PLAGIARISM SCAN REPORT

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1. EFFECTS OF DISTRIBUTION GENERATION ON FREQUENCY CONTROL State of the art wind turbines and solar generators are
all asynchronous. The power generated is independent of the system frequency (i.e. the frequency droop characteristic is
zero). Generated power is not controllable, however, so that variations in power production can have an impact on system
frequency by creating a mismatch between system generation and load. Power generation from these sources is generally
treated as negative load. The variation in system load is then a combination of actual load uncertainties and fluctuations in
generation from renewable DG. For systems with small amounts of renewable generation, the additional variation from DG is
negligible, and the impact on system frequency is quite small. Traditional AGC planning and operation methods are sufficient
to deal with them. As the economics of wind power improve, and environmental concerns increase, the market share (for
total electricity generation) of wind power is expected to continue to grow. Eventually this will lead to at least conditions of
islanding, and perhaps even to entire systems that are DG dominated. In such cases, frequency control cannot be maintained
by traditional AGC practices. The amount of generation needed to participate in frequency control (AGC) to compensate for
the additional variation will grow. At the same time, the rising DG market share will reduce the amount of generation that is
actually capable of providing frequency support. DETERMINATION OF FREQUENCY RESPONSE The proposed DBFC scheme is
similar in concept to the conventional AGC type scheme. The major difference between an AGC type scheme and DBFC is the
discrete nature of the controls for loads. In AGC, participating genera tors adjust their power output according to a
predetermined level of control for each level of frequency deviation. Each generator has a continuous response according to
its predetermined control gain. For DBFC, the control gain can only be determined by the aggregation of multiple loads. Two
possible methods for establishing a decentralized, aggregate control gain are: 1) Setting the sample time for the devices. 2)
Variation of the frequency activation set points for participating loads. Using the sample time to establish the control gain
allows for a simple, uniform control setting for each load, with no coordination between them. The sample time determines
how many DBFC devices will be activated at any particular 428 times. Setting the sampling time for DBFC systems will prevent
all from triggering at the same time. Although, it will possibly be necessary to update the sampling time to adapt to dynamic
changes in the overall power grid, including participation of loads and composition of generators. The alternative method to
using sampling times would be to assign various levels of frequency activation to the DBFC devices. Some devices would be set
to have a greater sensitivity to deviations in frequency and others would have less sensitivity. This would allow for a close
approximation of the smooth, linear frequency response curve of generators participating in AGC. The problem with this
method is that the settings must be coordinated so that the distribution of set points approximates the linear response. The
large percentage of energy based load excluding air conditioning strongly suggests that there is sufficient potential for DBFC
at least amongst residential consumers. The potential of DBFC for industrial and commercial loads is less clear. Heating and
air conditioning (HVAC) makes up a sizeable portion of the load for commercial buildings. It may also be possible to a small
portion of commercial lighting, but the vast majority of non-HVAC commercial load is power dependent rather than energy
dependent. In the case of industrial consumers, the portion of energy based load is dependent on the specific process - melt
pots are good candidates, while assembly lines are not. HVAC is also a significant portion of load for some industries.
Commercial and Industrial applications of DBFC would be easier (and likely cheaper) to implement than residential
applications since a large amount of load could be controlled by a single device. There are many issues that need to be
investigated before a concrete determination of the demand side potential for DBFC is made. A partial list follows: a) How
many loads are needed to provide/augment AGC? b) Does a large number of loads participating in DBFC create an equivalent
to continuous AGC from discrete appliance controls? c) What is the probability that at any given time an appliance is running?
d) How does the demand side droop characteristic vary when certain appliances are shut off ? A large portion of electricity
consumption is energy based, rather than power based. As a result, the potential resource exists for sufficient frequency
control utilizing such loads instead of, or as augmentation to generation based frequency control. The sampling method
alleviates this problem and allows for decentralization of the DBFC, while achieving a frequency response characteristic that is
effectively continuous. The aggregation of many small, discrete control devices participating in DBFC allows for a smooth
frequency response curve (similar to that of AGC) with the gain (slope of the curve) determined by the sampling time. The
following is a more detailed mathematical analysis of the determination of the sampling time necessary for frequency control
to maintain frequency within specified bounds.
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