) Both membrane and Perimitochondrial
(1) Chloroplast (2) Mitochondia space
(3) Ribosome (4) Nucleus

35
92. True Statement about Mitochondria is –
(1) Change in shape and size and division
both occur
(2) Do not change shape but division
occurs
(3) Do not change shape and size and
division not occurs
(4) Change shape but division does not
occur
93. E. R. is not related with –
(1) Plamalaemma (2) Golgbody
(3) Mitohondria (4) Nucleus
94. Which cell irganelle reduces the number
or E. R. and Mitochondria-
(1) Lysosome (2) E. R.
(3) Mitochondria (4) Golgibody
95. Which of thefollwing is the site of lipid
syntheaia- [RPMT-2002]
(1) Rough E. R. (2) Smooth E. R.
(3) Golgi bodies (4) Ribosome
96 .The main organelle incolced in
modification and routing of synthesized
proteins to their destinations is –
(1) Endoplamic Reticulum(2) Lysosome
(3) Mitochondria (4) Chioroplast
97. Chlorophyll in chlorolasts is located in-
(1) Grana (2) Pyrenoid
(3) Strome (4) Both grana and stroma
98. Which of thefollowing statements
regarding mitochondrial membrane is not
cerrect?
(1) The outer membrane resmbles a sieve
(2) The outer membrane is permeable to
all kinds of molecules.
(3) The enzyles of electrone transfer chain
areembedded in the outer membrane.
(4) The inner membranand is highly
convoluted forming a series of
infoldings .
99. Polusome is formed by: -
(1) A ribosome with several subunits
(2) Ribosomes attacched to each other ina
linear arragenment
(3) Several ribososoes attached to a single
mRNA
(4) Many ribosomes attached to a strand
of endophasmic reticulumm
100. Vacuole in plant cell: -
(1) Lacks membrane and contains air
(2) Lacks membrane and contains water
and excretory substances
(3) Is membranebound and contains
storage proteins and lipids
(4) is membrane –bound and contain
water and excretory substances
101.In germinating seeds fatty acids are
degraded exclusivelyinthe:-[CBSE . 2008]
(1) Peroxisome (2) Mitochondria
(3) Proplastids (4) Glyoxysomes
102. Keeping in view the fluid mosaic model
for the structure of cell membrane ,
which one of the follwing statements is
correct with reapect to the movement of
lipids and proteins from one lipid
moolayer to the other (described as
flipflop movement ) ?
(1) Which proteins can flip-flop, lipids can
not
(2) Neither lipds, nor proteins can flip-
flop
(3) Both lipids can rarely flip- flop
(4) Which lipids can rarely flip-flop,
proteins can not
36
 EXERCISE-3

PLASTIDS, CILIA, FLAGELLA, CENTRIOLES[CENTROSOME], RIBOSOME

MICROBODIES, MICROTUBULES AND MICROFILAMENTS
1. The chlorophyll pigment is readily soluble 14. Sphaerosome are involved in : -
in: - (1) Synhaerosome and storage of lipid
(1) Water (2) Acids (3) Alkalies (4) Acetone (2) Synthesis of proteein
2. Centrioles are found in: - (3)  -oxidation of fatty acids
(1) Chromosomes (2) Nucleus (4) Synthesis and storage of carbohydrate
(3) Centrosome (4) Centromere
3. Site of Calvin Cycle is – 15. Which are called “ Botder-bodies” : -
(1) Chloroplast (2) Cytoplasm (1) Glyoxysome (2) Peroxsome
(3) Mitochondria (4) Glyoxisome (3) Lomasome (4) Sphaerosome
4. Enzymes are synthesizd on : -
(1) Dictyosomes (2) Ribosomes 16. Factory of ribosome in a cell is: -
(3) Mitochondria (4) None (1) Endoplasmic reticulum(2) Nucleolus
5. Larger subuit of ribosome is dome shaped (3) Mitochondria (4) Golgi body
and attached to ER by : -
(1) Ribophorins (2) Aminoacid 17. What is the angle between two centriole
(3) Ca+2 (4) Hydrogen bonds of a centrosome : -
6. Which is not true about sphaerosnoes: - (1) 300 (2) 450 (3) 600 (4) 900
(1) Involved in photorespiration
(2) Arise from E. R. 18. Self duplication does not occur in: -
(3) Related to fat metbolism (1) Mitochoondria (2) Centrioles
(4) Single membane bound (3) Chloroplast (4) Ribosome
7. Bacterial ribosomes are called: -
(1) Episome (2) Polysomes 19. Ribosome attacherd with rough E. R. by
(3) Mesosomes (4) Centrosome the help of
8. Episome absent in: - (1) Protein
(1) Potato (2) Cocos nucifera (2) Carbohydrate
(3) Arachis hypogea (4) Helianthus (3) Glycoprotein (Ribbophorin)
9. In higher plants, the chloroplast are : - (4) Phosphoprotein
(1) Discoidal or oval (2) Spiral
(3) Cupshaped (4) Reticulate 20. In which tublin protein is not present: -
10. Which ion holds the ribosomal subunits (1) Plasma membrane (2) Cilia
togeter- (3) Flagella (4) Microtubules
(1) Ca+2 (2) Mn+2 (3) Mg+2 (4) Na+ 21. In which of ht following cell centriole is
11. DNA is not found in : - absent-
(1) Nucleus (2) Mitochondria (1) Epithelial cell (2) Gland cell
(3) Chloroplaaaaaaast (4) Ribosome (3) Liver cells (4) Nerve cell
12. Mitochondria and chloroplast are 22. Ribosomes ar: -
considered to be endosymbionts of cell (1) Positively charged
because they: - (2) Negatively charged
(1) Posses their own nucleic acid (3) Amphoteric (4) Neutral
(2) Have capacity of ATP synthesis 23. Sphaerosomes are formed from: -
(3) Do not reproduce (4) All the above (1)Lipiochondria
13. Per xysome contain: - (2)Endoplasmic reticulum
(1) Hydrolytic enzyme (3) Ribosome
(2) Transferase (4) Mitochondria
(3) Isomerase (4)xidisingenzyme (Oxidase)

37
24. On which concentration of Mg+2 ions (3) Ris and Plaut (4) Benda
dimer ribosome is formed : - 38. Anthocyanin pigment occus in : -
(1) 0. 0001 M (2) 0. 001 M (1) Chromplasts (2) Amyloplasts
(3) 0. 01 M (4) 0. 10 M (3) Cytoplasm (4) Cell sap
25. The peroxisomes areassociated with the 39. Which of the cilia proein is analogous
phenomenon of : - tomyosin of muscles: -
(1) Oxidativa anabolism (1) Tublin (2) Dynien
(2) De –gradation of H2O (3) Flagellin (4) None of the above
(3) Anaerobic respiration 40. Maximum substance in ribosome is : -
(4) Photorespiration and degradation of (1) RNA (2) ATP (3) NAD (4) NADPH
H2O2 41. Function of centrosome is: -
26. Factory for syntesis of sugars in (1) Initiation of cel div.
autotrophic eukaryotes is – (2) Inhibition of cell div.
(1) Mitochondria(2) Ribosome (3) Termination of cell div. (4) Cytokinesis
(3) Chloropast (4) Endopasmic reticulum 42. Blepheroplast is a type of : -
27. Which of the following is not a (1) Centriole (2) Plastid
mechanical cell organelle: - (3) Cilia (4) Mitochondria
(1) Glyoxysomes (2) Centriole 43. Water soluble yellow pigment present in
(3) Diplosome (4) Blepheroplast petals of Tageetes and sunflower is : -
28. Plastids which store fats and oils are (1) Carotene (2) Xanthophyll
called: - (3) Anthoclor (4) Lycopene
(1) Aleuroplast (2) Amyloplast 44. Procaryotic Ribosomes are 70 s, s refers
(3) Erioplast (4) Elaioplast to: -
29. Reticulate chloroplast occur in : - (1) Svedberg unit (2) Smallest unit
(1) Ulothrix (2) Oedogonium (3) Smooth (4) Speed
(3) Spirogyea (4) Chlamydomonas
30. Biogenesos of eucaryotic Ribosomes 45. Rhizoplasts or rootles are part of : -
takes place in- (1) Centriole (2) Root hairs
(1) Mitochondria (2) Chloroplast (3) Ciliary apparatus (4) Spindle
(3) Both(1) and(2) (4) Nic;ep;is
31. . Which of the following termed as highly 46. Glyoxylate pathway takes place in: -
specialisedperoxisomes : - (1) Peroxisomes (2) Sphaerosomes
(1) Glyoxysomes (2) Mitochondria (3) Lysosomes (4) Glyoxysomes
(3) Golgibody (4) Sphaerosomes
32. “ Palade particles” are : - 47. Pericarp and petals contain: -
(1) Ribosome (2) Golgi vesicles (1) Chlorolpast (2) Chromoplast
(3) Lysosomes (4) Sphaerosomes (3) Leucoplast (4) Etioplast
33. Ribosomes are center of : -
(1) Lipid synthesis 48. Arrangement of microtubules in centriole
(2) Crabohydrate synthesis is : -
(3) Protein synthesis (4) All the above (1)9+2 (2) 2+9 (3) 11+0 (4) 9+0
34. Red colour of tomato and chilly is due to:
(1) Lycopene in chloroplast 49. How many longitudinal perpheral fibres
(2) Xanthophylls in chromoplast found in a centriole: -
(3) Lycopene in chromoplast (1) 2 (2) 9 (3) 5 (4) 7
(4) Anthocyanin in leucoplast
35. Polysome is a chain of : - 50. Smallest cell organelle is : -
(1) Pinesomes (2) Phagosomes (1) Lysosome (2) Centrosome
(3) Microsomes (4) Ribosomes (3) Ribosome (4) Golgibody
36. By loss of rbosomes RER converts in : -
(1) SER (2)Golgibody 51. Non pigmented part of chlorplast is
(3) Lysosome (4) Microtubules called : -
37. DNA of chloroplast discovered by : - (1) Thylakoids (2) Grana
(1)Randadand Disprey(2) Nash and Margit (3) Stroma (4) Lamellae

38
52. Which of the following plastids are 67.Ribosomesareproduced in: -[CPMT-2007]
helpful in starch formation and storage: - (1) Nucleolus (2) Cytoplasm
(1) Chromoplast (2) Leucoplasts (3) Mitochondria (4) Golgibody
(3) Chloroplast (4) Lycopene 68. Which of the following pair lack the unit
membrane: - [RPMT-2002]
53. Lamellae of chloroplast are known as : - (1) Nucleolus & E. R.
(1) Granum (2) Frets (2) Ribosome & chioroplast
(3) Thylakoids (4) Stroma lamellae (3) Ribosome & nucleolus
54. Which of the following enzymes are (4) Golgi body & lysosome
found in matrix of peroxisome : - 69.Golgibody is concerned with : -
(1) NASH cytochrome reductase [RPMT 2004]
(2)Glyoxidases and malate dehydrogenase (1) Respiration (2) Secretion
(3) Acid phosphatases and isocitric lyase (3) Excretion (4) Degradation
70. Three of the following satements
(4) Catatases and oxidases regarding cell organelles are correct while
55. 70s type of ribosomes found un : - on is wrong . Which one is wrong?
(1) Prokaryotic cells (1) Lysosmes are double membraned
(2)Prokaryotic cells , chlorolasts and vesicles budded off form golgi
mitochondria apparatus and contain digestive
(3)Mitochondria(4) Nucleus, mitochondria enzymes.
56. Cilia and flagella arise from : - (2) Endoplasmic reticulum conisits of a
(1) Basal bodies (2) Basal granules network of membranous tubules and
helps in tranport, synthesis and
(3) Blepharoplasts (4) All of the above secretion .
57. Mitoplast is : - (3)Leucoplasts are bound by two
(1) Outer memberane less chloroplast membranes lack pigment but contain
(2) Outer membrane less mitochondria their own DNAand protein
(3) Granum less chloroplast synthesizing machinery.
(4) Well developed nucleus (4)Spharosomes are single memrane
58. Grana and stroma lamellae are the parts bound and storage of lipids.
of : - 71. In which one of the following would you
expect to fond glyoxysomes ? [AIIMS2006]
(1) Mitochondria (2) Chloroplast (1) Endosperm of wheat
(3) Endoplasmic reticulum (4) Vacuoles (2) Endosperm of castorr
59. Sedimentation coefficient of (3) Palisade cells in leaf (4) Rooot tairs
mitoribosomes of higher plants is : - 72.Which of the following statements
(1) 80s (2) 70s (3) 65s (4) 55s Regardingceliis not correct ?[CBSE 2006]
60. Which of the following subtances are (1) Cilia contin an outer of nina doublet
stored in Aleuropladt- microtubules. surrounding two single
(1) Starch (2) Oil and Lipids microtubules.
(2) The organized beation of cilia is
(3) Proteins (4) Water and Oil controlled by fluxes of Ca2+ across the
61. Smallest cell organelle which called cell membrane.
engine is (3) Cilia are hair –like cellular
(1) Ribosome (2) Lysosome appendages.
(3) Vacuoles (4) Endoplasmic reticulum (4) Microtubules of cilia are composed of
62. The Ribosomes are made up of = tubulin.
(1) DNA+ p rotein (2) RNA+ Protein 73.The contractile protein of skeletal muscle
(3) DNA+RNA (4) None of these involving ATPase activity is [CBSE 2006]
(1)  -Actinin (2) Troponin
63. Stroma Functionalunit of /chloroplast is (3) Tropomyosin (4) Myosin
(1) Stroma (2) Quantasome 74. Select the wrong statement from the
(3) Oxysomes (4) Peroxysomes following : [CBSE 2007]
64. Cilia and flagella both have – (1) Both chloroplasts and mitochondria
(1) 9+2 arrangement of microtubules contain and inner and outer
(2) Protective structure of cells membrane.
(3) Only present in protozoa Animals (2) Both chloroplasts and mitochondria
(4) Only outgrowth structure of have an intermal compartment , the
cytolplasm thylakoid space bounded by the
65. Centriolws and centrosomes are thylakoid membrane.
presente in cells of : - (3) Both chloropasts and mitochondria
(1) Animals (2) Bactria
(3) Green cells (4) Cyanobacteri contain DNA .
66. Similarity bet , plant and animal flagella (4) The chloroplasts are generally much
microtubules- larger than mitochondria
(1) 9+3 (2) 9+2 (3) 9+6 (4) 9+1

39
 EXERCISE-4
NUCLEUS AND CHROMOSOMES

1 . Nuclear pores are guarded by : - 12. Site of m-RNA synthesis in Lampbrush

(1) DNA (2) Annulus chromosomes is: -
(3) Protein (4) None (1) Balbiani rings (2) Lateral loops
2. Lampbrush chromosomes are observed in (3) Dstk bsnds (4) Light bands
:- 13. Chromosomes composed of : -
(1) Insect larva (2) Oocytes (1) DNA . RNA, Histones , Non histones
(3) Sperms (4) Salivary giands (2) DNA and Histones
3. Who proposed the chromosomal theory: - (3) DNA andRNA
(1) Bateson and punnet (4) DNA, RNA and Histones
(2) Menndel 14. Role of nucleus in morphology of plant
(3) Morgan (4) Sutton and Boveri was first discovered in : -
4. Which of the following stimulates balbiani (1) Acetabularia (2) Maize
ring formation in polytene chromosomes: (3) Pea (4) Neurospora
(1) Dynien (2) Juvenile harmone 15. Most diagnostic character of centromere
(3) Ecdysson 4) Histone is ;-
5. Small chromosomes which do not produce (1) Kinetochore (2) Kinetosome
any detectable phenotypic expression are (3) Setellite body (4) Chromonems
termed 16. Diploid number of chromosomes in Man
(1) Heterochromatic chromosomes , Black molish and Privet Hedge is : -
(2) Supernumerary chromosomes (1) 44 (2) 48 (3) 46 (4) 42
(3) Nonsense chromosomes 17. Nucleomema is part of : -
(4) Nuleoids (1) Chromosomes (2) Nucleolus
6. Genome is : - (3) Nucleus (4) Ribosome
(1) Pary of chromosome 18. Acccording to multi stranded theory
(2) Half chromosome each chromoaome composed of : -
(3) Total DNAin cell (1) 16 DNA (2) 32 DNA
(4) A complete set of chromsomes (3) 2DNA (4) 1DNA
7. Nucleolar organizer is a : - 19. Which of the following character is not
(1) Primary constriction taken into consideration while prepaaring
(2) Secondary constriction a karyotype
(3) Tertiary constriction (1) Chromosome length
(4) Centriole (2) Arm ratio
8. Kinetochore is present in : - (3) Position of sec. Constriction
(1) Mitochondria (2) Sphaerosome (4) Length of chromonemata
(3) Chromosome (4) Flagella 20. The total herditary material which occur
9. True chromosomes absent in prokaryotes out side the chromosome is called as : -
due to the absence of : - (1) Cistron (2) Plasmon
(1) Nucleus (2) Nucleolus (3) Mutron (4) Intron
(3) Histone (4) All the above 21. The non-sticky chromosomal ends are
10. Acomplete set of chromosomes inherited known as
as an unit from one parent is knows as : (1) Chromatids (2) Centromere
(1) Karyotype (2) Gene pool (3) Chromomere (4) Telomere
(3) Genotype (4) Genome 22. Lampbrush chromosome contain: -
11. Nucleolus in Eukaryotic cell is : - (1) One chrmatid (2) Two chromatid
(1) Nonliving (3) Three chromatid (4) Several chromatid
(2) Visble at Metaphase 23.Highest arm ratio occur in which
(3) Bounded by membrane chromosome
(4) The site of packaging of r-RNA with (1) Telocentric (2) Metacentric
proteins (3) Submetacentric (4) Acrocentric

40
24. which chromosome does not provide 36.Who first proved that heredity is
attachment site for spindle fibers: - controlled by nucleus: -
(1) Acrocentric (2) Metacentric (1) Strasburger (2) Hammerlilng
(3) Submeta centric (4) Acentric (3) Mendel (4) Hugo de veries
37. False nucleolus rcieves which type of
25. The nucleolar chromatin contains gene stain: -
for : - (1) Acidic stain (2) Basic stain
(1) B-DNA (2) Z-DNA (3) Neutral stain (4) Any stain
(3) r-RNA (4) Satellite-DNA 38. Nucleus controls the activiy of
26. The heterochromatin is condensed in the cytoplasm by sending : -
following region of the chromosome: - (1) Enzymes (2) cAMP
(1) Secondary constriction-I (3) Hormones (4) RNA
(2) Secondary constriction -II 39. Which of the following chromoaomes
(3) Both the above are called diplotene chromosomes : -
(1) Polytene chromosomes
(4) Telomere (2) Super nmerary chromosomes
27. One solenoid com posed of : - (3) Sex chromaosomes
(1) 8-nculeosome (2) 6-nucleosome (4) Lamp brush chromosomes
(3) 10-nucleosome (4) 16-nucleosme 40. The protein nucleoplasmin occus in : -
28. Exceptionally large chromosome: - (1) Nuclear pore complex
(1) Lampbrush chromosome (2) Sieve cells
(2) Polytene chromosome (3) Nucleolus
(3) Megachromosomes (4) Heterochromatin
(4) All of the above 41.A swelling in the band of a polytene
chromosome is and indication of : -
29. Solenoid structure related with : - (1) Gene action (2) Gene inaction
(1) Chromatin fibre (2) Nucleolus (3) Mutation (4) Gene damage
(3) Nucleus (4) All of the above 42. Nucleus stores energy in the form of :
30. The chromosomes appear as beaded (1) ATP (2) GTP
structures at : - (3) TTP (4) CTP
(1) Leptotene (2) Pachytene 43. Ribonucleic acid occurs in : -
(3) Diakinesis (4) Telophase-I (1) Nucleus
31. Histone which links the nucleosomes (2) Cytoplasm
together is called: - (3) Nucleus and cytoplasm
(4) Mitochondria and chloroplast
(1) H1 (2) H2 A (3) H 2 B (4) H4 44. Nucleus was discovered by : -
32. Secondary constriction –II of (1) Leuwenhock (2) Robert Brown
chromosome is generally concerned with (3) Porter (4) Palade
the : - 45. The chromatin material which takes
(1) Synthesis of r-RNA darker stain in intephase is called : -
(2) Syntresis of t-RNA (1) Euchromatin
(3) Syntresis of m-RNA (2) Heterochromatin
(4) All the above (3) Primary constriction
33. Which chromosome remains condense (4) Satellite body
furing interphase : - 46. Lowest number of chromosomes is
(1) Sormal X-chromosome found in : -
(2) X-chromosome of Bar body (1) Radiolaria (2) Amoeba
(3) Autosomes (3) Ascris meglocphala (4) Aggrgata
(4) None of the above
34. Megachromosomes are seen in : - 47. Outer most covering of chromomsome
(1) Tobacco (2) Pea is called : -
(3) Wheat (4) Brinjal (1) Tonoplast (2) Pellicle
35. Lampbrush chromosomes are (3) Unit membranne (4) Mesosome
observed in : - 48.Nucleus is : -
(1) Mitotic metaphase (1) Single layered structure
(2) Meiotic prophase (2) Three layered structure
(3) Meiotic prophase (3) Four layered structure
(4) Meiotic interphase (4) Two layered structure

41
49.Bands and interbands are (4)Nitrogenous base
charecteristics of : - 61.Term heterovhromatin and euchromatin
(1) Lamphrush chromosome were first coined by : -
(2) Polytene chrososome (1) Heitz (2) Balbiani
(3) Glant chromosome (3) Painter (4) Kostoff
62. The two ends of chromatid are called : -
(4) Heterochromatin chromosome (1) Nucleosomes (2) Satellite DNA
50.In human being secondary contriction II (3) Telomeres (4) Kinetochores
found on : - 63. General length of chromosome is : -
(1) X-chromosome
(1) 5  10 (2) 0.2  2
(2) Y-chromosome
(3) 12, 14, 15, 21, 22, chromosome (3) 0.1  30 (4) 0.1  4
(4) 1, 10, 13, 16, & y-chromosome 64.Chromosomes are made up of : -
(1) Microsome (2) Nucleosome
51.Which enzyme act as chromosomal (3) Microtubules (4) Chondriosome
breaks: - 65.Who is the controller of cell: -
(1) DNA –polymerase (1) Mitochondria
(2) DNAase (2) Nucleus
(3) DNA ligase (3) Golgi bodies (4)Endoplasmic reticulum
(4) DNA polymerase II 66.If the centromere is sub-median the two
52. Nucleolus is made up of : - arms are unequal then the chromosome
(1) DNAand RNA (2) Lipid +Protin is called as
(3) RNA and Protein (4) Phospholipid (1) Metacentric (2) Submetacentric
(3) Acrocentric (4) Telocentric
53. Nucleolus is made up of : -
67. Chromonemata embedded in a : -
(1) Deoxy Ribonucleoprotein (1) Stroma (2) Matrix
(2) Lipoptotein (3) Sugar (4) Mucilage
(3) Ribonucleoprotein 68.Nucleosome model proposed by : -
(4) m-RNA and r-RNA (1) Du- Praw
54. Arm ratio in metacentrin codition is : - (2) Kornberg and Thomas
(1) 1 : 1 (2) 1 : 2 (3) Sleffensen
(3) 1 : 3 (4) 2 : 3 (4) Waldeyer and Taylor
55. Bead kike structure found on 69.Structure which provide shape to
chromosome is called : -
chromosome are called: -
(1) Telomere (2) Satellite
(1) Chromomeres (3) Cintromer (4) Chromomere
(2) Chromonemata 70. Nucleolus is formed by -
(3) Chromonema (1) Mitochondria
(4) Centriole (2) Nucleus and Ribosome
56. Chroomosome trem given by - (3) Primary constriction
(1) Waldeyer (2) Strasbuger (4) Secondary constriction
(3) Morgan (4)Suttonand Boceri 71 . Chromatin is mainly complex of : -
57.Part of chomosome after secondary (1) RNA & DNA
(2) RNA & Histone
constriction is called: -
(3) Ribozyme & RNA
(1) Chromsoere (2) Telomer (4) DNA & Histone
(3) Satellite (4) Nucleolar organiser 72.Who first Synthesized artificial Gene in
58.Nucleosome is made up of : - laboratory : -
(1) Nonhistone protein + RNA (1) Mendle (2) Khorana
(2) Histone protein and DNA (3) Sutton (4) Kornberg
(3) Non – histone and histone protein 73. The person who first desceribed
(4) Phospholipid and protein polyene chromosomes was : -
59. Linker DNApresent in between : - (1) Balbini (2) Walker & Allen
(3) Golgi (4) Waldeyer
(1) Two nucleosome (2) Two chromtid
(3) Two solenoid (4) Chromomere 74.Hetero-chromatin is : -
60. Chromatin is made up of : - (1) Darkly stained part of chromatin
(1) Nucleoprotein (2) Lightly stained part of cristae
(2) Nucleoside (3) Lighty stained part of grana
(3) Pentose sugear (4) Scattered Lobes in cytoplasm

42
75.Chromosome with centromere at one (1) Cytosine rich repeats
End: - (2) Adenine rich repeats
1) Metacentric (2) Submetacentric (3) Guanine rich repeats
(3) Telocentric (4) Acrocentric (4) Thymine rich repeats
76.Hereditary characters are due to : - 86. If you are provided with root –tips of
(1) Chromosomes (2) Gene onion in your class and are asked to
(3) Blood (4) Placenta count the chromosomes which of the
77. Which one is synonymous to gene- following stages can you most
(1) Recon (2) Muton conveniently look into : - [CBSE 2004]
(3) Cistron (4) Genome (1) Telophase (2) Anaphase
78.One genome is which type of set of (3) Prophase (4) Metaphase
Chromosomes- 87. Plant with minimum number of
(1) Haploid (2) Diploid chomosomes is : -
(3) Triploid (4) Golgi body (1) Haplopappus gracillis [RRMT 2004]
79.Which structure is present in (2) Salix tetrasperma
Chromosomes- (3) Poa
(1) Nucleus (2) Centromere (4) Cynodon
(3) Chromomer (4) Centromere 88.Heteropycnosis is exhibited by : -
80.Part of Chromosome which joins with [RPMT 2004]
spindle fibres is - (1) Autosome (2) Chromatoid body
(1) Chromatid (2) Chromonema (3) Nucleolus (4) Sex-chromosome
(3) Chromomere (4) Centromere 89. Potein synthesis in an animal cell
81.Discovery of Chromosome in Salivary occus - [CBZE 2005]
gland of Chironomous Larca by Balbiani (1) On ribosomes present in cytoplasm as
which Identify by presence of well in itochondria
Chromosomal- (2) On ribosomes present in the nucleolus
(1) Bands as well as in cytoplasm
(2) Coils (3) Only on ribosomes attached to the
(3)Bandsand coils both nuclear envelope and endoplasmic
(4) All of theabove reticulum
82. Which of the following occurs more than (4) Only on the ribosomes present in
one and less than five in a chromosomr: - cytosol
[CPMT-2002] 90. Telomerase is an enzyme which is a –
(1) Chromatid (2) Chromomere [CBSE 2005]
(3) Centromere (4) Telomere (1) RNA
83. The cells without are present in: - (2) Ribonucleoprotein
[RPMT -2002] (3) Repetitive DNA
(1) Vascular cambium (4) Siple protein
(2) Root hair 91.The length of DNA molecule greatly
(3) Companion cell exceeds the dimensions of the nucleus in
(4) Members of seve tube eukaryotic cells. How is the DNA
84. In Karyogram. Sex chromosomes accommodated? [CBSE 2007]
should placed at the end, but exception (1) Deletion of non –essential
is - (2) Supper – coiling in nucleosomes .
(1) Drosophila (2) Homo sapience (3) Dnase digestion .
(3) Pisum (4) Ginkgo (4) Through elimination of repetitve DNA
85. The telomeres of eukaryotic
chromosomes consist of short sequences
of – [CBSE 2004]

43
EXERCISE -1 ANSWER KEY
Que. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
Ans. 1 2 3 1 1 2 4 2 1 3 2 4 1 1 3
Que. 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30
Ans. 1 2 2 4 3 4 2 2 1 4 1 3 2 1 2
Que. 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45
Ans. 1 3 1 3 4 1 2 2 4 4 4 3 3 4 1
Que. 46
Ans. 3
EXERCISE -2 ANSWER KEY
Que. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
Ans. 3 3 2 2 1 1 2 3 3 2 4 4 1 4 1
Que. 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30
Ans. 1 1 1 2 4 2 3 4 1 4 4 3 2 1 3
Que. 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45
Ans. 1 4 3 3 3 3 3 2 2 2 4 2 2 1 3
Que. 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60
Ans. 1 4 1 3 4 2 4 2 2 1 1 1 3 1 1
Que. 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75
Ans. 4 4 1 1 1 4 1 1 2 3 3 2 2 2 1
Que. 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90
Ans. 2 4 2 3 3 4 2 3 2 2 3 4 2 3 2
Que. 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102
Ans. 2 1 3 1 2 1 1 3 3 4 4 4
EXERCISE -3 ANSWER KEY
Que. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
Ans. 4 3 1 2 1 1 2 1 1 3 4 1 4 1 3
Que. 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30
Ans. 2 4 4 3 1 4 2 2 3 4 3 1 4 2 4
Que. 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45
Ans. 1 1 3 3 4 1 3 4 2 1 1 1 3 1 3
Que. 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60
Ans. 4 2 4 2 3 3 2 3 4 2 4 2 2 2 3
Que. 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74
Ans. 1 2 2 1 1 2 1 3 2 1 2 2 4 2
EXERCISE - 4 ANSWER KEY
Que. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
Ans. 2 2 4 3 2 4 2 3 3 4 4 2 1 1 1
Que. 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30
Ans. 3 2 2 4 2 4 2 4 4 3 3 2 4 1 1
Que. 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45
Ans. 1 2 2 1 3 2 2 4 4 1 1 4 3 2 2
Que. 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60
Ans. 3 2 4 2 4 2 3 3 1 1 1 3 2 1 1
Que. 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75
Ans. 1 3 3 2 2 2 2 2 3 4 4 2 1 1 3
Que. 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90
Ans. 2 3 1 2 4 3 4 4 1 3 4 1 4 1 2
Que. 91
Ans. 2

44
 CELL DIVISION
Introduction:
Rudolf Virchow proposed the cell lineage theory states “ omnis cellula e-cellula “ i. e.
new cells arise from pre existing cells . Rudolf Virchow failed to prove the theory .
Kari Nageli : -New cells arise by division of pre existing cells.
Starsburger : -New nuclei arise by division of pre existing nuclei.

Cell division : - 3 main types.

(1) Motpsis (2) Mriosis (3) Amitosis

MITOSIS

Mitosis name proposed by Flemming & its detail study was given by A. Scheiden. Mitosis
produced genetically identical cells , which are similar to mother cell.
Cause of mitosis: -
(I) Kern plasma theory : Hertwig proposed kern plasma . According to this theory
mitosis is due to disturbance in Karyoplamic Index (KI) of cell.
Karyoplasmic Index:
Vn
KI= Vn =Volume of nucleus
Vc  Vn Vc =Volume of cell
VC –Vn =Volume of cytoplasm
Karyoplasmic index of small cell is high as they have less
cytoplasm.
Nucleus efficiently controls the acitivity of cytoplasm in small
cells.
In a large cell nucleus fail to control the acitivity of
cytoplasm. To attain the control of nucleus on metabolism a
large cell divides into two cells.
(II) Surface –volume Ratio:
 Surface –volume ratio of a cell plays an important role in starting cell division .
 A cell draws all the materials needed for its maintenance & growth from is surface.
When a cell grows in size its volumes increases more than its surface . So a stage will
reach when the surface area becomes insufficient to draw the material . At such critical
stage , division of cell started.

CELL CYCLE

 Complete life cycle of a cell is called as cell cycle . A typical eukaryotic cell is illustrated by
human cell in culture.
These cells divide once in approximately every 24 hours.
 Yeast can progress through the cell cycle in only about 90
minutes.
Cell cycle involves two stages.
(1) Interphase
(2 ) Division phase /M-phase
1. Interphase : -This is middle stage of cell cycle , because there
occurs one interphase between two division phase . In interphase
cell grows in size and prepares itself for next division. Interphase is
most active phase of cell cycle.

45
 In interphase. Metabolism of cell increases. A series of metabolic changes occurs during interphase
in cell. These changes are not visible under Microscope, So some scientist termed interphase as
resting phase. But now it’s known that it is the most active phase of cell cycle.
 Howaed and pelc classified interphase into three sub stages: -
(i) G1 –phase or Pre DNA synthesis phase (Ist Gap phase ) (Longest phase of cell
cycle 12 hr) During G1 -number of cell organelles increases in cell and cell rapidly
synthesizes different types of RNA and proteins. Due to availability in G1stage.
(ii) S-phase (DNA Synthesis phase 6 -10 hr ) :
 Replication of nuclear DNA and synthesis of histone protein takes place in s-
phase . Replication of cytoplation DNA may occur in any stage of cell cycle .
Centriole replicates in late s-phase.
 Cell cycle can remain arrested only in G1 phase. Then G1 is called as G0 phase
G0 phase is found in cells of permanent tissue .
 Cell cycle is running by a group of special proteins “ Cyclins and Cdks (MPF) .
(Nurse. T. Hunt & Hartmann 2001 studies on saccharomyces (Baker yeast ) ) .
(iii) G1 –phase (2nd Gap phase ) or Post DNA synthesis phase (3-12 hrs) : (Pre
mitposis phase)
 Number of cell organelles increases in cell. Actual preparation (Final preparation)
of cell division occurs during this phase. Special materials required for cell division
are synthesized in G2 phase . e. g. Tubulin protein. - (Required for formation of
spindle fibres) .
 Cell division involves enormous expenditure of energy thus cell stores ATP in G2
phase.
 After G2 phase cell enters in division or M- phase.

How the cell cycle is controlled

 A cell reproduces by performing an orderly set sequences of irreversible events , In which

it duplicates it’s contents & then divides into two , these events are known as cell cycle.

46
 Molecular biologists, have made remarkable progress in identifying the biomolecules, That
control or drive the cell cycle, many biologists , some of whom worked with invertebrate of
frog egg’s others with yeast cell or cell culture. Scientists concluded that the activity of
enzymes, known as cyclin dependant . (Cdk’s) regulates the cell kinases involved in the
cell cycle are called Cdks because they are activated when they combined with key protein
called cyclin.
 At some check pints & & a kinase enzyme combines with cyclin & & this moces the cell
cycle forwardly .
S-kinase is capable of starting the replication of DNA after it combined with S-cyclin.
After some time s-cycllin is destroyed & S-kinase is no longer active. M-kinase is capable
of turning on mitosis after it has bind with M-cyclin . The detail of cell cycle varied from
organism & different time in an organism. However certain characteristice are universal
component of cell cycle control.
Genes
CDC2 , CDC28 Cdc2, cdc -28
designated designted
Budding yeast In fission yeast
2 Division phase :
 Division phase or M-phase or mitotic phase (1hr) . It is the phase of shortest time in cell
cycle.
Karyokinesis: -Division of cytoplasm. Name proposed by Schleicher.
Cytokinesis: -Division of cytoplasm. Name proposed by Whitemen.
Karyokinesis: -Dicisiov of nucleus occurs by sequential change in nucleus and
cytoplasm.
Division of nucleus in mitosis and meiosis is indirect.
.(1) Prophase (Longest stage ) : Metabolism of cell decreases , cytoplasm becomes visco
refractive and pale. Chromatin threads condenses to form chromosomes . Centrioles
start moving towards the opposite poles. Astral ray forms due to gelation of proteins
around centrioles. In late prophase (Prometaphase) nuclear membrane and nucleolus
disappear . Spireme stage of chromosome.
Anastral and Amphiastrl Mitosis : In plants, centrioles are absent and no asters are
formed . Mitosis without astere is known as anastral mitosis . In animals, the asters are
present and the mitosis is described as amphisatral , or astral mitosis.

(2) Mitaphase:
 Chromosomes arrange on equator to form metaphase plate (Metakinesis) or equatorial
plate.
 Chromosomal (discontinuous) fibres. (which run from pole to centrmere and ) and
supporting comtinous ) , fibres (which run from pole ) , arrange in cell.
 spindle fibre are composed of 97% Tublin protein and 3% RNA.
 In metaphase plate large chromosomes lie towards periphery and small chromosomes
forwards centre .

47
 Centromere lies at equator and arms remain directed towards poles.

 Chromosomal fibres have polarity i. e. +end at equator and –end at

the pole , In metaphase each chromosome splits lenghwise upto
the centromere (division of matrix of chromosome) . Thus
replicated chromatids clearly visible at metaphase stage .

 Two chromatids of a chromosome repulse each other and the arms

of chromosomes are directed towards the oppsite poles.

(3) Anaphase : (Smallest stage )

 In early anaphase interzonal fibres (small and
contracted ) appears at equator of cell.
 Centromere of each chromosome splits
lengthwise (division of centromere) .
 Number of chromosome becomes double in
cell during miltotic anaphase.
 Interzonal fibres expands and they push
chromosomes towards the opposite poles,
(Pushing)
 Chromosomal fibres contract and they pull chromaosome towards opposite polies .
(Pulling) .
 By pulling and pushing mechanism chromosome rapidly towards the opposite poles.
 Approximately 30 ATP are required to carry a chromosome to pole. Chromosomes reach at
poles is late anaphase.
(4) Telophase (Reverse prophase) : During the
telophase metabolism of cell increases . Nuclear
membrane and Nucleolus reappears . Chromosomes
decondense to form chromatin net .

Cytokinesis

Cytokinesis Starts in late anaphase . In animals cytokinesis occurs by constriction &

furrow formation . Microtubules and microfilaments arrange on equator to form midbody
, Contraction occurs in midbody and Plasma membrane starts constricting to form
contratil ring. Thus a furrow forms from the out side to inside in cell. Furrow deepens
continuosly and ultimately a cell divides into two daughtr cells In animals cytokinesis
occurs in centripetal order.

48
 Cytokinesis in plants= Takes place by cell plate formation because constriction is not
possible due to presnce of the rigid cell wall.

 Many golgi vesicles arrange themselves on equator to form phragmoplast. ER and

Fragments of spindle fibres also collect on rquator. Collectively this structure is known as
ceel plate. Gogi vesicles secrete calcium and magnesium pectat. Further cell plate is
modified into middle lamella. in plants, cytokinesis occurs in centerifugal order (cell plate
formation is from to periphery) .

SIGNIFICANCE OF MITOSIS
1. Devlopedment of an organism occurs by mitosis. Evry organism start its life from
a single cell i. e. zygot. reeated mitosis in zygote leads to the formation of the whole
body.
2. Growth in body of organism occurs by mitosis.
3. Repairing and regeneration in body occurs by mitosis. 5 ×109 cells form per day
in man.
MODIFICATION OF MITOSIS

1. Cryptomitosis or promitosis: it is a primitive type of mitosis. In this type of division,

nuclear membrane dose not disappear but remain intact throught the division. All the
changes of karyokinesis occurs inside nucleus even the foramation of spindle (called as
intranuclear spindle) such division is found in some protozoans (amoeba) during binary
fission.
2. DINOMITOSIS: -Dinomitossis founds in dinoflagellates, which are mesokaryotes, In
mesokaryotic cells histones are absent , Because of this , the chromosomes fail to
condense properly and not disitnctly visible during cell division. Nuclear membrane
persists throughout the cell division and so spindle formed is intranuclear typ .

 Normal mitsis is termed as Eumitosis. Spindle which forms during normal is termed as “
“Nuclear spindle”.

3 Free nuclear division: - Karyokinesis is not followed by cytokinesis so such divisions lead
to coenocyyic condition. eg. endosperm, fungi of plycomycetes group.
4. Endomitosis : -This is duplication of chromosomes without divisionlead to polyploidy . i.
e. Increase in number of sets of chromosome . Colchicine induces polyploidy in plants .
Cplchicine is a mitotic poison as it arrests the formation and arrangement of spindle
fibres.
Endoreduplication: Endoreduplication is a modification of endomitosis . The polytene
chromosomes form by proces endoreduplication. in endoreduplication, the chromonema
replicate but donnot get seperated . This process is also known as polyteny.
 Mustard gas and Ribonucleases are also mitotic poisons.

49
 MEIOSIS
“ Term meiiosis” was proposed by Farmer and Moore. Meiosis produces genetically
different type of cells. All the four daughter cells produced by meiosis are genetically
different from each other and also differ from the mother cell.
Meiosis includes 2 division of cell
(i) Meiosis -I (ii) Meiosis -II
 Meiosis I: - Heterotypic division or reduction dicision. It leads to reduction in
chromosome numbers. Division of chromosome does not occurs in meiosis-I and only
segregation of homologous chromosomes takes place.
 Meiosis II: - This is a homotypic divison or equational division . It does not leads to any
change in chromosome number .
 Meiosis II is just like mitosis . Dicision of centromere occurs during meiosis II.
In meiosis, division of nucleus takes place twice but divison of chromosome occurs only
once.
Interphase - same as in mitosis
Stages of meiosis I
1. Prophene –I : This is longest and most complex stage of meiosis . Prophase is classified in
five substages:
(a) Leptotene  Chromatin threads condense to for chromosomes , chromosomes are
lonest & thinest.
 On Chromosome, bead like structures are present i.e.
chromosomes. All the chromosomes in nucleus remain directed
towards centrioles , so group of chromosomes on nucleus appears
like a bouquet in animal cell. (Bouquet stage) . At this stage
organism shows a peculiar type of orientation of chromosomes-
animals show bouquet type while plants synizesis type.
(b) Zygotene of Synaptotene- Zygotene is characterized by
pairing of homologous chromosomes (Synapsis) . Psits of
homologous chromosomes ara called Bivalents. There devleops a
structure in between homologous chromosomes Which is termed
as synaptonemal complex. Synaptonemal compex is composed
of three thick lines of DNA and proteins . According to Mosses
(1956) synaptonemal complex helps in pairing and chiasmata
formation.
 About 0. 3% DNAis synthesized in Zygotene substage . This DNA
is used in chromosome pairing or synapsis (Zyg. DNA)

Three type of synapsis or pairing takes place in chromosomes :

 Proterminal pairing : - The two homologous chromosomes start pairing at the terminals,
which gradually progresses towards the centromere.
 Procentric pairing : - The pairing starts at the centromere and proceeds towards the
ends.
 Random or Intermediate pairing : - The pairing may start at any point.
(c) Pachytene (Thick thread ) – Due to increased attraction ,
homologous chromosomes tightly coil around each other .
 Both chromatids of each chromosome become distinct.
 Each chromosome in a bivalent at pachytene stage has two
chromatids, as a result of which bivalent really consists of four
chromatids and is called a tetrad. Both the chromatids of a
chromosome are called sister chromatids.
 Bivalent is called tetrad and each chromosome is called Dyad.

50
 Nonsister chromatids of homologous pair develops recombination nodules and exchange
their parts i. e. crossing over . Crossing over was discovered by Morgan and Castle in
Drosopila .
Theories of crossing over –
(i) Copy choice theory  Belling , Laderberg.
(ii) Breakage first theory  Muller
(iii) Strain theory  Darlington (iv) Breakage and reunion theory  Stern and
Hotta
 Breakage and reunion theory is appropriate theory for crossing over which is explained
with the help of a most accepted model (Hybrid DNA model ) of Holiday and Whitehouse.

 Endouclease first reaks the nonsister chromatids at the pace of recombination nodule.
 Nonsister chrmatids reunite after exchanging their parts (by Ligase ) As the result of
crossing over cross like structures –chiasmata (discovered by janssen ) form in bivalent
 Number of chiasmata (singular – chiasma ) per bivalent depends on the length of
chromosome.
(d) Diplotene - Homologous chromosomes start repulsing each
other so chiasmata become visible . Due to repulsion
(desynapsis) chiasmata begin to move along the length of
chromosome and towards the end of chromosome. This event
is called Terminaization.
 In diplotene, chiasmata move toward the end of chromosome
in a zip like manner .
 Diplotene (Dictyotene ) may last long up to month or years
(12 to 15 years in Humam Female )
 According to modern scientists chiasmata are not the cause but are only the result of
crossing ocer.
(e) Diakinesis –Terminalisation completes.
Homologous chromosomes remain attach
to each other only at the ends , Centrioles
move towards the opposite polies.
 Nuclear membrane and nucleolus disappear.

2. Metaphase I:
Bivalents arrange on equator (congressin) of cell to form
metaphase plate. Three types of spindle fibres appear in
the cell.
(i) Chromosomal/Kinetochore Spindle fibres
(ii) Supporting /Continuus Spindle fibres
(iii) Interzonal Spindle fibres.

51
3. Anaphase I :

 Chomosomal fibre contracts and intezonal fibre expands. So

homololgous chromosomes segregate from each other and
move towards the opposite poles.

 Anaphase I is characterized by segregation or disjunction of

chromosomes . Division fo centromere is absent . Anaphase
I is responsible for reduction in chromosome number in
daughter cells.

4. Telopase I:
Just like the telophase of mitosis
Cytokinesis I :
 In animals by constriction & furrow formation (successive) .
 In most of the plants cytokinesis does not occur after meiosis I.
 In plants , all the four daughter cells are produced simultaneously. Group of four cells
produced simltane-ously is called tetrad. (Tetead of pollen grains , )
 Gap between meiosis I and meiosis II is called Interkinesis . Preparations of meiosis II
occur during interkinesis. It can’t be termed as interphase because replication of DNA is
absent in interkinesis.
Meiosis-II –Just like mitosis.

Types of Meiosis: -

 Zygotic or initial meiosis : - When the neiosis in life cycle of an organism occurs in
zygote cell. Eg. In Thallophyta.
 Sporic meiosis or Intermediate Meiosis : - Meiosis takes place during spore formation .
Eg. all the plants except thallophyta.
 Gametic or Terminal Meiosis : - Meiosis during the gamete formation , Eg. Animals.
Significance of Meiosis : -
(1) The meiosis maintains constant number of chromosomes in sexually reproducing
organisms.
(2) By crossing over , meiosis provides an opportunity of exchange of genes (variations)
& thus meiosis is raw material for process of evolution.

AMITOSIS
 Name ‘Amitosis ‘ was given by Remake and detail of amitosis is given by Flimming . It
most primitive type of cell division . Condensation of chromosomes not occus in amitosis.
Chromosomes are not visible during division . It is a process of division without
recognizable chromosomes . Amitosis does not involve the formation of spindle. Division
of nucleus is direct . i. e. without sequential changes (prophase , metaphase, anaphase &
telophase) . In amitosis, sivision of cytoplasm and mucleus occur simultaneously by the
constriction. In amitosis division may be equal or unequal . Amitosis is fastest cell
division which may complete in 20 – 30 minute . Amitosis is cell division of prokaryotes .
But exceptionaly also occurs in some eukaryotes.
Eg. Yeast – budding occurs by amitosis.
 In amoeba multiple fission occurs by amitosis.
 In Paramecium division of meganucleus .
 In mammals –growth of foetral membranes (amnion , chorion , allantois , yolk sac)
 Division of mitochondris and chloropasts.

52
 Difference between mitosis and meiosis. .
S.No. Mitosis Meiosis
1. GENERAL
1. The division occurs in somatic cells. It occurs in reproductive cells.
2. Both diploid and haploid cells show Meiosis is found only in diploid cells. (or in
mitosis. 4n, 6n , 8n)

3. It is a single division. It is a double division .

4. Mitosis produces two cells Meiosis produces four cells.
5. It does not introduce variation. Meiosis introduces veriations due to gene
exchange.
6. Number of chromosome same as mother
cells. Chromosomes number reduced (halved ) .
7. It is required for growth , repair and Meiosis involved in only sexual reproduction.
healing .
2. PROPHASE

8. It is simpler. Prophase – I is complicated .

9. Bouquet stage and synapais absent. Bouquet stage (sninzesis in plants ) and
synapsis occurs.
10. Crossing over and chiasma not seen. Crossing over and chiasma formation occurs.

3. METAPHASE

11. Chromosome remain as monovalent and Chromosome as bivalet and four chromatids.
has two chrmatids
12. Centromeres are present over the equator Centromeres projects the poles.
or metaphase plate while arms facing
towards the poles.
4. ANAPHASE
13. Centromere devides during anaphase. Division of centromere is absent in anaphase-
14. Chromosomes are single chromatided. I
15. The two chromatids of a chromosome Chromosome has two chromatids.
separate and become as daughter Chromosome do not separate in Anaphase-I
Chromosomes.
16. Chromosomes moving towards the Chromosomes are dissimilar.
opposite poles are similar
5. TELOPHASE

17. It is an essential in which nucleolus and Telophase –I may be absent .

NM reapppears
18. Nucleolus appears. Nucleoli are not formed in Telophase –I
6. CYTOKINESIS
19. Cytokinesis takes place. Not compulsory (simulteneous after both the
divisions in plants)
20. Daughter cells posses same genetic All four daughter cells are differ.
constitution.

53
S. No Mitosis Msiosis-II
1. An interphase occre prior to mitosis.
Interphase may or may not persent priot to
meiosis –II if present then celled
interkinesis.
2. S-phase present . S-phase absent.
3. Daughter cells formed after mitosis Differ from mother cell, qunsntitativrly and
resemble to mother cell. qualitatively.
4. Longer Shorter.

SPEIAL POINTS
 Robert Sovion change : - Conversion of a metacentric cheomosome in to two
telocentric chromsomes.
 According to research , cell wall is censidered as dynamic , porous and capable of
recognizing signals of cells.
 Symplast : - Path in body . which is made up of living components or cytoplasm (or
through plamodesmata) is called as symplast.
 Apoplast : - Path in plant body , which is made up or nonliving spaces is callled as
Apoplast.
 Intermediate filaments has size /diameter in between microfilaments and microtubules.
These fillaments form basket like structure around the nucleus . These are made upof
actin.
 Cadherins called as cell adhesion molecule .
 Human myelin has 20% protein & 79% lipids.
 Spectein : - (Responsible for structural integrity & biconcave shape of RBC membrane )
deficiency or mutation in spectrin makes humans anaemic, leading to abnormality in
shape of RBC which become sperical instead of concave.
 Gangliosides : - The most complex glycolipid are gangliosides.
(i) A variety of membrane protein may present in or on the membrane are called as
cell adhesion moleculle (CAMs) .
eg, ’Cadherins ( in cell adhesion ) , integrins and selectins (work inflammatory
response) .
 Gorter and Grendel (1926) : - Suggested that plasma membrane consists of double
layer of lipil molecule.
 Carrier protein are mainly involved in facilitated diffusion and active transport but rarely
some carrier proteins involved in simple diffusion . Carrier (tunnel ) proteins may be
following type
(1) Uniporter carrier proeins : -
When a carrier transports on
it single solute form one side
of membrane to other side.
(2) Symporters : - When carriers
transport one solute which
depends on transport of
simultaneously second solute
in same direction.
(3) Antiporter carrier protein : -
When carrier transports one
solute which depends on
simultanousely second solute
in the opposite direction.

54
 Active transport is always facilitated by carrier proteins or pumps . Although passive
transport may or may not involve carrier protein . Ion channels are never involved in
active transport.

 Freeze ecthing E. Microscopy : - In this technique first of all, living cell is frozen in
liquid nitrogen at temperature =1960 C in the presence of antifreeze (or ctyoprotectant) .
Frozen block is sliced with a knife/ blade and studied under E. M.

 For the structure of membrane , membrane skeleton fence model proposed by (Kusmi
1993) .

 Hydrogenosome is a recently discovered eukaryotic cell organelle in Nyctotthermus

ovalis. This is a double membranous cell organelle which can produce ATP only by
substrate level phosphorylations because cytochromes (ETS) and TCA cycle is absent .
This organelle produces high amount of hydrogen by anaerobic process. Thus named as
Hydrogenosome.

 Endosome (receptosome ) is also recently discoveredcell organelle which consists of

tubules and vesicles and involved in intracellular traffic.

 In certain plants (Lilium) during leptotene , all chromosomes of a cell are densely
clumped to one side and rest of the nucleus has no chromatin material . This event is
called synizesis. Its significance is subject of future research.

 During the leptotene stage each chromosome is attached to nuclear envelope by

attachment plate which is made up of by specific proteins . At this time, chromosomes
directed to centrosome and appear as Bouquet.

 Chiasma formation is theresult of crossing over, this is explained by F. F. Janssen With

chiasma type theory (or one plane theory)

 Protein transferrin which works in iron transport helps in mitosis division.

Satellite DNA : - Repeatitve sequence used to know relation among species because
two Important features of stellite DNA are
(i) Remarkable relative uniformity within the same species.
(ii) Genes for 5-s RNA presents separately than NOR.

 Genes for 5-s r-RNA present separately than NOR.

 In active state of mitochondria , (metabolically busy state) number of cristae is high and
matrix is small (condensed state)
 When mitochondria , metabolically relax, then size of matrix is large and less number of
cristae this is called orthodox state of mitochondria.
 Metabolically active cell have more dense . developed E. R.
 Porin. Proteins form pores in outer mitochondria and bacterial membranes.
 Erythrocyte membrane in human contain about 40% phospholipds and 52% proteins .
 Generally root tip of onion used for study of mitosis (2n=14)
 Chromosome doubling without division of cell can induce by colchicine . This event is
called C-mitosis
 Telomer is concern with ageing of organisms.
 Chloroplast and mitochondria not included in endomembrane system of eukaryotic cell.

55
CELL DIVISION EXERCISE
1. Who coined term mitosis : - 12. How much part of cycle formed by
(1) Fiemming (2) Watson interphase: -
(3) Thomson (4) Addison (1) 50% (2) 70%
2. DNA synthesis takes place in : - (3) 10% (4) 90%
(1) S phase (2) G1 phase 13. Angular divergence of spindle decreases
(3) G2 phase (4) None at: -
3. When pairing occurs in chromosomes (1) Metaphase (2) Early anaphase
(meiosis) : - (3) Late anaphase (4) Telophase
(1) Leptotene (2) Zygotene 14. Minimum number of meiotic div .
(3) Pachytene (4) Diakinesis required : -
4. Moste active stage of cell cycle is : - (1) 15 (2) 31 (3) 62 (4) 16
(1) Prophase (2) Metaphase 15 .In cell cycle , changes of which stage are
(3) Thelopase (4) Interphase not visible under microscope : -
5. Which of the following is the method of (1) Interphase (2) Prophase
cytokinesis on plant cell: - (3) Metaphase (4) Anaphase
(1) By cell plate formation 16. Which type of division leads to polypoidy
(2) By Constriction :-
(3) By phragmoplast (1) Cryptomitosis (2) Meiosis
(4)(1) and(3) both (3) Endomitosis (4) Amitosis
6. In which stage of cell cycle nucleus
becomes bigger : - 17. Which of the following not occurs in
(1) G1 (2) G2 Anaphase –I but occurs in Anaphase -II
(3) S (4) M (1) Condensation of chromosomes
7. What happens in interkinesis: - (2) Poleward movement of chromosomes
(1) DNA-replication (3) Contraction of spindle fibers
(2) Chromosome duplication (4) Splitting of centromer
(3) Preparation of second meiotic div.
(4) Resting stage 18. In Angiosperms, Endomitosis occurs in:-
8. Division of nucleus is indirect in : - (1) Ocule (2) Tapetum
(1) Mitosis (2) Binary fission (3) Endothecium (4) Leaftip
(3) Budding (4) Fragmentation
19. In which stage of cell division , division of
9. Who coined the name “ Amitosis” : - matrix of chromosome occurs : -
(1) Farmer (2) Remac (1) Late prothase (2) Early metaphase
(3) Strass burger (4) A. Flemming (3) Late metaphase (4) Anaphase

10. Which can be observed in an interphase 20. During G2 - phase a diploid cell contains
nucleus under the light microscope : - the amount of DNA equal to a : -
(1) Chromosomes (2) Nucleosomes (1) Diploid cell (2) Tetraploid cell
(3) Centromere (4) Heterochromatin (3) Haploid cell (4) Nothing can be aid
11. Who divided cell cycle in four stages i. e.
G1, s, G2 and M : - 21. Crossing over takes place in : -
(1) W. Flemming (2) Strass burger (1) Zygotene (2) Pachytene
(3) Howard and Pelc (4) Farmer (3) Diplotene (4) Diakinesis

56
22 Which type of chromosome will appear ‘L’ 32. Which division is characteristic of
– shaped during anaphase : - cartilage cells, meganucleus of
(1) Telocentric (2) Acrocentric Paramaecium and foetal membranes: -
(3) Metacentric (4) Submetacentric (1) Mitosis (2) Meiosis
23. A contractile mid body forms during (3) Cryptomitosis (4) Amitosis
cytokinesisin : - 33. Which part to plant is suitable for the
(1) Animals (2) Higher plants study of meiosis : -
(3) Fungi (4) Algae (1) Root apex (2) Ovary
24. Which chromosome may lost during cell (3) Anther (4) Shoot apex
division : - 34. Colchicine , a mitotic poison, arrests the
(1) Giant chromosome cell division in : -
(2) Acentric chromosome (1) G1 – phase (2) G2 - phase
(3) Polycentric chromosome (3) Anaphase (4) Metaphase
(4) Telocentric chromosome 35. Amitosis is characteristic of : -
25. In which order, cytokinesis occurs in (1) Higher plants
plants : - (2) Higher animals
(1) Centripetal (2) Centrifugal (3) Bryopyta
(3) Oblique (4) Equatorial (4) Lower organisms
26. Meiosis not occurs in : - 36. Reason of chromosomal movement in
(1) Ovule (2) Anther Anaphase : -
(3) Microsporangia (4) Stoot tip (1) Astral rays
27. Which of the two events restore the (2) Centrioles
normal number of chromosomes (3) Kinetochore
In life cycle : - (4)Kinetochoreand spindle fobres
(1) Mitosis and Meiosis 37. Nuclear envelope reappears at : -
(2) Meiosis and fertilization (1) Metaphase (2) Prophase
(3) Fertilization and mitosis (3) Anaphase (4) Telophase
(4) Only meiosis 38. Slipping of chiasmata towards the ends
28. Division of nucleus is indirect in : - of bivalent of nucleus is called : -
(1) Mitosis (2) Meiosis (1) Terminalisation (2) Plasmotomy
(3) Amitosis (4)(1) and(2) both (3) Endomitosis (4) Reduction div.
29. Number of meiosis required to 39. Duplicaton of chromosomes without the
produce 100 ovules in angiosperms : - division of nucleus is called ;-
(1) 125 (2) 100 (3) 25 (4) 75 (1) Cytokinesis (2) Plasmotomy
30. Constancy of the chromosome number in (3) Endomitosis (4) Dino -mitosis
sexually producing generation is brought 40. Which division maintains genetic
by the process of : - similarity : -
(1) Meiosis (2) Mitosis (1) Mitosis (2) Meiosis
(3) Amitosis (4) None (3) Amitosis (4) Reduction div.
31. Which element helps in spindle 41. Which does not occurs in prophase : -
formation : - (1) Hydration of chromatin
(1) Mn (2) Co (3) Pb (4) Ag (2) Dehydration of chromation
(3) Appearance of chromosome
(4) Disappearance of nuclear memb . and
nucleolus

57
42. During cell cyccle. RNA and protein 52 Meiosis which occur at the time of spore
synthesis takes place during : - formation is called : -
(1) G1 and G2 – phase (2) S –phase (1) Zygotic meiosis
(3) M- pase (4) Cytokinesis (2)Haplontic meiosis
43. In which steage fo cell division , number (3) Terminal meiosis
(4) Intermed iate meiosis
of chromosomes best counted : -
53. Most fastes type of cell division is
(1) Prophase (2) Metaphase
(1) Mitosis (2)Meiosis
(3) Telopase (4) Interphase (3) Amitosis (4)Endomitosis
44. The cellular structure which disappear 54. Chromosome exhibit high level of coilling
during mitosis is : - at which phase of karyokinesis : -
(1)Plasma membrane (1) Prophase (2)Metaphase
(2) Nuclear membrane (3) Telophase (4)Interphase
(3) Mitochondria 55. “ Bouquet –stage “ occur in which aub
(4) Nuclear membrane and nucleolus stages of prophase –I : -
45 Cell division in blue green algae similar (1) Leptotene (2)Zygotene
to that in : - (3) Pavhytene (4)Diplotene
56. The synaptonemal complex appeare : -
(1) Bacteria (2) Brown algae
(1) Between homologous chromosomes
(3) Green algae (4) Higher plants
(2) In zygotene stage
46. Meiosis takes place in : - (3) Composed of DAN + protein
(1) Apical meristem (4) All the above
(2) Inter calary meristem 57. The phragmoplast is organised : -
(3) Reproductive cells (1) At the beginning of anaphase
(4) Vegetative cells (2) At the of anaphase
47. Replication of DNA in meiosis occur (3) At the beginning of trlophase
during : - (4) At the end of teloppase
(1) S – phase 58. At anaphase – II of meiosis each
(2)S–phase and leptotene chromosome contains: -
(1) 4 DNA (2) 3-DNA
(3) S – phase and zygotene(4) All of these
(3) 2-DNA (4) 1-DNA
48. The synaptonemal comlex was first
59. Kinetin (Cytokinin ) increase the rate of
observed by : - mitosis by reducing the duration of : -
(1) Moor (1905) (1) Interphase (2) Meta phase
(2) Farmer and moore (1905) (3) Anaphase (4) Telophase
(3) Mosses (1956)
(4) Flemming (1882) 60. Which of the following statement is
49. A cell is bound to divide , if it has entered correct : -
(1) G2- phase (2)G1- phase (1) DNA is synthesized through out the
(3) Prophase (4)S- phase cell -cycle
50. How many chromosome shall be present (2) Cell divisionis inhibited by cytokinin
(3) Chromosome arecondensed at S-
in a diploid cell at mitotic anaphase if its
stage
egg cell has ten chromosome : -
(4)Only extra chromosomal DNA is
(1) 10 (Ten) (2) 20 (Twenty ) replicated at any stage of cell cycle
(3) 30 (Thirty ) (4)40 (Forty)
51. If crossing –over occur at two strand 61. Interzonal fibers occur in : -
stage then percentage of crossing over is : (1) Prophase (2) Early metaphase
(1) 50% (2)60% (3) 70% (4)100% (3) Lare prophase (4) Anaphase

58
62. During cell dicision chromosome move 72. In animals active mitosis can be observed
towards different poles due to : - :
(1) Centriole (2) Vacuole formation (1) At the base of nails
(3) Microtubules (4) Cytokinesis (2) At the apex of hairs
63. Which one of the following statements is (3) Dermis of skin (4) Glans
not true for meiosis : - 73. In meiosis, nuclear membrane and
(1) It occur in reproductive tissue only nucleolus disappear during :
(2) Chromosome undergo pairing in early (1) Zygotene (2) Pachytane
prophase -I (3) Diakinesis (4) Metaphase - I
(3) Chromosome donot exchange part 74. Cell cycle can remain arrested at :
(4) Chromosome do not divide during (1) G1 (2) S (3) G2 (4) M
anaphase -I 75. Which of the following are mitotic poison
64. Terminalistion ‘ is a process related with :
:- (1) Colchicine
(1) Mitosis (2) Meiosis (2) Mustard gas an Azides
(3) Diakinesis (4) Telophase -I (3) Cyanides (4) All the above
65. For studying meiosis the relevant plant 76. Gametic meiosis occurs in :
material is usually fixed around : - (1) Higher plants (2) Algae
(1) 9-10 AM (2) 4-5 AM (3) Animals (4) Bacteria
(3) 3-4 PM (4) 12-PM
66. Tetrad formation in meiosis occurs in : - 77. Longest phase of cell cycle is :
(1) Leptotene (2) Zygotene (1) Prophase (2) Telophase
(3) Pachytene (4) Diplotene (3) G2 (4) G2
67.In which stage of mitosis , the
chromosomes are bivalent i. e. composed 78. In cell cycle, which stage is misnomerly
of two chromatids : - called resting phase :
(1) Prophase & metaphase (1) S-phase (2) Telophase
(2) Anaphase and telophase (3) Cytokinesis (4) Interphase
(3) Prophase and telophase
(4) Metaphase and andphase 79. Spindile fibers which extend from pole to
68. In plants, meiosis can be observed in : - kinetochores are :
(1) Root tip (2) Leaf primordia (1) Chromosomal or tractile fibers
(3) Sporangia (4)Manychromatid (2) Interzonal fibers
69.In Anaphase –I each chromosome (3) Supporint fibers
composed of : - (4) Astral rays
(1) One chromatid (2) Two chromatid
(3) Four chromatid (4)Manychromatid 80. The longest phase in meiotic division is :
70. Gap between division phase and start of (1) Prophase - I (2) Metaphase - I
DNA – replication is called : - (3) Prophase - II (4) Anaphase - I
(1) G1 – phase (2) G2-phase
(3) M-phase (4) Interkinesis 81. Separation of homologous chromosomes
71. In meiosis, division of centromere occurs during Anaphase - I is called :
during : (1) Synapsis (2) Disjuction
(1) Intephase (2) Anaphse - I (3) Nondisjuction (4) Crossing over
(3) Anaphase – II (4) Metaphase - I

59
82. During cell division, spindle fibers attach (2) Hetero chromatin
to which part of chromosome : (3) Both simultaneously (4) None
(1) Primary constriction 92. Karyoplasmic index (K. I. ) is :
(2) Sec. Constriction
V(n Vn
(3) Chromomere (1) (2)
Vn  Vc Vc  Vn
(4) Chromatid
Vn Vn
83. In tetrad, the number of non cross over (3) (4)
Vn V V
chromatids is normally : 93. What happens during growthc of an cell :
(1) Four (2) Two (3) One (4) None (1) K. I. decreases
84. Term meiosis was conded by : (2) K. I. increases
(1) W. Flemming (2) A, Flemming (3) KI. fluctuates
(3) Farmer and Moore (4) Boveri (4) K. I. remains constant
85. Synaptonemalcomplexis characteristic of 94. Synthesis of proteins occurs during :
: (1) G1 (2) G2 (3) S (4) All the above
(1) Mitotic chromosomes 95. The metabolism of cell which decrease
(2) Leptotene chromosomes during porphase again starts increasing
(3) Paried meiotic chromosomes during :
(4) Metaphase (1) Telophse (2) Anaphase
86. Germ cells in vertebrate gonads re (3) Metaphase (4) G1 - phase
produced by - 96. Synthesis of cycline protein occur in :
(1) Mitosis (2) Amitosis (1) Permanent tissue
(3) Mitosis and meiosis (4) Endomitosis (2) Meristem
87. Sporic meiosis occurs in : (3) Lingified cells
(1) Animals (4) All the types of cells
(2) Thallophyta 97. The changes of Karyokinesis in mitosis
(3)Bryophyta occur in :
(4)Allplantsexepts thallophyta (1) Cytoplasm (2) Nucleus
88. In mitosis, splitting of chromatids upto (3) Both 1 and 2 (4) Nucleolus
the centromere takes place in : 98. Which of the following not occur during
(1) Phrophase (2) Metaphase condensation of chromosomes :
(3) Anaphase (4) Telophase (1) Unfolding of protein molecules
89. Peristent nuclear membrane and (2) Coiling of DNA
intranuclear spindle are characteristic of (3) Dehydration (4) Hydration
:
(1) Cryptomitosis (2) endomitosis 99. During which stage a diploid cell
(3) Free nuclear div (4) Mitosis becomes tatraploid in mitosis :
90. In which stage of cell division the (1) G2 (2) Prophase
chromosomes are most condensed : (3) metaphase (4) Anaphase
(1) Prophse (2) Meta phase
(3) Anaphase (4) Telphase 100. Division of centromere occur in :
91. If a meristematic cell is placed in a (1) Late prophase or early metaphase
medium containing radio active (2) Late mataphase or early anaphase
thymidine, radioactivity will be first (3) Late anaphase or early telophase
observed in : (4) Late telophase
(1) Euchromatin

60
101.Which of the following reorganises the (3) There occurs only one chromatid in
nucleolus during telophase - each chromosome
(1) Sec. constriction –I (4) None of the above
(2) Sec. constriction - Ii 109.Ribonuclease, a mitotic poison, inhibits
(3) Primary constriction cell cycle in :
(4) Pore-complex (1) Interphase (2) Prophase
102. Each chromosome composed of one (3) Metaphase (4) Anaphase
chromatid in : 110.The most primitive type of mitosis is :
(1) Anaphase – I (2) Anaphase - II (1) Amitosis (2) Cryptomitosis
(3) Metaphase I (4) Metaphase -II (3) Endomitosis (4) Zygotic mitosis
103.If the number of bivalents are 8 in 111.Dinomitosis occur in :
metaphase - I what shall be the number (1) Procaryotes (2) Mesokaryotes
of chromosomes in daughter cell after (3) Eucaryotes (4) Akaryotes
meiosis - I and meiosis -Ii respectively : 112.Genetic information is transferred from
(1) 8 and 4 (2) 4 and 4 zygote to all body cell by :
(3) 8 and 8 (4) 16 and 8 (1) Meiosis (2) Amitosis
104. Arrangement of ascopores in ascus of (3) Endomitosis (4) Mitosis
Neurospora is 2 + 2 + 2 + 2. What is the 113. Division of cell without recognisable
number of recombinant type of chromosomes is :
ascospores : (1) Amitosis (2) Mitosis
(1) 2 (2) 4 (3) 6 (4) 8 (3) Meiosis –I (4) Meiosis -II
105.Which of the following not occurs in 114. In plants, active mitosis occur in :
Anaphase - I (1) Cambium (2) Leaf tip
(1)Segregationofhomologouschormosomes (3) Root base (4) Mid vein
(2) Contraction in spindle 115. Stain for cell division :
(3) Poleward movement of chromosomes (1) Saffranin (2) Aniline blue
(4) Division of centromere (3) PAS (4) Acetocrmine
106. Homologous chromosomes shows 116. Terminal meiosis occurs in :
maximum attracting during : (1) Sporocyte (2) Gametocyte
(1) Leptotene (2) Xygotene (3) Zygote (4) Gamete
(3) Pachytene (4) Diplotene 117. How many microspore mother cells
107. In meiosis : are required to produce 80 male gametes
(1)Division of nucleus twice but in angiosperms
replication of DNA only once (1) 10 (2) 20 (3) 40 (4) 80
(2)Division of nucleus twice and 118.Gap between meisis - I and II is called :
replication of DNA twice (1) Interphase (2) Interkinesis
(3)Division of nucleus once and (3) Diakinesis (4) Metakinesis
replication of DNA is also once 119. In animals, cytokinesis is :
(4) Division of nucleus once and DNA - (1) Centrifugal (2) Centripetal
replication is twice (3) Random (4) Collateral
108. After meiosis - I the two chromatics of
a chromosome are : 120. kernplasm theory proposed by :
(1) Genetically similar (1) Harting (2) O. Hertwig
(2) Genetically different (3) Huxley (4) Steward

61
121.Rate of cell div. increases by application (4) Collagen and elastin protein
of : 132.Each daughter chromosome in
(1) Cytokinins (2) Auxins anaphase moves towards opposite poles
(3) Gibberrellins (4) Colchicine at the speed of 1 m per minute with the
122. Coilling of chromonema in prophase of expenditure of energy ;
mitosis is - (1) 5 ATP (2) 30 ATP
(1) Plectonemic (2) Paranemic (3) 38 ATP (4) 200 ATP
(3) Helical (4) Irregular 133.Condensation of chromosomes and
123. Chiasmata appears during : appearance of astral rays occur during :
(1) Diakinesis (2) Synaptotene (1) prophase (2) Metaphase
(3) Diplotene (4) Leptotene (3) Anaphase (4) Telophase
124. Meiosis can take palace in : 134.Cell plate which appears during
(1) Prokaryotic cell (2) Hapolid cell cytokinesis, ultimately transforms in :
(3) Dikaryotic cell (4) Diploid cell (1) Middle lamella
125.What happnes in synthesis phase (2) Primary wall
during cell cycle : (3) Sec. Wall (4)Plasma membrane
(1) DNA synthesis 135.Colchicine (C22H25O6N) which
(2) Chromosome number become double prevents spindle formation is chemically
(3) Formation of two nuclei a:
(4) Synthesis of proteins & RNA (1) Protein (2) Amino acid
126.Reappearance of nuclear membrane & (3) Alkaloid (4) Glycolipid
nucleolus along with thing & elongation 136.During telephase :
in chromosomes are diagnostic character (1) Nuclear membrane is formed
for the phase : (2) Nucleolus appears
(1) Anaphase (2) Metaphase (3) Astral rays disappear(4) All the above
(3) Interphase (4) Telophase 137.Chromosomal morphology (Structure) is
127. What happens in crossing over : best observed at :
(1) Duplication of chromosomes (1) Prophase (2) Metaphase
(2) Limkage in chromosomes (3) Interphase (4) Anaphase
(3) Minimization in genetic material 138.Direct or incipient cell div. is :
(4) Exchange of genetic material (1) Cryptomitosis
128. In mitosis, the spindle is : (2) Dinomitosis
(1) Bipolar (2) Multipolar (3) Amitosis
(3) Apolar (4) Random (4) Mitosis and Meisos
129.Site of meiosis Angiosperms : 139.Bead like thickened portions of
(1) Meristem (2) Spore Mother cell leptotene chromosomes are :
(3) Roots (4) Petals or Pollen (1) Centromeres (2) Chromomeres
130.Syntehsis and storage of ATP molecules (3) Centrioles (4) Chromocentres
required for cell div. takes place in : 140. Which stage of cell cycle is
(1) Prophase (2) G1 - phase characterised by DNA replication,
(3) Anaphase (4) G2-pahse synthesis of Histone and formation of
131.Spindile microtubules composed of : new nucleosomes :
(1) Actin filament (1) S-phase (2) G1-pahse
(2) 95% dyinen and 5% DNA (3) G2-pahse (4) M-pahse
(3) 95-97% tubulin and 3-5 % RNA

62
141.In which stage of centromere lie at (3) Zygotene (4) Diplotene
equator and arms are directed towards 152. The correct sequence of prophae-I of
poles : meiosis is :
(1) Metaphase of mitosis(2) Metaphase -I (1)Leptotene, pachtene zygotene,
(3) MetaphaseIi (4) 1 and 3 both diplotene diakinesis
142. What type of division lead to (2)Leptotene, diplotene, pachytene,
zygotene, diakinesis
coenocytic condition :
(3)Leptotene, zygotene, pachytene,
(1) Cryptomitosis (2) Endomitosis
diplotene diakinesis
(3) Free nulcear div (4) Dino-mitosis (4)Leptotene, zygotene, diakinesis
143.In anaphase, a metacentric diplotene
chromosome appears : 153.V, J and L shaped chromosome occur in
(1) i shaped (2) J - shaped (1) Prophase (2) Anaphase
(3) V-shaped (4) L - shaped (3) Metaphase (4) Telophase
144. Pairing of homologous chromosomes 154. M-phase of cell cycle consist of :
is called : (1) G1, S and G1 phase
(1) Disjuction (2) Synapsis (2) Prophase, Metaphase, Anaphase,
(3) Segregation (4) Polyteny Telophase
(3) Intephase, Prophase, Metaphase,
145. In meiosis-I the inter zonal fibers
Anaphase, Telophase
appear in which stage :
(4) Only prophase
(1) Prophase – I (2) Metaphase - I 155. Crossing over takes place in :
(3) Anaphase - I (4) Telophase - I (1) Zygotene
146. During cytokinesis in plants, which of (2) Diakinesis
the following secretes the middle (3) Pachytene or diplotene
lamella : (4) Diplotene
(1) Golbibody (2) SER 156. Number of cells obtained by meiosis :
(3) RER (4) Lysosomes (1) 2 (2) 4 (3) 6 (4) 8
147. Which cell division is responsible for 157. Meiosis results in :
the growth of tissue and individuals : (1) Half number of chromosome
(2) Same number of chromosome
(1) Amitosis (2) Mitosis
(3) Double number of chromosime
(3) Meiosis (4)Mitosisand meiosis
(4) 1/4 number of chromosome
148. Preparatio phase of mitosis is : 158. Equational division is the term used
(1) G1-phase (2) S-phase for :
(3) Prophase (4) Interphase (1) Amitosis (2) Mitosis
149. Equatorial plate (Metaphase plate) (3) Meiosis-I (4) Meiosis -II
found in: 159. Longest phase of mitosis is :
(1) Metaphase (2) Prophase (1) Prophase (2) Metaphase
(3) Telophase (4) Anaphase (3) Anaphase (4) Telephae
150. Synasis found in between : 160. Two conical half spindles found in :
(1) Nonhomologous chromosome (1) Prophase (2) Metaphase
(3) Anaphase (4) Telophase
(2) Homologous chromosome
161. When the prophase chromosome are
(3) Nonhomologous and homologous
staned with acetocarmine they take
chromosome differential staining. This
(4) Chromatids phenomenon is called :
151. Synationemal complex first appear : (1) Idiogram (2) Karyotype
(1) Leptotene (2) Pachytene (3) Heterophycnosis (4) Satellite

63
162. The nuclear spindle : 173. How many division will occur in an
(1) Is formed in amitotic division isolated tip cell to form 128 cells.
(2) Is formed in mitotic division (1) 128 (2) 127 (3) 32 (4) 7
(3) If formed in meiotic division 174. In which stage the Chromosomes
(4) Is formed in mitotic and meiotic combine and begin to separate from each
division the during meiosis cell division :
163. Nuclear membrane disappears in : (1) Pachytene (2) Dipolotene
(1) Late prophase (2) Early prophase (3) Zygotene (4) Diakiness
(3) Metaphase (4) Telophase 175. In which stage the DNA is doubled :
164. Crossing over takes place on : (1) Metaphase (2) Anaphase
(1) Two stranded stage (3) Interphase (4) Prophase
(2) Three straded stage
(3) One straded stage 176. Enzyme essential for DNA Replication
(4) Four stranded stage is :
165. Pre - DNA synthesis phase is : (1) DNA Polymerase (2) Urease
(1) G1 – phase (2) G2 - phase (3) Ligase (4) Zymase
(3) S-phase (4) Prophase
166. Terminatlization process starts in : 177. Which type of cell division heals the
(1) Leptotene (2) Zygotene wound -
(3) Diplotene (4) Diakinesis (1) Amitosis (2) Mitotic
167. Which of the following is called (3) Meiosis (4) Free nuclear
heterotypic division :
(1) Meiosis-I (2) Meiosis-II 178.Number of spore mother cells required
(3) Mitosis (4) Amitosis to produce 64 spores -
168. DNA replication is found in : (1) 16 (2) 32 (3) 64 (4) 128
(1) Mitosis and meiosis-I
(2) Mitosis and meiosis-I and meiosis- 179. Causes of Cancer is -
II (1) Fast and uncontrolled cell division
(3) Meiosis only (4) Mitosis only by Meiosis
169. Thick-thread stage occurred in : (2) Stop the process which controls
(1) Leptotene (2) Zygotene cell division in Mitosis
(3) Pachytene (4) Diplotene (3) Over growth of daughter cells in
170. Decision of cell division occurs at - telophase and due to failure of
(1) Starting of G1 cleavage furrow an non separation
(2) End of G1 of cells
(3) Initial stage of prophase (4) Unequal amount of DNA is
(4) End of telophase daughter cells formed by Mitosis.
171. Smallest phase of mitosis is -
(1) Prophase (2) Metaphase 180. In which stage of meiosis the
(3) Anaphase (4) Telophase chromosomes appear thick and short
172.Synthesis of proteins for formation of and located near the periphery of
spindle fibres takes place in - nucleus -
(1) G1 – phase (2) S-phase (1) Diakinesis (2) Zygotene
(3) G2 – phase (4) M-phase (3) Pachytene (4) Diplotene

64
181. The significance of Meiosis is that it - 189. The number of DNA in chromosome at
(1) Produce four cells having G2 state of cell cycle : [RPMT 2002]
chromosomal number equal to (1) one (2) two (3) four (4) Eight
190. Which is correct for meiotic metaphase-
mother cell I [RPMT 2002]
(2) Occurs in all types of cells (1) Bivalents are arranged at equator
(3)Maintains the constant (2) Univalents are arranged at equator
Chromosomes number to a (3) Non-homologus chromosomes forms
particular species pair
(4)Spindle fibers are attached at
(4) Growth of animal body organs chromomere
182. Which statement is true for mitosis - 191. Which one of the following precedes
(1) Daughter cells exhibit division of re-formation of the nuclear envelope
labour i. e. perform different during M phase of the cell cycle :
functions [CBSE 2004]
(1) Transcription from chromosomes and
(2) Daughter cells are exactly similar reassembly of the nuclear lamina
is all respect (2) Formation of the contractile ring and
(3)Daughter cells have half the formation of the phragmoplast
number of chromosomes as (3) Formation of the contractile ring and
compared to mother cell transcription from chromosomes
(4) Decondensation from chromosomes
(4) Daughter cells have differences in and reassembly of the nuclear lamina
genetic characters 192.Crossing over that result in genetic
183. Cell Cycle of an ordinary animals - recombination in higher organisms
Mitosis Fertilization Meiosis occurs between - [CBSE 2004]
(1) 2n    n    2n   2n
(1) Non-sister chromatics of a bivalent
Meiosis Fertilizat ion Mitosis
(2) n   2n    2n   n (2) Two daughter nuclei
Meiosis Fertilization Mitosis (3) Two different bivalents
(3) 2n   n    2n   2n (4) Sister chromatics of a bivalents
Fertilization Mitosis Meiosis 193. In the somatic cell cycle :[CBSE 2004]
(4) 2n   (n)    2n   n
(1) DNA replication takes place in S-
184.Mitosis is not found in - phase
(1) Cartilage cells (2) Bone cells (2) A short interphase is followed by a
(3) Nerve cells (4) All of the above long mitotic phase
(3) G2 phase follows mitotic phase
185.The site of meiosis in higher plants -
(4) In G1 phase DNA content is double
(1) Growth cells (2) Root tip cell the amount of DNA present in the
(3) Stomatal cell (4) Spore mother cells original cell
186.How many types of spindles are forms 194. In which stage of meiosis the
during cell division in Eukaryotes : chromosome number reduces to half :
[RPMT 2004]
(1) 3 (2) 4 (3) 5 (4) 2
(1) Anaphase-I (2) Anaphase-II
187. Best material for the study of mitosis (3) Telophase-I (4) Telophase-II
in laboratory : [CPMT 2002] 195. Chiasmata are formed as a result of :
(1) Anther (2) root tip [RPMT 2004]
(3) leaf tip (4) Ovary (1) Exchange of parts of paried
homologus chromosome
188. Mitosis occurs in : [RPMT 2002]
(2) Echange of part of unpaired non-
(1) Haploid individuals homolous chromosome
(2) Diploid individuals (3) Duplication of parts of paried
(3) Both (a) & (b) homologus chromosome
(4) In bacteria only (4) Loss of parts of unpaired non-
mohologous chromosome

65
196.When synapsis is complete all along the (3) Crossing over (4) Transcription
chromosome, the cell is said to have 199. At what stage of the cell cycle are
entered a stage called : [AIIMS 2005] histone proteins synthesized in a
(1) Zygotene (2) Pachytene eukaryotic cell - [CBSE 2005]
(3) Diplotene (4) Diakinesis (1) During telophase
197. Many cells function properly and (2) During S-phase
divide mitiotically eney through they do (3) During G2-stage of prophase
not have [AIIMS 2005] (4) During entire prophase
(1) Plasma membrane (2) Cytoskeleton 200.In the n=16 in plant cell then how is
(3) Mitochondria (4) Plastids possible in metaphase -I of meiosis :
198. Centromere is required for – [RPMT 2007]
[CBSE 2005] (1) 32Bivalents
(1) Movement of chromosomes towards (2) 16 Telravalents
poles (3) 16 Bivalents
(2) Cytoplasmic cleacage (4) 32Bivalents

ANSWER KEY CELL DIVISION

Que. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
Ans. 1 1 2 4 4 3 3 1 2 4 3 4 3 4 1
Que. 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30
Ans. 3 4 2 3 2 2 4 1 2 2 4 2 4 2 1
Que. 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45
Ans. 1 4 3 4 4 4 4 1 3 1 1 1 2 4 1
Que. 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60
Ans. 3 3 3 4 4 4 4 3 2 1 4 2 4 1 4
Que. 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75
Ans. 4 3 3 3 1 3 1 3 2 1 3 1 3 1 4
Que. 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90
Ans. 3 3 4 1 1 2 1 2 3 3 3 4 2 1 2
Que. 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102 103 104 105
Ans. 1 2 1 4 1 2 3 4 4 2 1 2 3 2 4
Que. 106 107 108 109 110 111 112 113 114 115 116 117 118 119 120
Ans. 3 1 2 1 2 2 4 1 1 4 2 1 2 2 2
Que. 121 122 123 124 125 126 127 128 129 130 131 132 133 134 135
Ans. 1 1 3 4 1 4 4 1 2 4 3 2 1 1 3
Que. 136 137 138 139 140 141 142 143 144 145 146 147 148 149 150
Ans. 4 2 3 2 1 4 3 3 2 2 1 2 4 1 2
Que. 151 152 153 154 155 156 157 158 159 160 161 162 163 164 165
Ans. 3 3 2 2 3 2 1 4 1 2 3 4 1 4 1
Que. 166 167 168 169 170 171 172 173 174 175 176 177 178 179 180
Ans. 3 1 1 3 2 3 3 4 2 3 1 2 1 2 1
Que. 181 182 183 184 185 186 187 188 189 190 191 192 193 194 195
Ans. 3 2 3 3 4 1 2 3 2 1 2 1 1 1 1
Que. 196 197 198 199 200
Ans. 2 4 1 2 3

66
CELL BIOLOGY STATE PMP EXAMS EXERCISE
1. The main function of lysosome is : 8. The term ‘nucleosome’ was given by
[UTTARANCHAL PMT 2004] oudet oline and olins called these particle
(1) Sexual reproduction as ‘nu’ particles which histone is absent
(2) Extracellular digestion in nucleosome :
(3) Inracellular digestion [UTTARANCHAL PMT 2006]
(4) Both(2) and(3) (1) H1 (2) H2
2. Which of the following maintens (3) H3a (4) H4
continuity between the water and lipid 9. Nucleosome given beaded appearance to
phase inside and outside the cell : chromosome. They help in packing of
[UTTARANCHAL PMT 2004] DNA in the chromosomes. A nucleosome
(1) Cell wall has : [UTTARANCHAL PMT 2006]
(2) Lecithin (1) about 2 turns of DNA
(3) Cell vacuole (2) 8 histone molecules of 4 types (2 mols
(4) Cell membrane of woody plants each of H2 a, H2 b, H3 and H4)
3. The membrane surrounding cell vacuole (3) 200 nitrogen base pairs
is called (4) all of the above
[UTTARANCHAL PMT 2004] 10.Salivary gland chromosome were
(1) tonoplast (2) Cell wall discovered by Balbiani (1881) from
(3) Plasma membrane (4) Cell membrane salivary glands of larva of :
4. The diagammatic representation of [UTTARANCHAL PMT 2006]
chromosomes in known as : (1) Chironomous (2) Drosophila
[UTTARANCHAL PMT 2006] (3) Silk worm (4) Lac worm
(1) idiogram (2) karyotype 11.Is SAT chromosome, ST (Satellite) in
(3) holotype (4) nomotype terminal part of chromosome beyond
5. Thread like structure that are composed secondary contraction. It contains :
of the nuclear DNA of eukaryotic cells [UTTARANCHAL PMT 2006]
and are the carrier of genetic information. (1) DNA (2) RNA
These structure were known as (3) repetitive DNA(4) None of the these
chromosomes. The term “ chromosome”
was given by : 12.Material exchange through nucleopores
[UTTARANCHAL PMT 2006] is faciliate by :
(1) Waldeyer (2) Belbiani [UTTARANCHAL PMT 2006]
(3) Purkinje (4) Sutton (1) Lamina propria (2) lipid layer
6. Chromosomes, Present in prolonged (3) Nucleoplasmin (4) Nucleoles
prophase in the salivary glands of
Drosophila are : 13. Centroide is :
[UTTARANCHAL PMT 2006] [UTTARANCHAL PMT 2006]
(1) Polytene chromosome (1) Microtubuler and membraneless
(2) B-chromosomes (2) Absent in Amoeba, red algae, blue-
(3) Lampbrush chromosome green algae, conifers and angiosperm
(4) supenumerary chromososmes and made up of a peripheral double
7. Chromosomes at anaphase are of various microtubuls
shapes due to position of : (3) Basically locomotary and their role in
[UTTARANCHAL PMT 2006] spindle formation is secondary
(1) Setellie (2) Chromonem (4) All of the above
(3) Centromere (4) DNA

67
14.Association of a m-RNA with several [C. G. 2004]
ribosomes is called : (1) Maintaining constancy is the number
[West Bengal 2007] of chromosomes in an organism
(1) Polysome (2) Informosome (2) production of genetic variability in the
(3) Both(1) and(2 (4) None of these zpopulation of species
15. G2 phase comes between : (3) Reduction of the diploid number of
[West Bengal 2007] chromosomes to haploid
(1) S and M pahse (4) All of the above
(2) G1 and S phase 23.Which among the following can be seen
(3) S and D phase only under the electron microscope :
(4) G1 and M Phase [C. G. PMT 2004]
16.Lampbrush chromosome is found in : (1) Chloroplast (2) Ribosome
[West Bengal 2007] (3) Leucoplast (4) Nucleus
(1) Oocyte of amphibians 24.A mature plant cell has :
(2) salivary glande of mosquito [C. G. PMT 2004]
(3) Silk gland of silkworm (1) Cell wall and protoplasm
(4) None of the above (2) Protoplasm and vacuole
17. Prokaryotic ribosomes re : (3) Vacuole and cell wall
[West Bengal 2007] (4) Protoplasm cell wall and vacuole
(1) 50s (2) 60s
(3) 70s (4) 80s 25. The larger sub-unit in 80 s ribosome
18. Mesosome of prokaryotes perform is : [C. G. PMT 2004]
function similar to : (1) 50 s (2) 60 s (3) 40 s (4) Zero s
[West Bengal 2007]
(1) Mitochondria 26. Golgi bodies are absent in
(2) Peroxysomes [C. G. PMT 200]
(3) Lysosomes (1) Plants (2) Bacteria
(4) Ribosomes (3) Animals (4)Eukaryotic cells
19.RER is rough because of the present of
[West Bengal 2007] 27.Endoplsmic reticulum is more developed
(1) Volutin granules on its surface in : [C. G. PMT 2004]
(2) Ribosomes on its surface (1) Green cells (2) Young cells
(3) Lysosomes on its surface (3) Mture cells (4) Bacteriophage
(4) Mitochondir on its surface
20.Crossing over takes place between : 28. Mitochondria are related to :
[West Bengal 2007] [C. G. PMT 2004]
(1) 2 sister chromatids (1) Prokaryotic cell (2) Plamids
(2) 2 non-sister chromatids (3) Prion (4) Virus
(3) 3 homologous chromosomes
(4) 4 non-homologous chromosomes 29. The main function of lyosomes in
21.Cellular recognition is fasciliated by [C. G. PMT 2004]
components of plasmamembrane. These (1) Digestion (2) Replication
components are generally : (3) Translation (4) Translocation
[West Bengal 2007]
(1) Protein molecules alone 30.Which of the following has a single
(2) Lipid molecules alone membrane :
(3) Both lipid and protein molecules [C. G. PMT 2004]
(4) Gylcolipids and glycoprotiens (1) Ribosome (2) Peroxisome
22. The significance of meiosis lies in (3) Nucleus (4) Cetnrosome

68
31. L-shaped chromosomes are called - 41. In eukaryotic cell the type ribosome is
[C. G. PMT 2004] : [C. G. PMT 2005]
(1) Sex-chromosome (2) Acrocentric (1) only 70 s (2) Only 80 s
(3) Telocentri (4)Sub metacenric (3) 70 s and 80 s both (4) Only 50 s
32 Pairing of homologous chromosomes 42. Synthesis on DNA takes place in ;
takes place in : [C. G. PMT 2005]
[C. G. PMT 2004] (1) G1 (2) G2 (3) S (4) None of these
(1) Pachytene (2) Zygotene 43.The genetic material of procaryotic cells
(3) Diplotene (4) None of these is celled : [C. G. PMT 2005]
33.How many meiotic division will be (1) Nucleus (2) Nucleolus
necessary to produce two hundred pollen (3) Nucleoid (4) Centrosome
grain [C. G. PMT 2004] 44.Which organelle of plant cells secretes
(1) 100 (2) 99 (3) 50 (4) 200 polysaccharide to make cell walls :
34. Who coined the term ‘chromosome’ [C. G. PMT 200]
[C. G. PMT 2004] (1) Golgi-bodies (2) Lysosome
(1) Balbiani (2) Waldeyer (3) Mitochondria (4) Chloroplast
(3) Sutton (4) Purkinje 45.RNA contains which of the following
35.A chromosome having sub- terminal base, in place of Thymine of DNA :
centromere is called -[C. G. PMT 2004] [C. G. PMT 2005]
(1) Telocentric (1) Thymine (2) Uracil
(2) Acrocentic (3) Adenine (4) None of these
(3) metacentric 46.The main function of lysosomes is in :
(4)Sub - metacentric [C. G. PMT 2005]
36.Which is the character of mitosis (1) Only intracellular digestion
[C. G. PMT 2005] (2) Only Extracellular digestion
(1) Leptotene (2) Zygotene (3)Both intracellulr and extracellular
(3) Pachytene (4) None of the above digestion
37. How many types of ells are known : (4) None
[C. G. PMT 2005] 47.Eukaryotic cell has : [C. G. PMT 2005]
(1) One (2) two (1) One chromatin fiber
(3) Three (4) Four (2) Definite nucleus
38. In which mitosis does not-occur (3) Incipient nucleus
[C. G. PMT 2005] (4) None of these
(1) Green algae (2) Fungi 48.Four daughter cells formed after meiosis
(3) Bacteria (4) Higher plants are : [C. G. PMT 2005]
39. A mature plant cell has : (1) Genetically similar
[C. G. PMT 2005] (2) Genetically different
(1) Cell wall (2) Vacuole (3) Anucleate
(3) Protoplasm (4) All of the above (4) Multinucleate
40. Repulsion of homologous 49.The synthesis of lipids and proteins is
chromosomes takes place in : associated with : [C. G. PMT 2005]
[C. G. PMT 2005] (1) Endoplasmic retculum
(1) Zygotene (2) Leptotene (2) Miochondria
(3) Diakinesis (4) Pachytene (3) Chloroplast
(4) Lysosomes

69
50.Cell theory was proposed by (3) Glyco-oxidation (4) Fermentation
[C. G. PMT 2005] 59.In cell divisioin, spindle bifrses are made
(1) Scheleiden and Schwann up of protein : [JHARKHAND 2006]
(2) Watson and Crick (1) Myoglobin (2) tubulin
(3) Darwin and Wallace (3) albumin (4) myosin
(4) Mendel and Morgan 60. Bulk of histome proteins systhesized in :
51.During meiosis the division of [JHARKHAND 2006]
centromere takes place in : (1) G1-phase (2) G2-phase
[C. G. PMT 2005] (3) S-phase (4) G0-phase
(1) First prophase 61.Choose the incorrect match :
(2) First anaphase [JHARKHAND 2006]
(3) Second metaphase (1) Nucleus : RNA
(4)Second anaphase (2) Lysosome : protein synthesis
52.Which one of the following is not found (3) Mitochondria : respiration
in animal cell : [C. G. PMT 2005] (4) Cytoskeleton : microtubules
(1) Nucleus (2) Golgi bodies 62.rough endoplasic reticulum is associated
(3) Chloroplast (4) Mitochondria with : [JHARKHAND 2006]
53.Unit membrane consists of : (1) fat synthesis
[C. G. PMT 2005] (2) steroid synthesis
(1) Lipid + Sugar+ Lipid (3) protein synthesis (4) all of these
(2) Protein + Lipid + Protein 63.Resolving power of electron microscope is
(3) Lipid + Protein + Lipid : [JHARKHAND 2006]
(4) Protein 
(1) 1 (2) 10 Å (3) 100 Å (4) 1000 Å
54.Principal constituents of chromosomes 64.Number of Bar bodies in XXXXY is :
are : [C. G. PMT 2005] [JHARKHAND 2006]
(1) DNA + Protein (2) DNA (1) 1 (2) 2 (3) 3 (4) 4
(3) RNA (4) tRNA 65.The study related to the structure and
55. Shape of chromosome is determined by function of a cell called as :
[C. G. PMT 2005] [JHARKHAND 2005]
(1) Telomere (2) Centromere (1) Physiology (2) Cell biology
(3) Chromomere (4) Centrosome (3) Histology (4) Cellology
56.In a bacterial cell the respiratory 66.The longest phase of meiosis (I) is :
enzymes are found is : [C. G. PMT 2005] [JHARKHAND 2005]
(1) Mitochondria (2) Chondrisome (1) metaphase I (2) prophase I
(3) Mesosome (4) Centrosome (3) anaphase I (4) telophase I
57.The cell wall of spirogyra is made up of 67.Flyid mosaic model was given gy :
[C. G. PMT 2005] [JHARKHAND 2006]
(1) Cellulose (2) Suberiun (1) Knoll and Ruska
(3) Lignin (4) Chitin (2) Singer nd Ruska
58.The main function of Golgi complex is : (3) Singer and Nicolson
[C. G. PMT 2005] (4) bateson and Punnet
(1) Translocation (2) Phosphorylation

70
68.Colchicine prevents the mitosis of cell at protein and can be easily separated
: [JHARKHAND 2005] (4) Loosely associated with intrinsic
(1) Prophase stage protein and can’t be easily separated
(2) Anaphase stage 77.Ribosomes are associated with :
(3) Metaphase stage [Bihar 2002 ]
(4) Metaphase stage (1) RNA synthesis
69.The number of DNA in chromosome at (2)Protein nthesis
G2 stage [JHARKHAND 2006] (3) Enzyme mobilisation(4) DNA synthesis
(1) One (2) Two (3) Four (4) Eight 78.Which organelle is not found in an
70.The characteristic of blue-green algae is : animal cell : [Bihar 2001]
[JHARKHAND 2006] (1) Peroxysome (2) Ribosome
(1) DNA without histone (3) Lysosome (4) None of these
(2) Nucleus absent 79.Actin fibre is present in : [Bihar 2001]
(3) Nuclear membrane absent (1) Cilia (2) Flagella
(4) All of the above (3) Carbohydrates (4) Microfilaments
71.Cell wall of a cell is removed, the 80.Carrier proteins are involved in :
remaining is called : [Bihar 2005] [Bihar 2006]
(1) Etioplast (2) Aleuroplast (1) Transport of enzymes
(3) Amyloplast (4) Protoplast (2) water transport
72.Movement against concentration gradient (3) Active transport of ions
is called : [Bihar 2005] (4) Passive transport of gases
(1) Osmosis (2)active transport
(3) diffusion (4) passive transport 82.The recent model fro plasma membrane
73.Synapsis occurs in . . . . . phase of proposed by Siner and nicolson is :
meiosis : [Bihar 2005] [Bihar 2005]
(1) Zygotene (2) Diplotene (1) Molecular lipid model
(3) Pachytene (4) leptotene (2) Lamellar model
74. Which one is present in both (3) Unit membrane model
prokaryotic and eukaryotic cell : (4) fluid mosaic model
[Bihar 2004]
(1) Ribosome (2) Mitochondria 83.Significance of meiosis lies in :
(3) ER (4) Nucleus [Bihar 2006]
75. Centromereisalso called :[Bihar 2003] (1)Reduction of chromosome number to
(1) Chromomere one half
(2) Secondary constriction (2) Maintaning constancy of chromosome
(3) Primary constriction number during sexual reproduction
(4) Chromonema (3) Production of genetic variability
76. In “ singer and Nicolson” model of (4) All of the above
plasma membrane, the extrinsic proteins
are [Bihar 2002] 84.Function of mitochondria is :
(1)Tightly associated with intrinsic [UP CPMT 2002]
protein and can be easily separated (1) Excretion
(2)Loosely associated with intrinsic (2) Respiration
protein (3) Digestion
(3)Loosely associated with intrinsic (4) Excretion and respiration

71
85.Term basal body is associated with the 93.Chromosomes can be seen best during :
development of : [UP CPMT 2003] [MP PMT 2003]
(1) cilia and flagella (2) cell plate (1) Prophase (2) Metaphase
(3) phragmoplast (4) kinetochore (3) Anaphase (4) Telophse
86.Golgi body originates from : 94. What will be the gametic chromosome
[UP CPMT 2003] number of a cell, if somatic cell have 40
(1) lysosome chromosomes [MP PMT 2003]
(2) Endoplasmic reticulum (1) 10 (2) 20
(3) mitochondria (4) cell membrane (3) 30 (4) 40
87.Lipid molecules in plasma membrane are 95.Whocoined the term ‘cell’[MP PMT 2003]
arranged in which manner : (1) Purkinje (2) Robert Brown
[UP CPMT 2003] (3) Robert Hooke (4) Hugo von Mohl
(1) scattered (2) series
(3) alternate (4) head parallel 96.In which of the following stage
88.Structure of nuclear membrance helps in chromosomes are arranged at equatorial
: [UP CPMT 2003] plate : [MP PMT 2003]
(1) organisation of the spindle (1) Anaphase (2) Metaphase
(2) synapsis of homologous chromosome (3) Prophase (4) Telophase
(3) nucleo-cytoplasmic exchange of
material 97.During mitosis number of chromosomes
(4) anaphasic separation of daughter gets : [MP PMT 2003]
chromosome (1) Change
89.Hydrolytic enzymes are stored in : (2) No change
[UP CPMT 2003] (3) May be change if cell is mature
(1) Golgi bodies (4) May be change if cell is immature
(2) Lysosomes
(3) Endoplasmic reticulum 98.Chromosome having centromere in its
(4) Mitochondria middle is [MP PMT 2005]
90.Ribosomemayalsocalled : (1) Acrocentric (2) Telocentric
[UP CPMT 2002] (3) metacentric (4) submetacentri
(1) Microsome (2) Dictyosome
(3) Ribonucleoprotein (4) Oxysomes 99.Single membrance bound is :
91.Genes are present on : [MP PMT 2005]
[UP CPMT 2003] (1) lysosome (2) Plastid
(1) Chromosomes (2) Lamellae (3) nucleus (4) mitochondria
(3) Plasma membrane (4) Mesosomes
92.The cromosome showing L-shaped 100.Which of the following do not possess
structure by the presence of centromere lipoproteinaceous membrane :
is termed as : [UP CPMT 2003] [MP PMT 2006]
(1) Acentric (2) Metacentric (1) lysosomes (2) lomasomes
(3) Sub-metacentric (4) Telocentric (3) ribosomes (4) sphaerosomes

72
101.In meosis chromosome number because 102.Centrosome is not present in :
: [MP PMT 2006] [MP PMT 2003]
(1) Half of its parent chromosome (1) Cell of higher plants
(2) Cells of lower plants
(2) Same at that of parent chromosome
(3) Cells of higher animals
(3) One fourth of its parent chromosome (4) Cells of lower animals
(4) None of the above 103. Site of protein synthesis is :
[MP PMT 2005]
(1) Ribosome (2) SER
(3) Golgi bodies (4) Lysosome

STATE PMT EXAMS EXRCISE ANSWER KEY

Que. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
Ans. 4 2 1 1 1 1 3 3 4 1 3 3 4 1 1
Que. 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30
Ans. 1 3 1 2 2 4 4 2 4 2 2 2 1 1 2
Que. 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45
Ans. 4 2 3 2 2 4 2 3 4 3 3 3 3 1 2
Que. 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60
Ans. 3 2 2 1 1 4 3 2 1 2 3 1 1 2 3
Que. 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75
Ans. 2 3 2 3 2 2 3 3 2 4 4 2 1 1 3
Que. 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90
Ans. 4 2 4 4 4 3 4 4 2 1 2 4 3 2 3
Que. 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102 103
Ans. 1 3 2 2 3 2 2 3 1 3 1 1 1

73
 CELL BIOLOGY (SUPPLEMENT)

Father of modern cytology - C. P. Swanson

Father of Indian cytology - A. K. Sharma
 National centre for cell science, pune.
 Institute of life sciences, Bhubaneshwar.
 National Institute of oceanography, Panjeem (Goa)
 Advance centre for cell & chromosome Research (Kolkata) .
 National Institute of Immunology, New Delhi
 National Brain Research Centre Manesar, Gurgaon
 Centre for cellular and molecular biology hyddrabad.
 Centre for DNA finger printing and Diagnostics Hyderabad (CDEF) .
 nstitute of Genomics and Integrative Biology, New Delhi.
 nternational Centre for Genetic Engineering & Biotechnology (ICGEB) - New Delhi
(also in Italy)
Cytology  Study of cell structure
Cell biology  Study of cell structure and function & Reproduction
 Robert Hook (1665) in his book “ Micrographia” coined the term “ Cell” . He first
observed the cell in a piece of cork (dead cells)
(Greek word cella = Small hollow space or Chamber)
 Malpighi (1671) and Grew (1682) first observed living cells in plants and called them “
Bladders” and “ Utricles” respectively
 Leeuwnhoek (1674) first observed animal cells (Free animals cells) and called them “
Animalcule”

CELLTHEORY
CELL THEORY

M. J. Schleiden (1838) - German Botanist

T. Schwann (1839) - German Zoologist
(1) Living organisms are made up of cells and substances produced by cell (Cell is structural
units)
(2) All cells arises from the preexisting cells only (confirmed by Rudoloph virchow (1855) by
stating “ Omnis celluulae cellula” . Virchow proposed “ Cell Lineage theory” . [Karl
Nageli showed that plant cells arise from the division of pre existing cells].
(3) All cells are basically similar in structure and metabolic function.
(4) Vital activities of an organism are due to the activities of its cells (Cell is functional units)
(5) Each cell has a unit of heredity.
 Exception of cell theory :
According to this theory all the living organism are made up of cells. Viruses are exception
of this theory because viruses lacks cell organisation.
According to modern scientists all the acellular organism - monera and protista,
Xanthophytes. (Vaucharia) Phycomycetes (Rhizopus) are exception of cell theory.

 Cell Principle
First of cell hypothesis was proposed by Schwann (1839) . It was raised to the status of cell
theory by Schleiden and Schwann. It wa modified, when R. Virchow (1855) Put forward
the theory of cell lineage or development of cells from preexisting cells. (“ Omnis cellulae
ellula” ) A a result of these additions the cell theory has been as “ cell principle or cell
dorctrin” the cell principle is better than cell theory as it applies almost to all the living
things, plants animals and microbes and it also incorporates nearly all the modern findings
about a cell.

74
 Modern cell theory or cell principle states that :
(i) The body of all living beings is made up of cell and their products.
(ii) Cell is the unit of structure of body of all organisms.
(iii) A cell is made up of a small mass of protoplasm having nucleus, a number of
organelles and covering membrane.
(iv) Each cell is capable of independent existence but a cell organelle can not survive
independently.
(v) All cells have fundamental similarity in structure, chemical composition and basis
metabolic reactions.
(vi) Life exists only in cells because all activities of life are performed by cells.
(vii) New cells arise from pre-existing cells through division.
(viii) Each cell contains the whole complement of genetic information not for itself but
for the whole organism (Totipotency)
(ix) Genetic information’s is stored and expressed withing the cells.
(x) Life transferred from one generation to the next only in the form of cells.
(xi) All cells of present day organisms have evolved from primitive cells of the remote
past. They have a common ancestry.
(xii) The cells of an individual get transformed structurally to perform specified
function, loss of centriole in nverce cells. Lost of nucleus in mammalian RBSs &
form of sperms.
(xiii) Cells maintain homoeostasis and their internal environment
(xiv) No organism, organ, or tissue can have any activity that is absent in its cells.
(xv) All cells have a full genetic information coded in their DNA but each cell type uses
only a part of information require for its special function or structure.
Objections :
(a) Nucleus in absent in prokaryotes, mature RBCs.
(b) Prokaryotes lack a number of cell organelles present in eukaryotes.
(c) Virus do not obey theory of cell lineage
(d) A number of nuclei present in coenocyte or syncytium.

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN PROKARYOTIC & EUKARYOTIC

CHARACTERS PROKARYOTICS CELL EUKARYOTIC CELL

(1) Nuclear Nuclear membrane absent (Prok. are single Nuclear membrane present
Membrane membranous system) Eukaryotes are double
enveloped system
(compartmentalisation)

2) Nucleus Well organised nucleus absent, thus present Nucleus well

nuclear material is called s Incipient organised
nucleus/prokaryon/ Genophore /
nucleoid etc.

(3) Cell organelles Membranous cell organalles are absent Membranous cell organalles
(like Mitochondria plastids E. R. golgibody, are present. (Plastids only in
Microbody) plants)

(4) Ribosome 70-S type 80-S types and

70-S (Mito. & chlroplast)

75
(5) Cell wall Present (made by peptidoglycan/ Present in plant cells only
Murien/Muramic acid/Mucopeptide) (made by cellulose or chitin)
(6) Resp. Enzymes Presents in Mesosome mainly in aerobic Found in cytoplasm and
cell. Mitochondira

(7) Flagella Flagella are Made up of Flagellin protein. Flagella re elevn stranded,
Made up of Tubulin protein
(9+2 arrangement)

(8) Photosynthesis Takes place in Carboxysomes or lamelles Chloroplasts

or chlorosomes in BGA (in Bacteria
chromatophores membrane infoldings) Present
(9) Cylosis Cytoplsmic streaming absent

(10) Chromosomes Naked or folded genome made by Mainly True chromosomes & more
circular-ds-DNA (G-C Cih) (Histome than one (Histome asso. with
protein absent) DNA)
(11) Cell division Amitosis only Mitosis & meiosis (R. D. )
mainly
(12) Ploidy level Consider as haploid Haploid, Diploid, Polyploid
Sexuality or sexual
reproduction present
(13) Sexuality Sexuality or true Sexual Reproduction (Meiosis, gamete formation &
absent in prokaryotic cell[In Bacteria true fertilization occurs)
genetic - recombination or parasexual
(14) Vacuoles reproduction by con]- ugation, Present as sap vacuoles in
transduction & transformation] plant cell
(15) Protein Absent but gas vacole may presen Transcription in nucleus &
Synthesis takes place in cytoplasm Translation in cytoplasm on
ribosome’s.
Examples : Bacteria Cyanobacteria (BGA) All plant & Animals cells
Mycoplasma (PPLO) Ricketsias, including Human cells.
Actinomycetes. [Monera] Protista, algae, Fungi
protozoa.

76
77
 Diffrences beteween Animal & Plant cell

CHARACTERS NIMAL CELL PLANT CELL

(1) Cell Wall Cell wall absent in animal cell.Cell wall present only in plant
cell (Bacteria consider as plant
due to presence of CW)
(2) Plastids Plastids or chloroplasts absent Plastids presents in plant
in animal cell. No. - cells. (Except - Fungi)
Chlorophyll Centrosome absent in plant
(3) Centrosome Centrosome found in animal cell (Except-Lower plants)
cells
(4) Vacuoles Absent of small, Temporary Sap/True vacuoles are present
vacuoles may presents in plant cells.
(5) Cell division Cytokinesis by constriction Cell division by cell plate
formation or furrowing. (Cell (phragmoplast) formation.
division is amphiastral) (Cell Div. anastral type)

(6) Reserve food Reserve food is glyocgen in Mainly strach is reserve food
animal cells. in plant cells

Units of Measurement
1 millimeter (mm) = 1/10 cm
 (m)
1 micron ( ) or micrometer = 1/1000 mm
(m  )
1 millimicron or nanometere = 1/100 
1 Angstrom (A0) = 1/10 m 

ongest cell (Human) : Nerve cells - 90 cm. > Egg cell 100 nm > Sperm 60 nm
> Kidney cell 30 nm > RBC 7. 5 nm
Logest plant cell : fibers of ramine (Boehmeria nivea) - upto 55 cm.
Largest cell : ostrich egg - 11 × 17 cm
Smallest cells : Mycoplasma laidlawii - 0. 1 
Virus & Prions : Akaryota
Mesokaryotes : Dianoflagellates
Prokaryotes : Bacteria Spirochaetes BGA, Actinomycetes, Mycoplasma

NONLIVING INCLUSION.
Nonliving and temporary structures of ctoplasm called “ Paraplasm’ or “ Metaplasm” or “
Deutoplasm” These includes excretory materials (waste products) , stored food and secretory
materials.
(1) Excretory or Waste materials
(A) Inorganic
(a) Cystolithis - Crystals of calcium carbonate. These crystals are pedicillite and appear
like a cluster of grapes inside plant cells.
e. g. Hevea (Rubber plant) , Ficus, Cucurbitaceae, Acanthaceae, Justicia
(b) Calcium oxalate - Two types of Crystals -

78
 (i) Raphides - needle like crystals which occur solitary or in groups.
e. g. Eichornima, Pistia, Rubber plant
(ii) Spheroraphides or Drus or conglomerate crystals, these are star like crystals, of
calcium oxalate.
e. g. Colacacia, Pistia Carica papaya (papaya) , Atropa, Nerium, Dioscorea
(c) Silica - cell wall in grasses and Equisetum impregnated with silica. Silica particles
also occur in cytoplasm of Belladona leaves and roots.
(B) Organic
(a) Nitrogenous

(i) Alkaloids - Nitrogenous waste materials, bitter in taste and insoluble in water.
Alkaloid are of great medicinal importance.

Name of Alkaloid Source Use

(1) Morphine Capsule of Papaver soniferum Analgesic and sedative
(2) Codeine -do- Cough and cold
(3) Reserpine Rootsof Rauwolfia serpentina Lowers blood pressure
(4) Quinine Bark of Cinchona officinalis Malaria
(5) Atropine Leaves of Atropa balladona Dilates pupil of eye
(6) Ephedrine Entireplant(Mainlystem)ofEphedra Cough, Asthama
(7) Curcumine Rhizome of Curcuma longa Antihelmintic
(8) Aconita Roots of Aconitum napellus Neuralgiaand Rheumatism
(9) Cocaine Leaves of Erythroxylon coca Local anaesthetic
(10) Strychine Seeds of strychnos nuxvomica Nervous disorder

(ii) Glycosides -Nitrogen containing degration products of carbohydrates e. g. Digitoxin

obtained from leaves of Fox glove (Digitalis purpurea) . Digitoxin is used as heart
stimulant.
(b) None nitrogenous
(i) Tannins - Derivatives of glycosides, solube in water. Tannis are bitter in taste. These
occur more in unripe fruits. Tea leaves ahve 18% tannis, kattha obtained from heart
wood of Acacia ctechu have high concetnration of tanning.
(ii) Resin - Oxidation products of essential oils. These occur as viscous water insolulbe
fluid inside plants. Formation of resins takes place inside special ducts called resin
ducts. Resins commonly occurs in Pines.
 Canada Balsam obtained from Abies balsemia is a type of Resin.
(iii) Gums - Water soluble degradation products of plant cell wall.
 Gum arabic - obtained from Acacia senegal and A. arabica.
Guar gum - Obtained from poods of Cyamopsis tetragonoloba
Bengal Kino - Stem of Butea monosperma
(iv) Lates - Composition of latex vary in different plants. It may contain sugars, starch
grains amino-acids minerals, alkaloids toxins resing gums, oils etc. Latex is produced
in laticiferous tissue composed of either latex cells or latex vessels. Latex eg. Hevea
brasiliensis serves the function of protection, healing wounds, nutrition etc. Plants
which provide latex for bioful are called petrocrops. (firt studied by calvin) Jatropa,
Calotropis, Euphorbia etc.
(v) Essential oils - Highly aromatic water soluble volatile organic compounds. Chemically
they are termpends. They perform a number of functions. ; attract insects repel
animals and act as antiseptic substance e. g. Rose oil, sandal wood oil, Jasmine oil,
Khus-Khus oil, camphor (Cinnamomum camphora) , Lemon glass oil, pamososaoil,
Eucalyptus oil etc.

79
 (vi) Organic acid :
Formic acid - Utrica dioca (stinking nettle)
Tartaric acid - Grapes and Tamarind
Citric acid - Lemon, orange
Oxalic acid - Oxalis (Khatti Buti)
Mullic acid - Leaves of Gram, Apple fruits

(2) Reserve materials :

(A) Starch grains - starch occurs as stored food in plants cells.
 Starch grains are either round (wheat pea) or elliptical (potato) . But starch grain
which occur in late are double shaped.
 Polyphedral starch grains occur in Maize endosperm
 Canna have largest starch grains (1/100mm) while smallest starch grains occur in
rice (1/200 mm) .

 One the basis of position of hilum starch grains are of two types
(1) Concentric - in wheat endosperm and cotyledons of pea.
(2) Eccentri - Potato and Rice.
 In rice and beet root plant starch grains have more than one hilium such starch grains
called compound
(B) Proteins : In endosperm and cotyledones of several plants proteins occur as stored
food in form of grains. Protein grains called Aleurone grains. Cereal endosperm have
a layer of cells having aleuron grains called Aleurone layer.
(C) Hermicellulose - Hemicellulose is a part of cell wall. Shining white colour of Date and
coconut endosperm is due to high conc. of hemicellulose.
 However hemicellulose occurs as stored food in Ivory platm (Phytelophas) This
hemicellulose is used to manufacture artificial ivory and billiard balls.
(D) Inulin - Inulin is a soluble homopolysaccharide composed of fructose units. It occues
as stored food in roots of Dahalia and Artichoke.
 (Glycerrhiza provides non saccharifer sweetners)

(3) Secretory material :

These occur in special gland and sacs. These includes encymes, colouring material, Nectar.

VACUOLE
Discovered by Spallanzani

Vuoles are generally absent in animal cells and meristematic cells in plants. Cell of
permanent tissue in plant have well developmed vacuoles.
acuoles are surrounded by an unit membrane called tonoplast. Inside vacuole there is a
nonloving fluid called cell ap. cell sap contains water, salts, sugars, organic acids, Vitamins
and waste materials of metabolism. Sometimes cell asp have certain water soluble pigments
like anthocyanin (blue or violet) , anthoclor (yellow) etc. Beta cyanin in beet root cells.

Functions of vacuole 
1. Storehouse of nutrients.
2. Removes water materials from cytoplasm
3. Solutes in cell sap regulates osmotic relations of plant ell.
4. Pigments of cell sap provide different colouration to petals.
5. Mature plant cell store water in vacuole. Immature plant cells like cells of meristem store
water in cytoplasm.

80
 TOOLS AND TECHNIQUE IN CYTOLOGY
STAINING :

Stain Finarl colour Suitatble for

 Schultze’ solution Yellow  Ligning, cutting, suberin & starch
(Chlor-zing iodine)
Blue/Violet  Cellulose
 Sudan IV Scarlet red Suberin
 Sudan black and Red Black/Red Lipid
 Haematoxylene Red Nuclear stain
Cell division
 Acetocarmine Pink Nuclear stain
 Feulgen’s stain Red/Purple DNA
 Osmium tetraoxide Black Fats, Stain for electon microscopy
 Toludine blue Blue RNA
 Sfafranine Red Lignin
 Periodic acid Schiff Red Polysaccharides
(PAS)
 Aniline blue (Cotton Blue Fungal hypae
blue)
 Eosin Pink, Red Cytoplasm, Cellulose
 Janus green Greenish blue Mitochondria
 Methylene blue Blue Nucleolus
 Phoroglucinon Red Linging
 Aurantia Yellow Mitochondiria
 Brazlin Red DNA
 Para Rosailin Purple DNA
 Iodine solution Blue, Red Starch, Glyogen
 Crystal Violet Violet Bacteria
 Azure B Red RNA

Vital Stains  Stains the cell organelles without killing cell are called as vital stains.
Normally cell becomes dead after staining but vital stains keep the cell alive. Janus Green,
Neutral REd, methylene Blue, malechite Green
FEULGEN REACTIOIN
Feulgen reaction was discovered by Feulgen and Rosen beck (1924) . Feulgen reaction
specifically stains DNA. Feulgen reaction involves two steps -
(i) Acid hydrolysis of material :
It removdes the purine at the level of purine-deoxyribose glycosidic bond of DNA
there by unmasking the aldehyde group of deoxyribose.
(ii) The free aldehyde group react with Schiff’s reagent. The Schiff’s reagent is prepared
by treating basis fuschin with sulfurous acid.
MICROSCORPY
 Microscopy means the use of microscope for studying the cell.
MAGNIFICATION POWER :
 Maximum magnification power of light compound microscope is 2000.

Sinze of retinal image with microscope

Magnification 
Size of retinal image with unaided eyes

81
 Magnification = power of objective lens
x power of eye piece lens
 In light compound microscope maximum
power of objective lens is 100 X and
maximum power of eye piece lens is 20 X.
Thus the maximum magnification achieved
is 10 × 20 = 2000.

RESOLVING POWER
 Resolving power of microscope refers to the smallest
distance between two objects which can be identified as
separate image. Resolving power of human eye is 100 m .
 Resolving power of light microscope is 0. 25 m to 0. 30
m
Resolving power of microscope can be calculated with
the help of the Abbe equations.
0.61 
Lm  [Erns Abbe German physicist]
NA

Lm is limit of resolution
NA is numerical aperture.
NA = n sin 

 n is refractive index of medium and sin  is the sine of the

half angle of light entering the objective lens from the
specimen
  is the wavelength of light used to illuminate the object.
 Limit of resolution is inversely proportional to resolving power. So when Lm becomes smaller,
the resolution increase.
 Resolving power is inversely related to wavelength of light. Therefore the highest resolution is
obtained. with the light of shortest wavelength i. e. (450-500 nm) light at the blue end of the
visible spectrum

 The angle of light that can enter a lens depends on the refractive index of the medium as well
as upon the object itself.
 Refractive index of air is 1. 00. Since sin  can not be higher than 1 (  = 900 and sin 900 =
1) no lens working in air can have a numerical aperture more than 1. The semi angle of
aperture for the best objective lens is 700 (sin 700 = 0. 94) , Therefore, the only way to
increase the numerical aperture is to increase the refractive index by using

82
 an oil (ceda wood oil, olive oil) which has a refractive index identical to that of a glass.
Generally the value of NA for oil immersion lens is 1. 4
0.61 
Lm 
1.4
Therefore,resolutionofmicroscope is roughlyonehalfof thewavelengthofilluminating light.
LIGHT COMPOUND MICROSCOPE
 Light compound microscope was first invented by Z. Janssen and H. Jassen (1590)
 Wilson (1710) improved the microscope of Janssen and Janssen and presented it in the form
of present day Laboratory Microscope.
 Normally light compound microscope is bright filed microscope. In a bright field microscope
the image is formed when the light transmitted through the specimen
 The specimen being denser and more opaque than its surroundings, absorbs some of this
light and the rest of the light is transmitted directly up to the eye piece. As a result, the image
produced by the specimen will be darker than the surrounding brightly illuminated field.
Use : The bright field microscope is a multipurpose instrument and can be used for life
unstained materials as well as preserved and stainred materials.

DARK FIELD MICROSCOPE OR ULTRA MICROSCOPE

 Dark field microscope developed by Zsigmondy (1905)
 In dark field microscope, the object is illuminated by oblique beam of light. The resulting
image is illumiated brightly against the dark background.
 The most effective advantage of Dark field microscope is tha, the nuclei, mitochodri and
vacuoles are readily detected.
PHASE CONSTRAST MICROSCOPE
 It was developed by Zernicke (1935)
 This microscope multiples the small differences among the phases or refractive indices of
different cellular constituents.
 It converts the difference of refractive index into differences in brightness with the help of a
transparent phase plate situated at the back focal plane of objective lens.
So different strucutres of cell appear in different brightness.
 Phase contrast microscope does not require staining of material so cell can be observed in
living state.
 This microscope is useful to study functional aspect of cell like cell division.

INTERFERENCE MICROSCOPE
 It was developed by Merten et. al.
 It is one modification of phase contract microscope. Here, pars of cells with different
thickness and refractive index appear in contrasting colours so as to provide clear
observation.
 In this microscope, the light rays are split into two beams before passing through the object
by two prisms that create contrasting colours in a image. One beam passes through the
object and undergoes a phase change.
The second beam does not pass through the object and remains unchanged.
 The two beams are brought together above the object.
 This microscope can determine the presence of several light absorbing substances like
nucleic acid, proteins, lipids etc.
 By using this microscope, it is possible to find out the dry weight of macromolecules like
DNA, RNA and proteins
FLUORESCENT MICROSCOPE
 It was developed by Coons (1945)
 It emloyes invisible ultraviolet rays instead of oridinary light for illumination. it is built
on the principle hat certain substances absorb short wave ultra-violet radiations falling on
them, get excited and emit them back but in the form of longer wave length of visible light.
This penomenon is called Fluorescence.

83
 Some cellular components like chorophylls, riboflavin vitamin A collagen fibers etc. have the
property of autofluorensce. They are therefore, visible under the fluorescent microscope.
 Other cellular componetns (e. g. cellulseo, starch glycogen lipids proteins) can be made
visible under the fluorescent microscope with the help of special dyes called fluorochromes
(e. g. Acridine orange, coroposphine) . The phenomenon of fluorescence with the help of
fluorochromes is called secondadry fluorescence.
 Fluorescent microscope is useful in detecting the microbes present inside the infected
tissue. Some Fluorochrome :
(i) Fluorescein - (emitting green light, when excited with blue light)
(ii) Rhodamine - (emitting deep red light when excited with green yellow light) .
(iii) Quinie sulphate
(iv) auramine
ELECTRON MICROSCOPE
 The microscope employs a beam of electrons for
illumination of object and image formation.
 A vacuum is created for the smooth passage of
electrons. Electrons are produced by a cathode
filament of tungsten when it receives high voltage
electric current (50, 000 - 100, 000 volts)
 Three types of electromagnetic lenses are used
similar to glass lenses of compound light
microscope-condenser, objective and projector.
(i) The first acts like a condenser, focusing the
electron stream on the object.
(ii) The second acts like objective lens producing a
magnified intermediate image of the object.
(iii) The third act like projector it magnifies a portion
of the intermediate image to produce a final image
of the object which is inspected visually on a
fluorescent screen.
 Each electromagnet has coil of wire enclosed by a
soft iron casing. Image is observed on a fluorescent
screen. It can also be obtained on photographic
film. The same is called electron micrograph.
TYPES OF ELECTRON MICROSCOPE :
1. Transmission electron microscope
2. Scanning electron microscope.
(i) Transmission Electron Microscope (TEM) :
 It studies internal structure. The instrument was invented by Knoll and Ruska.
(1932) . the specimen is made ultra thin (0. 1 m ) ) dehydrated and impregnated with heavy
metal.
 It is placed in the specimen chamber. Electron beam is thrown over the specimen by
electromagnet condenser.
 Electrons coming out of the specimen are spread by objective and projector electromagnets.
They fall on the fluorescent screen or photographic film and give the image of internal
structure of the specimen.
 Magnification is 100, 000-300, 000. Resolving power is theoretically 0. 025 Å but is actually
2-10 Å
1. The later depends upon wave length of the electron beam. Wave length of electron beam is
12.2
connected with voltage.  in Å  Here,  is wavelength of electron beam while V is voltage.
V

84
2. Electron beam produced by an electric current of 50, 000 volts has a wavelength of 0. 05 Å. It
is less than the diameter of smallest atom (hydrogen atom = 1. 06 Å) .
3. The material to be studies under electron microscope must be well preserved, fixed,
completely dehydrated, ultrathina nd impregnated with chemicals that sharpen the
differences among various organelles. The material ultrathin and impregnated with chemical
that sharpen the differences among various organelles. The material is commonly fixed in
osmium tetra-oxide or oxmis acid.
4. It is embedded in plastic and sectioned with the help of a diamong or glass raror attached to
an ultramicrotome. They are then exposed to electron dense material for obtaining a proper
contrast. The commonly used materials are lead acetate, uranyl acetate, palldium vapours,
phosphotungstate etc.
(ii) Scanning electron Microscope (SEM)
 it gives three-dimensional surface view of objects.
Scanning electron microscope was developed by
knoll in 1935.
 In this microscope the beam of electrons is reflected
back from the object (not transmitted through)
 The speciment is first dipped in liquid propane at -
1800C and then dehyddrated in alchol at - 700C. It
surface is canend by a narrow beam (200 Å in
dimater) of electrons. Secondary electrons emitted by
the surface of the specimen are collected by
positively charged grid for transfer to television
tube and fluorescent screen.
 Scanning electron microscope has a magnification arrange of 15-20, 000 (now upto 200, 000)

Scanning porbe microscope : Which is capable of resolbing to a very high extent the outer
texture of the material and magnify it to 100 million times. This microscope has potential to
image even a single atom.
Scanning tunneling microscope : Scans the surface of the electrical conductors and
computer chip for detecting the defects.
Atomic force microscope : Which is useful in viewing the detailed pattern of the biological
molecules like DNA and proteins.

CELL FRACTIONATION
 It is a procedure for rupturing cells,
separation and suspension of cell
constituents in isotonic medium in
order to study their structure chemical
composition and function.
 Cell fractionation is done is two steps,
homogenisation and differential
centrifugation.
(1) Homogenisation
 Homogenisation is the release of
cellular constituents in their natural
state by rupturing of the cell
membrances and cell wall, and
preventing their clumping destruction
etc. with the help of a special solution.
 The cells are placed in a 0. 25 M sugar
solution at 00 - 40C.

85
 They are broken or homogenised to release their
constituents either by grinding or exposing
them to ultrasonic vibrations.
 Gridning is done is pesle and mortar or Potter
homogeniser. The latter consists of two
cylinders separated by a narrow gap. The
shearing force produces by the movement of
cylinders causes the rupture of cells.
 Ultrasonic waves are produced by piezoelectric
crystal. they are transmitted to a steel rod
placed in the suspension having cell. s
Ultrasoniv waves produce vibrations which
rupture the cells.
 The liquid containing suspension of cell
organelles and other constituents is called
homogenate. Sugar or sucrose solution
preserves the cell organelles and prevents their
clumping.

Differential Centrifugation
The homogenate is placed is tubes and then
subjected to different centrifugal forces in
machines called centrifugues.
 Centrifuges having more than 50, 000 rotations
per
minute are called ultracentriguges.
 Various cell fragments settle down as different
centrifugal speeds depending upoen their size
and weight. The denser constituents settle down
at lower speeds while the lighter components do
so at higerh speeds. For example, nuclei settle
down when the homogenate is subjected to a
centrifugal force of 800 - 1000g for ten minutes.
 The supernatant is taken to a new tube and
subjected to centrifugal force of say 10000 -
12000 g for 20 minutes. Mitochondria settle
down at this force.

In it his way nuclei, chloroplasts, mitochondria, lysosomes, peroxisomes, ribosomes,

pieces of endoplasmic reticulum settle down separately. The pellets (sediments) and
supernatant are then subjected to microscopic and biochemical analysis.
 Note : Normal clinical centrifuge is motorised instru ment which can rotate upto 5000
rpm.
DENSITY GRADIENT CENTRIFUGATION

 Centrifugation through a gradient of increasing sucrose density is performed. In this, the

denser solution is at the bottom and its density gradually decreases towards the top. One the
gradient is formed, the homogenate is layered at the top and centrifuged. After centrifuction,
components from the homogenate with different moving speeds reach equilibrium with the
gradient. Hence this type of separation is also called isophyknic (equal density)
centrifugation.

86
 The rate of sedimentation of the components depends on the size of the component and is
described as sedimentation coefficient or Svedberg units.
Note1. On the basis of the knowledge of the sedimentation coefficient, the size and
composition of the cell, and types components can be determined.
2. Peroxisomes may be separated from lysosmes or fragments of agranular
edoplasmic reticulum from granular endoplasmic reticulum.

BUOYANT DENSITY CENTRIFUGATION.

 In buoyant density centrifugation, centrifugation is done using high concentration of
sucrose of the caesium chloride solution. They form a continuous density gradient in the
centrifuge tube and cell components settle in density, which is equal to t heir density.
 At this point the component floats and does not move and further due to its buyoyancy.
Thus, a series of distinct band are formed not due to ‘S’ value (Sedimentation coefficient) but
according to buoant density, which is highest at the bottom and lowest at the top. This
process of fractionation through centrifugation is also termed as equilibrium
sedimentation.
 The method so sensitive that is allows even separation of molecules having heavy isotopes
(with 13C or 15N)
 The method was developed by Mathew Meselson and Franklin Stahl to separate heavy
DNA with 15N from DNA with 14N for providing evidence for semi-conservative
replication of DNA
AUTORADIAOGRAPHY
Autoradiopgraphy is an important technique used for styding the Biosynthesis of molecules
and to trace the metabolic events occurring inside the cell. Autoradiography is carried out
with the help of radioactive isotopes called tracer.
Some tracer elements :
Carbon - 14 (14C) Tritium (3H) Phosphorus - 32 (32P) and Iodine - 131 (131I)
Calvin used C14 isotope for the study of photosynthesis

CHROMATOGRAPHY
 This is one of the most common methods of separation of molecular components of the cells
present in a solution of cytosol, lef after centrifugation. The cytosol is allowed to percolate in
an insoluble medium, which has different affinity for molecules of different substances.

87
 it is a techniqie os separating various chemical in a mixture due to differential adsopriton.
The sytem was discovered by Rassain botanist Michael Tswett in 1906.

(i) Column Chromatography : The solution is passed through a tube or column containingan
adsorbent like calciu m carbonate and magnesium oxide. As the solution percolated down,
various chemicals get absorbed at various levels.
* Commonly used for separation of mixture of tissue lipids.

(ii) Paper Chromtography : It used Whatman 1 or chromatographic paper. A paste of the

mixture is applied over the paper 4-5 cm away from the end which dips in a solvent. As the
solvent passes through the paper. it spread the different d\chemical of the mixture to
different distances.
* Used for separation of amino acids, nucleotides, and low molecular weight products.

Special point
 Ion exchagne chromatography : Used for insulin purification and plasma frectionation.
 Affinity chromatography : Used for separation of immunoglobulins, cellular enxymes and
mRNA.
 Gell filtration chromatography : Used for determination of molecular weight of proteins.
 Thin layer Chromatography : Used for separation of amino acids, nucleotides, and low
molecualr weight products.
 High Preferencial Liquid Chromatography

ELECTROPHORES
 A mixture of chemical is applkiced over
a paper or film which dips at its two
ends in different continers, one having a
cathode and the other having the
anode. Under the influence of electric
current. the chemicals migrate and
spread over the film or paper depending
upon their electric charge.

 It is used in separation of nucleic acids,

proteins amino acids, nucleotides, etc.

Immuno - eletrophoresis : It is
extremely sensitive end the molecule
can be separated in picoram to
nanogram quantities. Antibodies
coupled with radioisotopes, specific
enzymes or fluoresnce dyes can be used
for detection of specific proteins (even,
proteins that differ by a single amino
acid can be resolved) .

88
 EXERCISE - I
HISTORY OF CYTOLOGY, CELL THEOGY PROTOPLASM THEORY,
TOOLS & RECHNIQUE AND GENERAL INFORMATIONS ABOUT CELL
1. Procaryotic cell is characterised by : (1) Vital staining
(1) Presence of nucleus, mitochondria (2) Snography
and plastids (3)Fractionation of cell by ultrasonic
(2) Absence of cell wall, DNA fibrils and sound waves
plastids (4) X-ray crystallography
(3) Presence of spindle tibres, DNA fibrils 10. Father of modern cytology :
and golgi bodies (1) Leeuwen hoek (2) Robert Hooke
(4) Absence of endoplamic retcilulum, (3) C. P. Swason (4) A. K. Sharma
golgi bodies and spindle fibres. 11.A mature plant cell stores its water in
2. “ Protoplasm is physical basis of life” was :
said by : (1) Cell wall (2) Cytoplasm
(1) Huxley (2) Purkinje (3) Nucleus (4) Vocuole
(3) Lamarck (4) Hooke 12.Intracellular compartments are absent
3. Organelles occur : in :
(1) Ameoba (2) Bacteria (1) Eucaryotic cell (2) Meristem
(3) Eukaryotic cell (4) Viruces (3) Parechyma cell (4) Procaryotic cell
4. Cell theory was proposed by : 13.Pinocytosis name proposed by :
(1) Schleiden (2) Swhwann (1) Metchnokoff (2) Gorter
(3) Huxley (4) More than one (3) Wilkins (4) W. H. Lewis
5. According to modern concept a cell 14.Structrual lipids of cell are :
performs : (1) Phospholipids (2) Simple lipids
(1) All function of living organism (3) Steroids (4) Chromolipids
(2) Only specific functions 15.Cell drinking is :
(3) Only genetic functions (1) Pinocytosis (2) Phagocytosi
(4) No function (3) Exocytosis (4) Osmosis
6. Which cell organelle is detected with the 16.Logest plant cell are :
help of sudan black : (1) Vessels (2) Trachieds
(1) Peroxisome (2) Glyoxysome (3) Cotton fiber (4)Fibers of Ramie
(3) Spherosome (4) Rough E. R. 17.The living substance of cell was called by
7. Feulgen reactio nis used to stain : Dujradin as :
(1) DNA (1) Biotic soup (2) Jivam
(2) RNA - polymerase (3) Sarcode (4) Protoplasm
(3) DNA- polymerse 18.The first person to see a living cell under
(4)(1) and(3) both the microscope was :
8. Indicate the increasing order of size : (1) M. J. Schleiden
(1) Lysosome, ribosome mitochondria, (2) Schwann
chloroplast (3) Antony Von Leuwenhock
(2)ribosome, lysosome, chloroplast, (4) Robert Hook
mitochondria 19.Cell organelles can be separated by
(3)Ribosome lysosome mitochondria, method of :
chlroplast (1) Autoradiography
(4)Chloroplst mitochondria lysosome (2) Microtomy
ribosome (3) Differential centrifugation
9. Microsomes are obtained by : (4) X-ray differaction

89
20.Maximum enzymes re found in : 29.Who first proposed that ne2 cell are
(1) Lysosomes formed by the division of preexisting cells
(2) Endoplasmic reticulum (1) Rudolph virchow (2) W. Flemming
(3) Nucleus (4) Mitochondira (3) Karl Nageli (4) C. p. Swanson
21.Which of the following is absent in 30.The term ‘Cell’ was coined by :
animal cell (1) Robert hook (2) Robert Brown
(1) Cell wall and plamamemb (3) Leeuwenhoock (4) Grew
(2) Mitochondria 31.The biggest cell is :
(3) Centrioles (1) Hen egg (2) Human egg
(4) Cell wall and chloroplast (3) Kidney cell (4) Ostrich egg
22.In prokaryotic cell which cell organelle is 32.The physicall basis of life is :
found : (1) Nucleus (2)Plasma membrane
(1) Mitochondria (3) Protoplasm (4) Carhohydrates
(2) Ribosome 33.Which microscope is used to study the
(3) Golgibody dynamic aspects of a cell :
(4)Endoplasmic reticulum (1) Electron microscope
23.Which of the following structure of the (2) Scanning microscope
cell is non living : (3) Light compound microscope
(1) Cell membrance (2) Cell wall (4) Phase contrast microscope
(3) Mitochondria (4) Chlroplast 34.Which cell organelle is visible under light
24.Calving isolated the different chemicals of compound microscope :
calvin cycle by : (1) Golgi body (2) Ribosomes
(1) Autoradiography (3) Chloroplast (4) all the above
(2) Chromatography 35.Cell Lineage theory proposed by :
(3) Cell franctionation (1) Schleiden (2) Schwann
(4) x-ray diffraction (3) Rudolph virchow (4) Hooke
25.A multinuleate cell is called : 36.Which of the following is absent in an
(1) Coenobium (2) Thallus intact cell -
(3) Coenocyte (4) Synchytrium (1) Microsomes (2) Golgibody
26.When the cell is small, then : (3) Glyxysomes (4) Microtubules
(1) Nucleus will be small
(2) Nucleus will be very large 37.Center for cellular and molecular biology
(3) It will be metabolically more active located at :
(4) It will be metaboilically less active (1) Delhi (2) Nagpur
27.The true nucleoli can be stained with : (3) Mumbai (4) Hyderabad
(1) Basic dyes (2) Acidic dyes
(3) Neutral dyes (4) All the above 38.Study of cell structure and function is
28.Cell hypotehsis was proposed by T. called :
Schwan, the cell theory was proposed by (1) Oncalogy (2) Cytogenetics
: (3) Molecular biology (4) Cell biology
(1) M. J. Schleiden
(2) T. Schwann 39.Which cell organelle is absent in
(3) M. J. Schleiden and T. Schwann anaerobic bacteria
(4) C. P. Swanson (1) Mitochondria (2) Golgibody
(3) E. R. (4) All the above

90
40.Who applied cell theory to plants : 52.Protoplasm of a single cell without cell
(1) Schwann (2) Schleiden wall is called
(3) Jensen (4) Swanson (1) Plamodium (2) Trophoplasm
41.Animal and plant cells differ in their : (3) Hraloplasm (4) protpolast
(1) Movement (2) Growth 53. An exception to cell theory is :
(3) Nutrition (4) Respiration (1) Erythrocytes (2) Bacteria
42.Which microscope is best to study cell (3) Fungi (4) Virus
division in functional state : 54.Cell was discovered by :
(1) EM (1) Robert Brown
(2) SEM (2) Mendel
(3) Phase contract microscope (3) Robert Hooke
(4) Simple microscope (4) Jagdish Chandra Bose
43.Largest cell organelle in animal cell is : 55.The first person to see the cell under the
(1) Plastid (2) Mitochondria microscope was :
(3) Lysosome (4) Golgibody (1) Robert Brown (2) Robert Hook
44.The scientist who studied the cell of cork (3) Altmann (4) Leeuwenhoek
was : 56.Which one is smallest cell -
(1) Brown (2) Hooke (1) Bacteria (2) Parenchyma
(3) Leeuwnhoek (4) Mulpighi (3) P. P. L. O. (4) Virus
45.A prokaryotic cell lacks : 57.What is correct for prokaryotic cell -
(1) Cell wall (2) Cell membrane (1) Chromosome, Nuclear membrane,
(3) Cytoplasm (4) Nucleolus Nucleolus are absent
46.Robert Brown is well known for discovery (2) Chromosome, Nuclear Membrane,
of Nucleolus are present
(1) Cell (2) Nucleus (3)Golgibody, Nuclear membrane,
(3) Chromosome (4) Cell div. Mitochondria are absent
47.Father of India cytology : (4)Golgibody, Nuclear Membrane,
(1) A. K. Sharma (2) P. Maheshwari Mitochondria are present
(3) B. P. pal (4) Lal singh ji 58.Who first discovered nucleus in cell in
48.The term protoplasm was first coined by : 831.
(1) Hardy (2) Purkinje (1) Robert Hooke (2) Robert Brown
(3) Altmann (4) Dujardin (3) Almann (4) Swanson
49.Living organised substance found in cell 59.“ new cells arise from pre-existing cell” is
is called : statement of -
(1) Karyoplasm (2) Protplasm (1) Max Schultze (2) R. Virchow
(3) Cytoplasm (4) Ooplasm (3) Altmann (4) Purkinje
50.Centre of metabolic reaction in cell is 60.Cell theory states that -
called : (1) All cells have Nucleus
(1) Protoplasm (2) Nucleoplasm (2) Cells re the functional and structural
(3) Hyaloplasm (4) Trophoplasm units of plants and animals
51.Protplasm first observed by : (3) All cells are living
(1) Corti (2) Purkinje (4) Cells reproduce by Mitosis & Meiosis
(3) Huxley (4) Butschali

91
 EXERCISE - II
NON LIVING INCLUSION, S VACUOLES
1. The stems and leaves of grasses are (3) Impermeable
rough due to (4) Permeable
(1) Calcium carbonates 9. Stored food in onion lieaves :
(2) Resins (1) Starch (2) Sugars
(3) Silica (3) Inulin (4) Glycogen
(4)Calcium oxalate 10.Ripening fruits softene due to :
2. Resin canals abundantly occur in : (1) Conversion of starch into sugars
(1) Conifers (2) Cycads (2) Solubilistion of pectates in middle
(3) Gnetales (4) Dicots lamella
3. Starch grain present in latex are : (3) Formation of organic acids
(1) Prismatic (2) Rod shaped (4) Conversion of fats into carbohydrates
(3) Oval shaped (4)Dumble shaped 11.Resins are :
4. Deposition of ligning mainly occurs in : (1) Cell wall degradation products
(1) Primary cell wall (2) Alkaloids
(2) Secondary cell wall (3) Glycosidic derivative
(3) Tertiary cell wall (4) Oxidation products of essential oils
(4) Middle lamella 12.“ Durs” are :
5. Euglena stores food in the form of (1) Crystals of calcium carbonate

paramylum ( 1  3 glucan) which is (2) Crystals of calcium oxalate

conversion product of (3) Alkaloids

(1) Starch (2) Fructose (4) Crytals of silica

(3) Hyaluronic acid (4) Pectin 13.Star shaped group of minerals are called

6. By the process of lignification cell become :

: (1) Lithocyte (2) Cytolith

(1) More active (3) Raphides (4) Druses

(2) Less active 14.Mineral Crystal Raphides found in :

(3) Dead (1) Rubber plant (2) Papaver

(4)Actively dividing (3) Sunflower (4) Brinjal

7. Suberisation mainly occurs in :

(1) Middle lamella (2) Pri-cell wall 15.The shape of starch granules in potato :

(3) Sec. -cell wall (4) Cytoplasm (1) Oval, Eccentric and Simple

8. Tonoplast, the membrane of vacuole is : (2) Oval, Concentric, Simple

(1) Living membrane (3) Oval, Eccentric, Compound

(2) Non living membrane (4)oval,Concentriccompound

92
TOOLS & TECHNIQUE IN CYTOLOGY EXERCISE - II
1. The part of cell that can be seen with an flurochrome dyes
electron microscope, but can’t with a 9. Fuelgen reaction of DNA is due to
light microscope is/are the (1) aldehyde produced by acid hydrolysis
(1) nucleus (2) removal of RNA but not DNA
(2) Golgi bodies (3)phosphoric acid carbohydrate and
(3) chloroplasts trogen bases
(4) membrane separating the nucleus (4) phosporic acid
from the cytoplasm 10.The resolving power of an electron
2. The organic compound present in traces icroscope is
in living cells can be detected and (1) 0. 0000005 nm (2) 0. 0000005 m
isolated by (3) 2 m (4) 0. 025 Å
(1) centrifugation (2)tracer technique 11.Which cell organelle is detected with the
(3) chromatography (4) microscopy help of sudan black :
3. Which technique used for separation of (1) Peroxisome (2) Glyoxysome
immuno globulins, cellular enzymes and (3) Sphaerosome (4) Rough E. R.
m-RNA : 12.Magnification power of a light compound
(1) Ion exchange chromatography microscope depends on :
(2) Affinity chromatography (1) Power of eye piece lens
(3) Paper chromatography (2) Power of objective lens
(4) None of these (3) Source of light
4. 1 A0 is equal to (4)(1) and(2) both
(1) 10-8 cm (2) 10-4 cm 13.Feulgen reaction is used to stain :
(3) 10-6 cm (4) 10-3 cm (1) DNA
5. Electron microscope was invented by (2) RNA - polymerase
(1) Knoll and Ruska (3) DNA - polymerase
(2) Rudolph and Killiker (4)(1) and(3) both
(3) C. P. Swanson 14.Microsomes are obtained by :
(4) None of above (1) Vital staining
6. Phase contrast microscope is (2) Sonography
(1) base on the scattering of light and (3) Fractionation of cell by ultrasonic
using a dark field condenser sound waves
(2) used for the study of living cells (4) X-ray crytallography
(3) related to retardation and thickness of 15. Which dye is used to stain chromosomes
object (1) Acetocarmine (2) Haematoxylin
(4) the best method for studying non- (3) Feulgen (4) All the above
living ultra structure 16.Toluddene blue specifically stains :
7. The smallest size of a cell which can be (1) DNA (2) RNA (3) Chitin (4) Lignin
seen with unaided eye is 17.Which stain is used for electron
(1) 1 micron (2) 10 micron microscopy :
(3) 100 micron (4) 1000 micron (1) PS
8. A fluorescent microscope is used (2) Aurantia
(1) for increasing revolving power (3) Para rosailin (4)Osmium tetraoxide
(2) for obtaining X-ray diffraction pattern 18.Which stain is commonly used is study of
of DNA cell division
(3) to study cell and their components in (1) Feulgen reaction (2) Acetocarmine
a living state (3) Eosine (4) Sffranine
(4) To localise cell structure stained with

93
19.Which one is a vital stain : (1) 10 X (2) 20 X (3) 45 X (4) 100 X
(1) Jajus green (2) methylene blue 30.The best microscope to study ultra
(3) Neutral red (4) All the above structure of cell is :
20.Which of the following are nuclear stains (1) Phase contrast microscope
: (2) Electron microscope (EM)
(1) Aceto Carmine (2) Haematoxylene (3) Scanning electron microscope ( SEM)
(3) Saffranine (4)(1) and(2) both (4) Fluorescent microscope
21.Cell organelles can be separated by 31.Which microscope is used to study the
method of : dynamic aspects of a cell :
(1) Autoradiography (1) Electron microscope
(2) Microtomy (2) Scanning microscope
(3) Differential centrifugatioin (3) Light compound microscope
(4) X-ray differaction (4) Phase contrast microscope
22.Strucure of RNA can be studied by : 32.To study the living cells without staining
(1) Feulgen which of the following microscopes can
(2) Toludence blue be used ? [PB PMT 2002]
(3) X-ray crystallography (1) SEM (2)Fluorescent
(4) Chromatography (3) Phase contrast (4) TEM
23.Chlor - zinc iodide (schultz solution) 33.Molecular biology is the study of
stains : (1) Structure function and cell
(1) Cellulsoe (2) Protein reproduction
(3) Chitin (4) Lipid (2)physio biochemical studies of
24.Light compound microscope with 15 x biomolecules
eye piece lense and 45 x objective lense (3) studying tissues under microscope
will have a magnification of - (4) metabolid activity of life
(1) 2000 (2) 675 (3) 1000 (4) 500 34.The subcellular components can be
25.Calvin isolated the different chemical of separated by
calvin cycle by : (1) paper chromatography
(1) Autoradiography (2) autoradiography
(2) Chromatography (3) gell electrophoresis
(3) Cell fractionation (4)differential and density gradient
(4) x-ray diffraction centrifugation
26.In feulgen techique, schiff reagent reacts 35.The chromosome separation during
with - metaphase can be besdt studies by
(1) Phosphate group [CET Chd. 2002, 2003]
(2) CHO group of dexyribose (1) phase contrast microscope
(3) Nitrogen bases (2) TEM
(4) Only purine nitrogen base (3) X-ray technique
27.In electron microscope source of light is : (4) Scanning electron microscope
(1) White light (2) U. V. ray 36.The technique of chromatohraphy was
(3) Electron beam (4) Green light evelopment by [BVP Pune 2002]
28.Ultra sonic sound waves are used in (1) Wilkins (2) George Gey
which technique of cytology : (3) Tswett (4) Zernicke
(1) X-ray diffraction 37.Which of the following dye is used for
(2) Chromatography staining cell organelle mitochondria ?
(3) Cell fractionation [PB PMT 2003]
(4) Autoradiography (1) Janus Green (2) Saffranin
29.In light compound microscope the power (3) Azure B (4) Crystal violet
of oil immersion lens is :

94
38.A student wishes to study the cell
structure under a light microscope
having 10X eye piece and 45X objective.
He should illuminate the object by which
one of the following colours of light so as
to get the best possible resolution ?
[CBSE 2005]
(1) Yellow (2) Green (3) Blue (4) Red
39.A major breakthrough in the studies of
cells came with the development of
electron microscope. This is because
[CBSE 2006]
(1) electron beam can pass through thick
materials, whereas light microscopy
requires thin sections.
(2)The electron microscope is more
powerful than the light microscope as
it uses a beam of electrons which s
wavelength much longer than that the
photons.
(3)The resolution power of the electron
microscope is much higher than that
of the light microscope
(4)the resolving power of the electron
microscope is 200-350 nm as
compared to 0. 1-0. 2 nm for the light
microscope

ANSWER KEY
EXERCISE - I
Que. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Ans. 4 1 3 4 2 3 1 3 3 3 4 4 4 1 1 4 3 3 3 4
Que. 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40
Ans. 4 2 2 2 3 3 2 3 3 1 4 3 4 3 3 1 4 4 4 2
Que. 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60
Ans. 3 3 2 2 4 2 1 2 2 1 1 4 4 3 2 3 3 2 2 2

EXERCISE – II
Que. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
Ans. 3 1 4 2 1 3 1 1 2 2 4 2 4 1 1

EXERCISE – III
Que. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
Ans. 4 3 2 1 1 2 3 4 1 4 3 4 1 3 4
Que. 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30
Ans. 2 4 2 4 4 3 3 1 2 2 2 3 3 4 2
Que. 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39
Ans. 4 3 2 4 1 3 1 3 3

95