Construction and Building Materials 195 (2019) 104–114

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Construction and Building Materials

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Optimization of fly ash particle size distribution for cementitious

systems with high compactness
_
Özer Sevim ⇑, Ilhami Demir
Department of Civil Engineering, Kırıkkale University, Kırıkkale, Turkey

h i g h l i g h t s

Particle size distribution (PSD) of fly ash was analyzed based on Dinger-Funk equation.

Optimal PSD of fly ash was defined using a vacuum sieve.

Properties of cement mortars with fly ash having optimized/non-optimized PSD were assessed.

PSD modulus of 0.4 resulted in best compressive and flexural strength results.

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Compactness is of special importance for aggregates in concrete; however, the particle-size distribution
Received 26 June 2018 (gradation) of powdery ingredients is commonly disregarded especially for pozzolanic materials such as
Received in revised form 8 November 2018 fly ash. Without good gradation, powdery materials will result in higher void ratios, as in the case of
Accepted 9 November 2018
aggregates, and the products obtained after hydration will still have some voids. Using a vacuum sieve,
this study found the particle-size distribution of fly ash in accordance with the Dinger–Funk particle-size-
distribution modulus, q, and explored the effects of various fly ash particle-size distributions on the com-
Keywords:
pressive and flexural strengths of 7-, 28- and 90-day-old fly ash-blended cement mortars. After defining
Cementitious systems
Fly ash
the optimal size distribution, the mechanical properties of cement mortars were assessed for several fly
Particle size distribution ash replacement levels. Results reveal that q of 0.4 yields the best mechanical property results. Further,
High compactness the cement mortar with a 20% fly ash replacement level and a previously optimized particle-size distri-
Compressive strength bution offered improved mechanical properties and high-compactness results over the control cement
Flexural strength mortar after 90 days. Experimental results clearly indicate that only by properly adjusting the particle
size distribution of fly ash used in the mixtures, better mechanical properties than the control mixtures
without any fly ash addition can be achieved at a fly ash replacement ratio of 20%. The findings of current
study are believed to greatly contribute to new lines of research on more effective replacement tech-
niques for different pozzolanic materials without risking basic properties expected from cement-based
materials.
Ó 2018 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction tion characteristics. Larger particle sizes indicate less combustion

Fly ash is an artificial pozzolan obtained by using the electronic
chimney filters installed to collect waste-ash particles produced in
coal-fired power stations. It primarily consists of oxide composi-
tions of SiO2, Al2O3, Fe2O3, CaO, MgO, SO3, Na2O and K2O. Chemical
composition analyses of bulk fly ash indicate that silicon and alu-
minum are the primary constituents [1–6].
The properties of fly ash vary depending on the type and prop-
erties of the coal used in the power plants, as well as its combus-
⇑ Corresponding author.
E-mail address: ozersevim@kku.edu.tr (Ö. Sevim).
of the coal and higher levels of carbon in the ash. Smaller particle
sizes, on the other hand, indicate that the combustion was very
efficient and that the amount of carbon produced was reduced.
Fine-grained fly ash has a grey color that becomes darker as parti-
cle size and the amount of carbon increase. The particle diameter of
fly ash can reach up to 200 mm levels and around 75% of the parti-
cles are smaller than 45 mm [7–10]. The density of fly ash is in the
range of 2.2–2.7 g/cm3 and specific surface area of it varies depend-
ing on the grinding process and is close to that of cement [6]. Cur-
rent ASTM C618 standard for fly ash classification specifies 50% of
total SiO2, Al2O3, Fe2O3 content as the lower limit for Class-C ashes

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2018.11.080
0950-0618/Ó 2018 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
 _ Demir / Construction and Building Materials 195 (2019) 104–114
Ö. Sevim, I.
and 70% of total SiO2, Al2O3, Fe2O3 content as the lower limit for
Class-F ashes [11].
Fly ash is typically used as a supplementary cementitious mate-
rial in concrete, replacing some amount of the Portland cement. Fly
ash is also used in blended Portland cement production. Further, fly
ash is used as concrete additive to change the properties of con-
crete [12–21]. The fineness of fly ash is the most important prop-
erty affecting its performance in Portland cement and concrete.
Previous studies have shown that the properties of fly ash-
blended concrete, such as strength, abrasion resistance, and
freeze-thaw resistance are closely related with the fineness and
particle-size distribution of fly ash used [22–27].
Current literature commonly focuses on the effects of fineness
and particle-size distribution (PSD) of fly ash on cement-based
materials from a single or multiple point of view. Effects of
cement PSD and resulting fineness on the strength of cement
mortar, autogenous shrinkage and other properties have been
addressed [28–33]. In general, increased levels of fineness
increases the heat release during hydration, decreases workabil-
ity and increases water absorption capacity. Slanicka discussed
the significance of the chemical and mineralogical properties of
fly ash, as well as its fineness and gradation, on concrete
strength. In this study, aggregates were replaced with fly ash
and the effects of fineness and gradation on the concrete
strength [34] were assessed. Monzo et al. [35] explored the
effects of varying fineness and gradation levels of Spanish
Class-F fly ash on the compressive strength of fly ash-blended
cement mortars at a replacement level of 30% and concluded
that increasing the fineness and gradation of fly ash also
increases the compressive strength [35]. Erdoğdu and Türker
[36] analyzed the properties of fly ash-blended cement mortars
with different PSDs arguing that the use of fly ash with different
PSDs results in different cement properties. They investigated
the compressive strengths of samples prepared by using six dif-
ferent groups of fly ash with maximum particle sizes of 125, 90,
63, and 45 mm at a replacement level of 25%. Optimal strength
results were obtained from the control samples and samples
with 45 mm or lower particle sizes [36]. Lee et al. [37] analyzed
the effects of fly ash substitution on the viscosity of cement
mortars. The authors considered a fly ash replacement level of
20% using different particle sizes and found that increments in
the PSD, i.e. the increased content of larger particles, also
increased the viscosity. Bentz et al. [38,39] analyzed the PSD of
fly ash and cement with regards to the effect of fineness. The
authors prepared samples with 5 different specific surface-area
values for cement and fly ash. These samples were then analyzed
in terms of their compressive strengths at replacement ratios of
20%, 35%, 50% and 65%, and the best results were obtained from
the sample with a fly ash replacement of 20%. Compressive
strengths of samples with fly ash replacements of 20% were
higher than that of the control consisting of 100% Portland
cement. Compressive strengths of the samples with a fly ash
replacement of 35%, on the other hand, were close to that of
the control sample.
The selection of a PSD must focus on the ability to fill in the
voids among different particles. This is also important in obtaining
more economical concrete mixture designs. The particle distribu-
tion was first analyzed for economical concrete design in 1892
[40]; Fuller and Thompson developed it further in 1907 into a the-
ory that has long been used for PSD optimization when defining
the replacement ratio of aggregates in concrete [41]. In many Euro-
pean countries, well-graded ideal aggregate granulometry is opti-
mized for concrete design; thus, Fuller’s curve is still used, and
many researchers employ this concept while designing concrete
mixtures. For example, Zhao et al. [42] have experimentally exam-
ined the mortars containing high volumes of steel slag, blast fur-
105
nace slag and cement mixture designed by taking the
distribution module as 0.4 Results showed that designed blended
cement was with good physical/mechanical properties and low
porosity. Corominas et al. [43] prepared different concrete mix-
tures using different types of aggregates according to Fuller’s dis-
tribution curve and examined the mechanical properties and void
structures of the mixtures. Recently, Ye et al. [44] studied the
effects of packing with cement pastes containing fly ash, blast fur-
nace slag, limestone dust using a distribution close to Fuller’s par-
ticle distribution. Kovarik et al. [45] investigated the
thermomechanical properties of geopolymer composites contain-
ing metakaolin/ceramic grog and designed with aggregates having
Fuller distribution module of 0.45. In addition to the studies per-
formed related with the Fuller’s work, research into utilization of
suitable particle size distribution for tailoring filling effect is also
continuing. The most important development to this area of
research was made by Dinger–Funk, who applied a minimum par-
ticle diameter [46]. According to the theory proposed by Dinger-
Funk, there are limited studies which take the particle distribution
module constant. For example, to ultimately produce photocat-
alytic lightweight lime-based mortar, Giosue et al. [47] produced
mixtures consisting of expanded silica, expanded glass and two dif-
ferent types of aggregates by taking the distribution modulus 0.5 in
the equation proposed by Dinger-Funk. In a separate study, Zhu
et al. [48] used waste material from the recycling of building
demolition waste and clay brick and replaced it with silica fume
and cement to produce reactive powder concrete. The mixtures
were made by considering the maximum packing theory of
Dinger-Funk.
Cement mortar can be used to fill the voids in aggregates to
obtain the lowest void ratio. Optimized using this method, aggre-
gate and cement mixtures are known to offer sufficient levels of
strength [49–51]. Many studies focusing on aggregate gradation
recommended the use of an ideal aggregate PSD curve for concrete
design. It is possible to obtain high compactness levels in aggre-
gates using granulometry curves populated using formulas devel-
oped and reported in the literature [40,41,46,49–51]. These
methods were used to ensure high compactness of aggregates
without regard to gradation of powdery materials such as fly ash.
The effort to find the best gradation for aggregates, when per-
formed for materials such as fly ash, can ensure optimal strength
by filling the voids between particles conveniently using chemicals
produced even by small-scale reactions.
Having carried out a thorough literature review, we found a lack
of research on optimal designs which used different distribution
modulus and aimed at obtaining high compactness by powdery
material gradations such as fly ash. The present study was
designed to help close this gap in the current literature. In light
of the information above, mortar mixture designs were prepared
to obtain the most suitable fly ash PSD for achieving the highest
compactness through filler effect. For the analyses of high com-
pactness, Class-C fly ash was selected since it is characterized by
less pozzolanic capability than Class-F fly ash which may be less
effective on overall strength measurements. The principal aim of
the study was therefore to obtain best mechanical properties from
fly ash-blended cement mortars which were produced with
vacuum-sieved fly ash particles having optimum PSD.
2. Experimental program
2.1. Materials
CEM I 42.5 R Portland cement (PC), which complies with the TS
EN 197-1 standard, was used in this study [52]. Chemical compo-
sition and physical properties of the Portland cement are shown
in Table 1.
106 _ Demir / Construction and Building Materials 195 (2019) 104–114
Ö. Sevim, I.

Table 1 equation reduces to Fuller-Thompson model which is used to opti-

Chemical composition and physical properties of Portland cement and fly ash.
Chemical composition (%) Portland cement (PC)
SiO2 21.0
Al2O3 5.38
Fe2O3 3.22
CaO 62.1
MgO 1.98
Na2O 0.39
K2O 0.81
SO3 3.11
Loss on ignition 2.37
Physical properties
Specific gravity (unitless) 3.18
Blaine fineness (cm2/g) 3356
As a by-product of lignite coal burning, Class-C fly ash (FA)
(SiO2 + Al2O3 + Fe2O3 < 70% and CaO > 10%) obtained from the Ç
ayırhan Coal Power Plant was used in this study. The chemical
and physical properties of fly ash are shown in Table 1. Fly ash
was used as it was received from the power plant without any
grinding beforehand. Class-C fly ash was selected to better illus-
trate the filler effect after optimization for particle size distribution
since it was less pozzolanic with better self-cementing capability
than Class-F fly ash. By doing so, only the effect of filling rather
than chemical effects on the properties of cement mortars was
focused. As another ingredient, standard sand was used during
the preparation of mortar mixtures. Standard sand was similar to
CEN reference sand which was in compliance with TS 196-1 stan-
dard [53].
2.2. Mixture proportions
In the current study, mortars produced with previously men-
tioned ingredients had different fly ash replacement ratios (0%
[control], 5%, 10%, 15%, 20% and 30%) by the weight of Portland
cement. After mixing, fresh mortar mixtures were cast into their
molds and kept there until the end of 24 h under humid laboratory
conditions. After removed from their molds, they were moved into
a water tank and cured there until the completion of pre-defined
total curing periods of 7, 28 and 90 days. The water to binder
(PC + FA) ratio (w/b) of fly ash-blended cement mortars was 0.50.
In Table 2, mixture proportions of different mortars were
presented.
2.3. Method
2.3.1. Particle size distribution of fly ash
Before using fly ash for the mixtures’ preparation, it was sieved
with the help of a vacuum sieve (Fig. 1) which complies with TS EN
933-10 standard to define its particle size distributions for the
ranges between 0 and 25, 25–50, 50–63, 63–75, and 75–90 mm
[54]. Here, optimal fly ash distributions were found in accordance
with Eq. (1), as suggested by Dinger–Funk, to obtain a more com-
pact and homogeneous PSD [46]. When the minimum particle size
and distribution modulus were set to 0 and 0.5, respectively. the
mize the aggregate distribution [41].
Fly ash (FA)
Dq  Dqmin
46.6 PðDÞ ¼  100 ð1Þ
12.4
Dqmax  Dqmin
9.74
14.5
where, P(D) is the total percentage of material smaller than the
7.23 diameter of the sieve opening, D is the diameter of sieve openings,
1.01 Dmin is the minimum particle diameter of fly ash, Dmax is the maxi-
2.28 mum particle diameter of fly ash, q is distribution modulus.
5.52
Increasing the value of the distribution modulus results in a
1.08
rather coarse-grained mixture; on the other hand, decreasing this
value results in a rather fine-grained mixture. The optimal PSD of
2.47
2830 fly ash was calculated for different values of the distribution mod-
ulus, q, using Eq. (1) between q = 0 and q = 1, with constant incre-
ments of 0.1.
2.3.2. Testing
As will be detailed in the forthcoming sections, optimal PSD
design was obtained from 20% fly ash-blended cement mixture.
Therefore, further testing with different distribution moduli (from
0.0 to 1.0 with constant increments of 0.1) was performed for dif-
ferent distribution moduli using fly-ash replacement level of 20%.
Further testing included compressive/flexural strength measure-
ments in accordance with TS EN 196-1, water absorption measure-
ments in accordance with ASTM C642, rapid chloride permeability
measurements in accordance with ASTM C1202 and mercury
intrusion porosimetry (MIP) tests in accordance with ASTM
D4404-18 [53,55–57]. For strength, water absorption and bulk
density measurements, six separate specimens were tested while
for rapid chloride permeability tests four and for mercury intrusion
porosimetry (MIP) tests three separate specimens were utilized.
For compressive/flexural strength testing, prismatic specimens
measuring 40  40  160 mm were produced and initially cured
for 7, 28 and 90 days as explained formerly. For measuring flexural
strength three-point bending loading was applied to prismatic
specimens with a loading rate of 1.5 kN/s and maximum flexural
load was recorded to calculate flexural strength results. For mea-
suring compressive strength, two broken pieces of prismatic spec-
imens from three-point bending tests were loaded from a cross-
sectional area of 40  40 mm at a loading rate of 1.5 kN/s and
results were averaged to find final values.
For water absorption and bulk density measurements, cubic
specimens measuring 50 mm were produced. During testing, mor-
tars were cured in potable water for a specified period of time and
then weighed after drying with the help of a dry cloth (B). Having
stored in a drying oven at 100 ± 5 °C for 24 h, cement pastes were
weighed again when they were cooled down to 20–25 °C (A). Fol-
lowing equation was used for calculating the percental water
absorption:
 
BA
Water absorption ¼  100 ð2Þ
A
Cubic mortars were then boiled for 5 h and weighed after
cooled down to 20–25 °C (C). After, specimens were boiled and
immersed in water, they were weighed under water (D). The bulk
density of cement mortars was calculated using Eq. (3).

Table 2
Mixture proportions of different cement mortars.

Ingredient (g) 0% FA 5% FA 10% FA 15% FA 20% FA 30% FA

Water 225 225 225 225 225 225
Portland cement 450.0 427.5 405.0 382.5 360.0 315.0
Fly ash 0.0 22.5 45.0 67.5 90.0 135.0
Standard sand 1350 1350 1350 1350 1350 1350
 _ Demir / Construction and Building Materials 195 (2019) 104–114
Ö. Sevim, I.
Fig. 1. View of vacuum sieve.
 
A particle distribution of fly ash was calculated for different values of
Dry bulk density ¼ q
CD
Rapid chloride permeability tests (RCPTs) were performed on
Ø100  50 mm cylinders extracted from larger cylindrical speci-
mens measuring Ø100  200 mm after 7 and 28 days of initial cur-
ing. During RCPT, specimens were placed in the experimental cell
one end of which was in contact with 0.30 M sodium hydroxide
(NaOH) solution and the other end with 3% sodium chloride (NaCl)
solution. Specimens were subjected to a constant voltage of 60 V
for a duration of 6 h and the total amount of current flowing
through each sample was recorded in Coulombs (C). In addition
to the experimental tests, statistical analyses were also made on
obtained results from specimens of different tests by calculation
standard deviation values.
Pore size distributions of selected mixtures were also character-
ized with the analyses of mercury intrusion porosimetry (MIP).
During MIP testing, paste specimens of mixtures having optimized
fly ash with different distribution moduli were analyzed. MIP tests
were performed with the help of an instrument capable of produc-
ing pressures up to 414 MPa and assuming a contact angle of 130.
Before testing, specimens were dried until reaching a constant
weight at 50 °C. MIP is widely used to characterize the pore struc-
ture of cementitious materials [58–60]. However, these methods
may damage the pore microstructure due to high pressure. Also,
MIP is influenced of pore structure characteristic, sample prepara-
tion and sample drying before measurement [43,59,61]. However,
MIP is still considered as an appropriate method used to compare
the pore structures of cement-based materials [43].
After the optimal distribution, q, was obtained, samples were
prepared at 5%, 10%, 15%, 20%, and 30% replacement levels using
this value. Cement mortars were then analyzed in terms of their
fresh properties and compressive/flexural strengths for defining
the optimal particle size with regards to the TS EN 196-1 standard
[53].
3. Results and discussion
3.1. Particle size distribution analyses of fly ash
Class-C fly ash obtained from a local power plant was subjected
to sieve analysis using a vacuum sieve without being grounded/
processed. In sieve analysis, fly ash PSD was explored for 5 differ-
ent groups of particle sizes ranging between 0 and 25, 25–50, 50–
63, 63–75, and 75–90 mm. Table 3 shows the physical properties
and chemical compositions of these five groups. Then, the optimal
107
ð3Þ
the distribution modulus q between 0 and 1 with an increment of
0.1 using Eq. (1). Table 4 shows the chemical and physical proper-
ties of the fly ash PSDs corresponding to each particle size
distribution.
The total passing percentage of fly ash was calculated using
sieves with mesh sizes of 25, 50, 63, 75 and 90 mm to measure
the distribution modulus. Approximately 10% fly ash above
90 mm was not used. This was done because the higher amounts
of carbon were aimed to be eliminated in the compositions of
the mixtures. Particle distribution curves were populated based
on these materials and the passing percentage for each distribution
modulus. These curves are shown in Fig. 2.
As shown in Tables 3 and 4, SiO2, Fe2O3, MgO, SO3 and K2O con-
tents of the chemical composition of fly ash decreased while the
Al2O3, CaO and Na2O contents increased as the particle size was
increased. When the physical properties given in Table 4 are eval-
uated, it can be seen that the specific surface area and density
decreased with the increments in size.
3.2. Optimal fly ash particle size distribution analyses
The effects of fly ash PSDs, as defined using a vacuum sieve
based on different particle-size-distribution moduli, on the
mechanical properties of cement mortars were analyzed. Compres-
sive and flexural strength results of fly ash-blended cement mor-
tars were explored at 7, 28 and 90 days.
3.2.1. Compressive and flexural strength results of mortars with fly ash
having non-optimized PSD
Table 5 shows the average 7-28-, 90-day compressive and flex-
ural strength results of cement mortars with fly ash having non-
optimized PSD as preliminary testing. While three separate beam
specimens were used for flexural strength testing, six separate
specimens were used for compressive strength testing.
As shown in Table 5, the average compressive strength results
decreased as the fly ash replacement level increased. This was
expected and attributed to the reduction in the amount of cement
used. Moreover, fly ash replacement with cement caused delayed
hydration, as the specific surface area of fly ash is lower than that
of cement. As shown in Fig. 3, when the control compressive
strength values after 7, 28 and 90 days are assumed to be 100%,
the compressive strength of the cement replaced by 20% fly ash
reduced by 19% after 7 days, 20% after 28 days and 2% after
90 days. The highest standard deviation was found to be
108 _ Demir / Construction and Building Materials 195 (2019) 104–114
Ö. Sevim, I.

Table 3
Chemical composition/physical properties of FA for different ranges of particle sizes.

Chemical composition (%) Reference* 0–25 mm 25–50 mm 50–63 mm 63–75 mm 75–90 mm

SiO2 46.6 43.9 46.7 47.6 49.9 50.5
Al2O3 12.4 11.8 12.6 13.0 13.4 13.5
Fe2O3 9.74 9.89 9.88 9.88 9.72 9.77
CaO 14.5 15.2 15.0 14.6 14.3 13.7
MgO 7.23 7.84 7.47 6.71 6.41 6.31
SO3 5.52 7.47 5.12 4.82 2.96 2.74
Na2O 1.01 0.87 0.98 1.17 1.24 1.28
K2O 2.28 2.46 2.20 2.14 2.05 2.05
Loss on ignition 1.08 0.55 0.89 1.68 1.98 2.05
Physical properties
Blaine fineness (cm2/g) 2830 3420 3125 2420 1910 1850
Density (g/cm3) 2.47 2.50 2.48 2.48 2.46 2.46
*
Fly ash as obtained from the power plant in raw condition.

Table 4
Chemical composition/physical properties of FA for different particle distribution moduli.

Chemical composition (%) 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
SiO2 44.1 44.7 45.1 45.4 45.5 45.5 45.6 45.7 45.8 45.9
Al2O3 12.0 12.0 12.2 12.2 12.4 12.4 12.5 12.6 12.6 12.6
Fe2O3 10.0 9.96 9.94 9.94 9.91 9.85 9.81 9.74 9.69 9.61
CaO 14.9 15.1 15.1 15.2 15.2 15.3 15.4 15.6 15.7 15.8
MgO 7.82 7.70 7.65 7.59 7.36 7.21 7.18 7.11 7.05 6.92
SO3 7.45 7.03 6.69 6.39 6.15 5.67 5.46 5.15 5.04 4.95
Na2O 0.89 0.92 0.92 0.93 0.94 0.97 0.99 1.02 1.05 1.09
K2O 2.41 2.39 2.37 2.36 2.32 2.29 2.25 2.20 2.18 2.13
Loss on ignition (%) 0.69 0.91 1.18 1.19 1.24 1.25 1.35 1.47 1.54 1.67
Physical properties
Blaine fineness (cm2/g) 3100 3000 2850 2750 2650 2500 2350 2190 2120 2040
Density (g/cm3) 2.51 2.51 2.50 2.50 2.49 2.48 2.47 2.47 2.47 2.46

q=0.1 q=0.2 q=0.3 q=0.4 q=0.5 q=0.6

q=0.7 q=0.8 q=0.9 q=1.0 Cement Fly ash
100

90

80
Cumilatevie passing (%)

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
Sieve diameter (µm)

Fig. 2. Particle size distribution curves for different distribution moduli.

1.32 MPa as shown in Table 5 which means that individual Moreover, the specific surface area of fly ash is lower than that of
strength results were concordant among themselves. the cement. As cement is finer than fly ash, fly ash is subjected
Table 5 also shows the flexural strength results and standard to delayed hydration. Therefore, early-age strength decreases as
deviation values obtained from the non-optimized fly ash- the replacement level increases. As shown in Fig. 4, when the con-
blended cement mortars at 7, 28 and 90 days. trol flexural strength values at 7, 28 and 90 days are assumed to be
As shown in Table 5, similar to compressive strength results, 100%, the average flexural strength of the 20%-fly ash-replaced
flexural strength results decreased as the fly ash replacement rate cement mortars reduced by 19% after 7 days, 15% after 28 days,
increased. Fine grains are the first to be subjected to hydration. and 1% after 90 days. The highest standard deviation for flexural
 _ Demir / Construction and Building Materials 195 (2019) 104–114
Ö. Sevim, I. 109

Table 5
Compressive/flexural strengths of cement mortars with fly ash having non-optimized PSD after 7, 28 and 90 days.

Additive ratio (%) 7-day 28-day 90-day

*
Compressive strength (MPa) Control (0) 36.2 (0.64) 48.0 (1.06) 54.1 (1.27)
5 34.7 (0.86) 46.1 (0.85) 53.6 (0.95)
10 32.6 (0.84) 42.2 (1.04) 53.5 (1.32)
15 31.9 (1.01) 40.6 (1.08) 53.3 (1.23)
20 29.4 (0.86) 38.6 (0.84) 52.9 (0.57)
Flexural strength (MPa) Control (0) 6.40 (0.82) 8.77 (0.09) 10.4 (0.59)
5 6.10 (0.68) 8.47 (0.10) 10.4 (0.92)
10 5.96 (0.36) 7.64 (0.31) 10.3 (0.89)
15 5.77 (0.22) 7.51 (0.30) 10.3 (1.08)
20 5.17 (0.11) 7.44 (0.23) 10.2 (0.19)
*
Numbers in parentheses are standard deviations in MPa.

7th-day 28th-day 90th-day According to Table 6, the highest compressive strength results
at the end of different initial curing ages were obtained from spec-
25
imens produced with distribution modulus of 0.4. Compressive
Decrease in compressive strength (%)

20 strength increased between distribution moduli of 0.1 and 0.4,

20 19
but gradually decreased starting from 0.4 to 1.0. It seems that for
15 distribution moduli results from 0.1 to 0.4 combined effectiveness
15 of filler effect and pozzolanic capability resulted in high compact-
12 12 ness though mechanical particle filling and further formation of
10
10 calcium-silicate-hydrate (C-S-H) gels.
After 7 days, compressive strength of specimens with the distri-
4 4 bution modulus of 0.4 increased by 9.1% compared to the compres-
5
2 2 sive strength of control specimens with distribution modulus of
1 1 0.0. After 28 and 90 days, the same rates of increment were
0 11.2% and 2.8%, respectively. It should be noted that highest stan-
5 10 15 20
dard deviation values for 7-, 28- and 90-day compressive strength
Additive ratio (%)
results were 1.12, 1.21 and 1.22 MPa, respectively showing the
Fig. 3. Rates of decrement in the compressive strength results of mortars with consistency of results for different initial curing ages.
different replacements of fly ash having non-optimized PSD after 7, 28 and 90 days. In Table 6, flexural strength results together with standard devi-
ation values obtained from optimized 20%-fly ash-blended cement
mortars at 7, 28 and 90 days were shown as well. Similar to com-
7th-day 28th-day 90th-day pressive strength results highest 7-, 28- and 90-day flexural
25 strength results were noted from specimens with q = 0.4 with val-
Decrease in flexural strength (%)

20
15
13
10
10
7 dard deviation value noted was 0.49 MPa.
5
5 3
1 1
0 density, rapid chloride permeability and mercury intrusion
5 10
Additive ratio (%)
Fig. 4. Rates of decrement in the flexural strength results of mortars with different
replacements of fly ash having non-optimized PSD after 7, 28 and 90 days.
strength results was found to be 1.08 MPa as shown in Table 5. This
indicates that the flexural strength results used to find the mean
value converge to the actual mean value.
3.2.2. Effects of particle-size distribution on mechanical properties
The effect of PSD on the mechanical properties was explored for
different distribution moduli. Mechanical properties of 20%-fly
ash-blended cement mortars were subjected to particle-size-
distribution analysis to better observe the activity of fly ash for dif-
ferent distribution-modulus values. Table 6 shows the compressive
strength results and standard deviation values obtained from opti-
mized 20%-fly ash-blended cement mortars at 7, 28 and 90 days.
ues 6.07, 8.46 and 10.69 MPa, respectively. These values were
19 17.4%, 13.7% and 10.7% higher than control specimens with
q = 0.0. Flexural strength increased between q = 0.1 and q = 0.4,
15
14 but decreased gradually from q = 0.4 to q = 1.0. It needs to be stated
that all individual flexural strength results were very close to each
other for different curing ages and q values so that highest stan-
1 1
3.2.3. Effects of particle-size distribution on water absorption, bulk
15 20
porosimetry test results
The effects of PSD on the water absorption, dry bulk density and
rapid chloride permeability test results of mortar specimens pro-
duced with 20% optimized fly ash replacement after 7 and 28 days
were explored for different distribution moduli and the values
were shown in Table 7.
As outlined in the previous section, highest compressive and
flexural strength results for different initial curing ages were
obtained from mortars with q value of 0.4. These findings were fur-
ther backed with different testing methods in this section. As can
be followed from Table 7, the best water absorption, dry bulk den-
sity and rapid chloride permeability test results were again
obtained from mortars with q value of 0.4 after 7 and 28 days. It
needs to be mentioned that water absorption and bulk density
results of specimens with different q values were very close to each
other although clearer changes were observable in terms of RCPT
results. Strength results together with the data provided in Table 7
clearly show that modification of PSD of fly ash with distribution
110 _ Demir / Construction and Building Materials 195 (2019) 104–114
Ö. Sevim, I.

Table 6
Compressive/flexural strengths of cement mortars with 20% optimized fly ash replacement after 7, 28 and 90 days.

Distribution moduli Compressive strength (MPa) Flexural strength (MPa)

7-day 28-day 90-day 7-day 28-day 90-day
0.0 29.41 (0.86)* 38.58 (0.84) 52.90 (0.57) 5.17 (0.11) 7.44 (0.23) 10.24 (0.19)
0.1 28.62 (0.72) 39.35 (0.49) 53.28 (1.22) 5.21 (0.18) 7.81 (0.13) 10.25 (0.26)
0.2 28.96 (0.68) 40.15 (0.64) 53.37 (0.86) 5.51 (0.10) 8.05 (0.17) 10.36 (0.22)
0.3 30.88 (0.81) 41.80 (0.74) 53.71 (1.04) 5.61 (0.10) 8.19 (0.36) 10.41 (0.47)
0.4 32.08 (1.04) 42.91 (1.13) 54.39 (1.03) 6.07 (0.36) 8.46 (0.49) 10.69 (0.19)
0.5 30.57 (0.59) 41.19 (0.77) 53.98 (0.58) 5.93 (0.14) 8.23 (0.24) 10.37 (0.24)
0.6 30.56 (0.86) 40.41 (1.00) 52.77 (1.02) 5.49 (0.08) 7.97 (0.32) 10.19 (0.15)
0.7 30.43 (0.74) 40.06 (0.68) 52.21 (0.68) 5.44 (0.21) 7.73 (0.26) 10.04 (0.24)
0.8 30.02 (0.86) 39.34 (1.21) 50.22 (0.71) 5.38 (0.47) 7.65 (0.42) 10.01 (0.18)
0.9 29.79 (0.91) 38.87 (0.72) 49.61 (0.22) 5.31 (0.35) 7.60 (0.21) 9.93 (0.42)
1.0 29.32 (1.12) 38.12 (0.49) 49.22 (0.82) 5.26 (0.29) 7.54 (0.39) 9.85 (0.28)
*
Numbers in parentheses are standard deviations in MPa.

Table 7
Water absorption, bulk density and rapid chloride permeability test results of cement mortars with 20% optimized fly ash replacement after 7 and 28 days.

Distribution moduli 7-day 28-day

3
Water absorption (%) Bulk density (g/cm ) RCPT (C) Water absorption (%) Bulk density (g/cm3) RCPT (C)
0.0 10.09 1.99 7582 10.17 2.00 4158
0.1 10.03 1.99 7412 10.13 2.00 3927
0.2 9.97 1.99 7298 10.11 2.00 3725
0.3 9.94 1.99 7095 10.08 2.01 3602
0.4 9.91 2.00 6933 10.06 2.01 3446
0.5 10.03 2.00 7026 10.09 2.01 3627
0.6 10.09 1.99 7193 10.17 2.00 3893
0.7 10.18 1.99 7336 10.23 2.00 3974
0.8 10.21 1.98 7656 10.27 2.00 4129
0.9 10.23 1.98 7826 10.36 1.99 4278
1.0 10.26 1.97 8027 10.41 1.98 4372

moduli of 0.4 contributes to the increased compactness and ongo-
ing hydration/pozzolanic reactions though proper distribution of
particles. The pore structure of cement paste blended with fly
ash were determined by mercury intrusion porosimetry (MIP)
regarding the relationship between the pore structure and the per-
meability. The effects of PSD on the mercury intrusion porosimetry
test results of pastes specimens produced with 20% optimized fly
ash replacement after 28 days were explored for different distribu-
tion moduli and the values were shown in Fig. 5. MIP test was car-
ried out for 28 days in order to avoid the pozzolanic effect caused
fly ash.
For q value of 0.3, 0.4 and 0.5, the amount of mercury which
intruded to cement mortar decreased. These findings show that
pore structures of mortar having q value of q = 0.3, q = 0.4 and
q = 0.5 were decreased. As can be followed from Fig. 5, the best
0.45
Cumulative intruded Hg volume (ml/g)
mercury intrusion porosimetry test results were again obtained
from mortars with q value of 0.4 after 28 days. Also, q value of
0.3 and 0.5 gave good test results. However, the improvements
are very low and the results are very close each other. These find-
ings can be caused by high pressure effect and pore structure char-
acteristics. Fig. 5 show that distribution of PSD of fly ash with q
value of 0.4 contributes to the increased compactness. This finding
was also reported in several studies in literature. According to
studies of Zhao et al. [61], Yu et al. [62], Zeng et al. [63] the most
probable pore diameter increases with fly ash content at the same
age pastes having fly ash additives.
3.3. Performance comparison of mortars with fly ash having optimized
and non-optimized PSD
After making sure that the best results in terms of different tests
are obtained from mortar specimens with fly ash having distribu-

q=0.1 tion moduli of 0.4, further tests were implemented by performing

0.40 q=0.2
q=0.3
tests on specimens with optimized and non-optimized PSD at dif-
0.35 q=0.4 ferent fly ash replacement rates of 0, 5, 10, 15 and 30% with Port-
0.30 q=0.5 land cement.
q=0.6
0.25 q=0.7
q=0.8 3.3.1. Consistency
0.20 q=0.9
In this section, to monitor the fresh properties of mortar speci-
q=1.0
0.15 mens with optimized (q = 0.4) and non-optimized fly ash, worka-
0.10 bility measurements in terms of mini-slump test were made. In
this test, mortar specimens prepared in accordance with TS EN
0.05
196-1 [53] were filled in 2 layers in a steel container with the trun-
0.00 cated conical mold on the flow table and tamped 25 times each
0 200 400 600 800 1000
time. The truncated cone mold was then removed by slowly lifting
Pore diameter (µm)
it upwards. Then the flow table was stroke 25 times in 15 s in
Fig. 5. Changes in pore size distribution of cement pastes with 20% optimized fly accordance with TS EN 1015-3 by turning the shaking device
ash replacement after 28 days. [64]. The diameter of the mortar flow after shaking was measured
 _ Demir / Construction and Building Materials 195 (2019) 104–114
Ö. Sevim, I.
in both perpendicular directions and averaged. The results
obtained were given in Table 8.
As shown in Table 8, the mean flow diameters increased with
increasing fly ash substitution ratio which was expected due to
spherical morphological characteristics of fly ash particles. The
average flow diameter of cement mortar containing no fly ash
(Control) was 140 mm while the flow diameter of cement mortar
containing 30% optimized fly ash (0.4FA30) was measured to be
lowest at 175 mm level. When the flow diameters of specimens
with and without optimized fly ash replacement are compared, it
can be seen that the flow diameters of samples with optimized
fly ash were lower than those with non-optimized fly ash with
an average rate of approximately 3%. This might be due to that cer-
tain amount of fly ash (approximately 10% above 90 mm) was not
incorporated in optimization lowering the total amount of fly ash
used in samples with optimized fly ash compared to samples with
non-optimized fly ash. Despite the slight reductions in flow diam-
eter measurements, samples with optimized fly ash were still in a
very flowable state and no distinct changes with regards to sam-
ples with non-optimized fly ash were observed in the fresh-state
properties.
3.3.2. Compressive/flexural strength
3.3.2.1. A comparison of the results obtained after 7 days. In Table 9,
compressive and flexural strength results of samples produced
with different replacement rates of fly ash (0 [Control], 5, 10, 15,
20 and 30%) with and without optimized PSD were shown for dif-
ferent initial curing ages of 7, 28 and 90 days.
As shown in Table 9, the optimized compressive strength after
7 days is 10.4% higher than the non-optimized value for a 5% FA
replacement level, 12.8% higher for a 10% FA replacement level,
6.9% higher for a 15% FA replacement level, 9.1% higher for a 20%
FA replacement level and 10.0% higher for a 30% FA replacement
level. The highest compressive strength after 7 days was
38.28 MPa for the optimized 5% fly ash-blended cement mortar
5.8% higher than that of the control cement without any replace-
ment. The replacement level of 5% was therefore found to be opti-
mal over this time period. As shown in Fig. 6, the optimized
compressive strengths were consistently higher than the non-
optimized ones for every replacement level. The compressive
strengths in the 5% and 10% cases were higher than those of the
control sample. The optimized 10% fly ash-blended cement in par-
ticular offered better mechanical properties and higher compact-
ness than the control cement after 7 days. Table 9 shows the
flexural strengths of optimized and non-optimized fly ash-
blended cement mortars after 7 days.
As shown in Table 9, the optimized flexural strength after
7 days is 13.4% higher than the non-optimized value for a 5% FA
replacement level, 7.9% higher for a 10% FA replacement level,
5.7% higher for a 15% FA replacement level, 17.4% higher for a
Table 8
Consistencies of cement mortars with fly ash having optimized and non-optimized
PSD.
Sample Flow diameter (mm)
Control 140
Non-optimized FA5 150
FA10 160
FA15 170
FA20 175
FA30 180
Optimized 0.4FA5 145
0.4FA10 155
0.4FA15 165
0.4FA20 170
0.4FA30 175
111
20% FA replacement level, and 19.1% higher for a 30% FA replace-
ment level. The highest flexural strength after 7 days, 6.92 MPa,
was obtained from the optimized 5% fly ash-blended cement mor-
tar, having a value 8.1% higher than that of the control cement
without any FA replacement. As shown in Fig. 7, optimized flexural
strengths were consistently higher than non-optimized ones at
every replacement level. The flexural strengths of the 5% and 10%
samples were higher than that of the control sample.
3.3.2.2. A comparison of the results obtained after 28 days. Table 9
shows the compressive strengths of the optimized and non-
optimized fly ash-blended cement mortars after 28 days. Accord-
ing to Table 9, 28-day compressive strength values of mortars with
optimized FA were 10.3%, 10.1%, 7.4%, 11.2% and 10.4% higher than
mortars without optimized FA at replacements rates of 5%, 10%,
15%, 20% and 30%, respectively. The highest compressive strength
after 28 days, 50.85 MPa, was obtained from the cement mortar
with optimized fly ash at a replacement rate of 5% and this value
was found to be 5.9% higher than that of the control cement with-
out any replacement. This suggests that mortars with optimized fly
ash at a replacement level of 5% offered better mechanical proper-
ties and higher compactness results than the control cement mor-
tars after 28 days. As shown in Fig. 8, compressive strength results
of mortars with optimized FA replacements were consistently
higher than non-optimized ones for every replacement level.
Table 9 shows the flexural strengths of optimized and non-
optimized fly ash-blended cement mortars after 28 days. As shown
in Table 9, the optimized flexural strength after 28 days is 12.7%
higher than the non-optimized value for a 5% replacement level,
11.4% higher for 10%, 12.8% higher for 15%, 13.7% higher for 20%
and 9.6% higher for 30%. The highest flexural strength after 28 days,
9.55 MPa, was obtained from the optimized 5% fly ash-blended
cement mortar, 8.9% higher than that of the control cement with-
out any replacement. As shown in Fig. 9, optimized flexural
strengths were consistently higher than non-optimized ones for
every replacement level.
3.3.2.3. A comparison of the results obtained after 90 days. Table 9
shows the compressive strengths of optimized and non-
optimized fly ash-blended cement mortars after 90 days. As shown
in Table 9, the optimized compressive strength after 90 days is 6.8%
higher than the non-optimized compressive strength for a 5%
replacement level, 6.3% higher for 10%, 3.7% higher for 15%, 2.8%
higher for 20% and 6.9% higher for 30%. The highest compressive
strength, 57.26 MPa, was obtained from the optimized 5% fly
ash-blended cement mortar among the 90-day results, 5.9% higher
than that of the control. For the 10% case, the compressive strength
was 4.0% higher than that of the control; for the 15% case, the
result was 2.2% higher than that of the control and for the 20% case,
the result was 0.5% higher than that of the control. As shown in
Fig. 10, optimized compressive strengths were consistently higher
than non-optimized ones for every replacement level. It is signifi-
cant that the cement mortar with 20% optimized fly ash replace-
ment improved upon the mechanical properties and high-
compactness results of the control cement mortar after 90 days.
Table 9 shows the flexural strengths of optimized and non-
optimized fly ash-blended cement mortars after 90 days.
As shown in Table 9, the optimized flexural strength after
90 days is 6.1% higher than the non-optimized value for a 5%-
replacement level, 5.4% higher for 10%, 4.8% higher for 15%, 4.4%
higher for 20% and 6.4% higher for 30%. The highest flexural
strength after 90 days, 10.97 MPa, was obtained from the opti-
mized 5% fly ash-blended cement mortar, 5.6% higher than that
of the control. For 10% replacement, flexural strength was 4.3%
higher than that of the control; for 15%, this was 3.5% higher than
the control and for 20%, this was 2.9% higher. As shown in Fig. 11,
112 _ Demir / Construction and Building Materials 195 (2019) 104–114
Ö. Sevim, I.

Table 9
Compressive/flexural strengths of cement mortars with different replacement rates of fly ash having optimized and non-optimized PSD after 7, 28 and 90 days.

Sample ID Compressive strength (MPa) Flexural strength (MPa)

7-day 28-day 90-day 7-day 28-day 90-day
Control 36.17 (0.64)* 47.99 (1.06) 54.08 (1.27) 6.40 (0.82) 8.77 (0.09) 10.39 (0.59)
Non-optimized FA5 34.66 (0.86) 46.10 (0.85) 53.62 (0.95) 6.10 (0.68) 8.47 (0.10) 10.34 (0.92)
FA10 32.61 (0.84) 42.23 (1.04) 53.50 (1.32) 5.96 (0.36) 7.64 (0.31) 10.28 (0.89)
FA15 31.89 (1.01) 40.64 (1.08) 53.32 (1.23) 5.77 (0.22) 7.51 (0.30) 10.26 (1.08)
FA20 29.41 (0.86) 38.58 (0.84) 52.90 (0.57) 5.17 (0.11) 7.44 (0.23) 10.24 (0.19)
FA30 22.06 (0.34) 32.11 (0.14) 44.56 (0.58) 3.51 (0.14) 5.81 (0.05) 8.86 (0.17)
Optimized 0.4FA5 38.28 (1.05) 50.85 (0.83) 57.26 (0.94) 6.92 (0.69) 9.55 (0.56) 10.97 (0.39)
0.4FA10 36.78 (0.54) 46.48 (0.75) 56.56 (0.84) 6.43 (0.17) 8.51 (0.34) 10.84 (0.07)
0.4FA15 34.10 (0.43) 43.63 (1.08) 55.27 (1.17) 6.10 (0.17) 8.47 (0.33) 10.75 (0.13)
0.4FA20 32.08 (1.04) 42.91 (1.13) 54.39 (1.03) 6.07 (0.36) 8.46 (0.49) 10.69 (0.19)
0.4FA30 24.27 (0.41) 35.45 (0.49) 47.66 (0.37) 4.18 (0.18) 6.37 (0.05) 9.43 (0.16)
*
Numbers in parentheses are standard deviations in MPa.

Non-optimized Optimized Non-optimized Optimized

20

Change in compressive strength (%)

Change in compressive strength (%)

10 5.8
1.7 10 6
0
0
-10 -4.2 -5.7 -3.9 -3.1
-10
-9.8 -11.8 -11.3 -9.1
-12 -10.6
-20 -20 -15.3
-18.7
-19.6
-30 -30 -26.1
-32.9 -33
-40 -40
-39
-50 -50
5 10 15 20 30 5 10 15 20 30
Additive ratio (%) Additive ratio (%)

Fig. 6. Percent change in the compressive strength of the optimized and non- Fig. 8. Percent change in the compressive strength of the optimized and non-
optimized fly ash-blended cement mortars after 7 days. optimized fly ash-blended cement mortars after 28 days.

Non-optimized Optimized Non-optimized Optimized

20 20
Change in flexural strength (%)

Change in flexural strength (%)

8.1 8.9
10 10
0.5
0
0
-10 -4.7 -6.9 -4.7 -5.2
-9.8 -3.4 -3 -3.4 -3.5
-10
-20
-19.2 -12.9 -14.4
-30 -20 -15.2

-40 -34.7 -30 -27.4

-50 -45.2 -33.8
-40
-60
5 10 15 20 30 -50
Additive ratio (%) 5 10 15 20 30
Additive ratio (%)
Fig. 7. Percent change in the flexural strength of the optimized and non-optimized
fly ash-blended cement mortars after 7 days. Fig. 9. Percent change in the flexural strength of the optimized and non-optimized
fly ash-blended cement mortars after 28 days.

optimized flexural strengths were consistently higher than non-

optimized ones for every replacement level. depending on the selected range of particle size and q value, there
To sum up overall results, different from majority of related were no significant changes in the chemical compositions and
studies performed in the literature [42–45] which considered par- physical properties of Class-C fly ash. Therefore, obtained results
ticle size distribution module, q, constant, optimum particle size clearly showed that achievement of higher compactness through
distribution module was calculated in the current study. When filler effect was possible so that related strength measurements
all the experimental results were examined, we concluded that of cement mortars with the optimized fly ash replacement rates
q = 0.4 gave the highest compactness which increased the com- of 5%, 10%, 15%, 20% and 30% were found to be higher than those
pressive and flexural strengths after 7, 28 and 90 days for every with non-optimized fly ash at the same replacement rates after
level of fly ash replacement with Portland cement through all initial curing ages. It was also remarkable to show that the
enhanced filler effect when compared to the non-optimized cement mortar with 20% optimized fly ash replacement yielded
results. As also outlined previously and shown in Tables 3 and 4, high compactness and better mechanical properties compared to
 _ Demir / Construction and Building Materials 195 (2019) 104–114
Ö. Sevim, I. 113

Non-optimized Optimized distribution of fly ash, resulting in high compactness. When

10 fly ash results in filler effect like that of aggregates, very good
Change in compressive strength (%)

5.9 levels of strength can be obtained.

4.6
5 2.2
It is remarkable that cement mortar with 20% optimized fly ash
0.6
0 replacement yielded better mechanical properties through high
-0.9 -1.1 compactness compared to the control cement mortar after
-1.4 -2.2
-5 90 days.

It was shown that it was possible to use 20% optimized fly ash
-10
instead of 10% non-optimized fly ash. This finding suggests that
-15 -11.9 through proper optimization of particle size, higher levels of fly
ash replacement with Portland cement can be actualized which
-20 -17.6 can further enhance to utilization of fly ash, raise awareness
regarding waste minimization and reduce the overall costs of
-25
5 10 15 20 30 concrete mixtures.
Additive ratio (%)
For future research, we recommend performing particle size-
distribution analyses for Class-F and Class-C fly ash separately
Fig. 10. Percent change in the compressive strength of the optimized and non- in order to compare their mechanical properties and durability.
optimized fly ash-blended cement mortars after 90 days. It may be also of interest to explore the mechanical properties
and durability of mixes with particle size-distribution optimiza-
tion based on the PSDs of different pozzolans such as blast-
Non-optimized Optimized furnace slag and silica fume.
10
5.6
Change in flexural strength (%)

4.3 3.5 Conflict of interests

5 2.9

0 None.
-0.5 -1.1 -1.3 -1.4
-5
Acknowledgement
-10
-9.2
The authors gratefully acknowledge the financial assistance of
-15 the Scientific and Technical Research Council of Turkey (TUBITAK)
-14.7
-20 provided under Project: 215M081.

-25
5 10 15
Additive ratio (%)
Fig. 11. Percent change in the flexural strength of the optimized and non-optimized
fly ash-blended cement mortars after 90 days.
the control cement mortar without any fly ash replacement after
90 days.
4. Conclusions
The mechanical properties of 5 different groups of fly ash
namely, those with particle sizes ranging between 0 and 25, 25–
50, 50–63, 63–75 and 75–90 mm were explored with respect to
their optimal PSD for a distribution modulus (q) set between 0
and 1 with stable increments of 0.1. Following results were
reached as a result of the experimental works:

High compactness was ensured through the filler effect for dis-
tribution moduli of q = 0.3, q = 0.4 and q = 0.5, offering higher
compressive and flexural strengths at 7, 28 and 90 days.
q = 0.4 offered the highest compressive and flexural strengths
and provided the highest increase in compactness.

In accordance with the statistical analyses, no significant vari-
ance exists in individual results of mechanical strength of mor-
tars prepared with optimized and non-optimized fly ash after 7,
28 and 90 days of curing showing the consistency of obtained
results.

Changes in the compressive and flexural strengths clearly reveal
the importance of particle size distribution in terms of filler
effect. The filler effect minimizes the voids available in the
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