Martija, Nelykah Rianne P.

Uses and Application September 14, 2019

Unit Operations 2 (Drying, Air Properties, Agitation) Engr. Efren B. Chavez

DRYING

Drying is a process accompanied by heat and mass exchange between the drying agent,
for example, air or flue gases, and the moisture of the material being dried. The vapor pressure of
the liquid on the surface of a solid material increases with temperature, and the vapor diffuses
into the flow of the drying agent. The concentration gradient in the material’s moisture resulting
from this process forces the moisture to move from the deeper layers to the surface at a rate
dependent on the character of the bond between the moisture and the material. In natural drying,
where there is no forced movement of the drying agent (free evaporation), the process proceeds
slowly; it is speeded up when a heated stream of drying agent flows past the material, that is,
when artificial drying is employed.

FOOD
Foods are dried to inhibit
microbial development and quality
decay. However, the extent of drying
depends on product end-use. Cereals
and oilseeds are dried after harvest
to the moisture content that allows
microbial stability during storage.
Vegetables are blanched before
drying to avoid rapid darkening, and
drying is not only carried out to
inhibit microbial growth, but also to avoid browning during storage. Concerning dried fruits, the
reduction of moisture acts in combination with its acid and sugar contents to provide protection
against microbial growth. Products such as milk powder must be dried to very low moisture
contents in order to ensure flow ability and avoid caking. This moisture is lower than that required
to ensure inhibition to microbial development. Other products as crackers are dried beyond the
microbial growth threshold to confer a crispy texture, which is liked by consumers.
Martija, Nelykah Rianne P. Uses and Application September 14, 2019
Unit Operations 2 (Drying, Air Properties, Agitation) Engr. Efren B. Chavez

SLUDGES AND FECAL MATERIALS FROM SANITATION PROCESSES

In the area of sanitation, drying of

sewage sludge from sewage treatment plants,
fecal sludge or feces collected in urine-diverting
dry toilets is a common method to achieve
pathogen kill, as pathogens can only tolerate a
certain dryness level. In addition, drying is
required as a process step if the excreta based
materials are meant to be incinerated.

WOOD DRYING

The technique of air drying consists mainly of

making a stack of sawn timber (with the layers of boards
separated by stickers) on raised foundations, in a clean,
cool, dry and shady place. Rate of drying largely depends
on climatic conditions, and on the air movement
(exposure to the wind). For successful air drying, a
continuous and uniform flow of air throughout the pile
of the timber needs to be arranged.

The rate of loss of moisture can be controlled by coating the planks with any substance
that is relatively impermeable to moisture; ordinary mineral oil is usually quite effective. Coating
the ends of logs with oil or thick paint improves their quality upon drying. Wrapping planks or logs
in materials which will allow some movement of moisture, generally works very well provided the
wood is first treated against fungal infection by coating in petrol/gasoline or oil. Mineral oil will
generally not soak in more than 1–2 mm below the surface and is easily removed by planning
when the timber is suitably dry.
Benefits: It can be less expensive to use this drying method (there are still costs associated with
storing the wood, and with the slower process of getting the wood to market), and air drying often
produces a higher quality, more easily workable wood than with kiln drying.
Drawbacks: Depending on the climate, it takes several months to a number of years to air-dry the
wood.
Martija, Nelykah Rianne P. Uses and Application September 14, 2019
Unit Operations 2 (Drying, Air Properties, Agitation) Engr. Efren B. Chavez

AGITATION

The agitation is achieved by movement of the

heterogeneous mass (liquid-solid phase) to the impeller.
This is due to mechanical agitators, to the rotation of an
impeller. The bulk can be composed of different substances
and the aim of the operation is to blend it or to improve the
efficiency of a reaction by a better contact between reactive
product. Or the bulk is already blended and the aim of
agitation is to increase a heat transfer or to maintain
particles in suspension to avoid any deposit.
The agitation of liquid is made by one or several
agitation impellers. Depending on its shape, the impeller
can generate:
 the moving of the liquid which is characterized by its
velocity and direction.
 Turbulence which is an erratic variation in space and
time of local fluid velocity.
 Shearing given by a velocity gradient between two
filets of fluids.
These two phenomena provide energy consumption.

FOOD
Agitation is often used
synonymously with the term mixing.
However, in food processing, agitation is
used to ensure the mixing process to get a
homogenous mix is completed faster.
Many industries require the mixing of free-
flowing powders. The art of mixing involves
different dilution geometries (a geometry
is a way of combining unequal amounts of
fine powders to ensure an equal
distribution). The geometric mix used
depends on the size distribution, shape,
particle density, composition and internal structures. Other properties include flow ability, bulk
density, mixture quality, dustiness and properties of segregation.
Martija, Nelykah Rianne P. Uses and Application September 14, 2019
Unit Operations 2 (Drying, Air Properties, Agitation) Engr. Efren B. Chavez

Industrial mixers are used to do the blending and mixing. The shape and hardness of the
materials being mixed affects the horsepower required to run the mixer. The type of mixer used
in a production line varies depending on the materials that need to be mixed or blended. Paddle
mixers are often the best choice for production line mixing because they are easy to clean, have
less surface area, and have a minimal number of parts. Mixing and blending is generally a sub-
process within an overall process cycle so when placing a mixer, it is important to consider how
it integrates into the whole system. That includes impacts to both upstream and downstream
product handling.
WATER AND WASTE WATER
Municipal waste water treatment facilities
utilize biological, physical, and chemical processes to
treat waste water which includes runoff water,
human waste, and industrial waste. Treating the
waste to remove chemical and biological
contaminants prior to discharging into the
environment is the main function of the plant.
Agitators and static mixers are utilized throughout
the treatment process to optimize performance,
minimize downtime, and maintain plant effluent
within permitted limits.
Chemical preparation in wastewater and water treatment directly impacts many
downstream processes.
Lime Slurry Preparation
When preparing lime slurries for controlling pH, uniformity is critical. Because lime solids
must reach/stay in suspension if they are to serve their purpose in downstream processes. For
this reason, it’s essential that wastewater and water treatment facilities have lime slurry mixers
that can efficiently and effectively make up/maintain uniform slurries.

In order to successfully suspend/re-suspend solids, a mixer needs to create a flow pattern

that involves the entire tank. Axial flow patterns have large areas of influence, so they’re very
effective at pulling settled solids back into suspension. This slow, high torque mixing is especially
important in high viscosity mixtures, like uniform slurries that contain up to 30% solids. Because
the range of solids can vary, waste water mixers should be engineered to meet the unique needs
of the slurry.
Polymer Mixing
Polymers are used in wastewater and water treatment to enhance flocculation by
optimizing the strength, size and weight of flocs. Before they can be added to the flocculation
process, the powder or neat forms of polymers need to be activated and aged.
Martija, Nelykah Rianne P. Uses and Application September 14, 2019
Unit Operations 2 (Drying, Air Properties, Agitation) Engr. Efren B. Chavez

Activation & Aging

Polymer activation is a complex process involving high speed, high shear mixing in a pump
for liquid polymers and in an edductor for dry polymers. Top-entry mixers are used for polymer
aging. Activated polymers can easily be damaged during the aging process. To protect them, we
recommend using a low shear, high torque mixer and a low speed. A laminar flow pattern, like
the one created from the airfoil impeller, protects the integrity of solids and maintains product
quality. The pattern also creates less drag than a pitch blade, so it’s more efficient
Facilities that receive their polymers in totes have to prevent stratification. The solution
for this job is a portable mixer that can be easily inserted into plastic totes. For our clients, we
recommend the ITM. The collapsible impellers allow insertion of blades much larger than the
small tote opening in order to generate the desired axial flow pattern.
To sum it up, the waste water mixer need depends on the process and the chemicals used
in that process.
WINE
These parameters were evaluated during
fermentations under different agitation conditions.
Agitation speed was found to significantly influence all
the parameters monitored. In the evaluated conditions, a
speed of 80 rpm was optimal for the production of
fermentative aromas (lead to the highest production)
while guaranteeing the complete and rapid fermentation
and limiting the production of off‐flavors. Fermentation
of a Chardonnay grape juice in 50 L tanks confirmed the
results, and the panelists described the wine produced by
the stirred fermentation as sweeter but it is likely that the
panelists meant softer because the wines were dry.
Agitation is an important parameter to control during fermentation under laboratory
conditions. The data also suggest that the type and strength of agitation in commercial
fermentations may have a more significant impact than previously thought.
MINERAL PROCESSING
Agitation leaching may be used for oxide minerals that have rapid leach kinetics, such as
carbonates, and which have reasonable grade (0.8–5% Cu). It can be applied to ores or to milled
tailings from other leach circuits. This method is widely used in the African Copperbelt and cobalt
is often present in the ores (Baxter, Nisbett, Urbani, & Marte, 2008; Kordosky, Feather, &
Chisakuta, 2008; Reolon, Gazis, & Amos, 2009; Roux, van Rooyen, Minnaar, Robles, & Cronje,
2010). It is also employed at Tintaya in Peru.
Martija, Nelykah Rianne P. Uses and Application September 14, 2019
Unit Operations 2 (Drying, Air Properties, Agitation) Engr. Efren B. Chavez

Following crushing and milling, the

material is leached in stirred tanks. Finely ground
ore is kept in suspension in the lixiviant by
agitating the slurry mechanically or
pneumatically. The fine particle size exposures
more of the mineral to the leach solution, leading
to faster kinetics and often higher copper
recoveries. The slurry then reports to a solid–
liquid separation, usually a counter-current
decantation (CCD) circuit, in which some further
leaching can take place. The eventual recovery of
acid-soluble copper is usually above 98% of the
readily acid-soluble minerals, generating a PLS
that contains 2–12 g/L Cu (Cognis, 2010). Ore high
in chrysocolla will need extended leach times as this mineral has slow leach rates because the
copper is removed from within the residual silica matrix.
Agitation leaching is a capital-intensive technique for these ores, but copper recovery can
approach 100% in a time frame of hours, rather than the months or years of the percolation
leaching techniques.
Secondary sulfides of reasonable grade (>6% Cu) can also be treated using agitation
leaching. The method is similar to that described for oxide leaching, but elevated temperature
and an oxidizing agent are required (see Section 15.2.2). Most operations use air (oxygen), but
recently commissioned plants in Australia, Laos, and Spain use Fe3+ as the oxidizing agent
(Baxter, Pavlides, & Dixon, 2004; Fleury, Delgado, & Collao, 2010).
The PLS generated from sulfide leaching is usually more concentrated than that of oxide
leaching, 12–25 g/L Cu (Cognis, 2010). Copper recovery varies from 95–98% with leach times of
less than 24 h to several days. Table 15.4 gives typical operating data for several plants in which
agitation leaching is practised.
Martija, Nelykah Rianne P. Uses and Application September 14, 2019
Unit Operations 2 (Drying, Air Properties, Agitation) Engr. Efren B. Chavez

AIR PROPERTIES

Air is a vital component of our everyday lives. Air

properties are important whether we are ventilating a
livestock housing unit, drying grain, or determining
relative humidity in the home. In a livestock building,
temperature, moisture, odors, and toxic or noxious
gases must be controlled. Since the moisture holding
capacity of air increases with increasing temperature,
heat may be added in grain drying to aid in removing
moisture from the grain kernel. In the home, moisture
can either be added to or removed from the air to
change the relative humidity. In each case, air provides
the link between the controls and the mechanical equipment, and air properties influence the
results of the processes.
Psychometrics refers to the properties of moist air. A psychometric chart graphically
illustrates the relationships between air temperature and relative humidity as well as other
properties. A better understanding of air properties and the psychometric chart can aid in the
selection and management of a livestock building ventilation system, a grain drying system, or a
home humidifier.

FLIGHTS
Air properties makes airplane flights possible. The following are that:
 Air exerts pressure
o Air is constantly exerting pressure on everything.
o We do not feel this pressure because it is exerted in all directions.
 Ex: 2 balloons, blow through them they go closer together
 Air takes up space
o Space: area that is free, available, or unoccupied.
 Ex: air in a plastic bag
 Air has mass
 Ex: when you stick your hand out of a car you feel the wind on your hand
 Hot air rises
o when air is heated the particles expand
o with cool air, the particles are closer together
o gravity is pulling the cooler air to the earth’s surface causing heated air to
rise
 Ex: bunk beds, when someone farts at the bottom the person at
the top will smell it.