Meaning of Computer

Computer is an electronic device that transforms data into meaningful information.

Computer can also be defined in terms of functions it can perform.

1. It accepts data
2. It stores data
3. It processes data as desired
4. It retrieves the stored data as and
5. It prints the result in desired format.
The major characteristics of a computer are
1. High speed
2. Accuracy
3. Diligence
4. Versatility
5. Storage
6. Programmability
Components of Computer
1. Input: This is the process of entering data and programs into the computer system.
2. Control Unit (CU): The process of input, output, processing and storage is performed under the supervision of a unit called
'Control Unit'. It decides when to start receiving data, when to stop it, where to store data, etc. It takes care of step-by-step processing
of all operations inside the computer.
3. Memory Unit: Computer is used to store data and instructions in Computer’s memory.
4. Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU): The major operations performed by the ALU are addition, subtraction, multiplication, division,
logic and comparison.
5. Output: This is the process of producing results from the data for getting useful information. The ALU and the CU of a computer
system are jointly known as the central processing unit (CPU). You may call CPU as the brain of any computer system.

THE CENTRAL PROCESSING UNIT (CPU)

The Central Processing Unit (CPU) is the computer component that's responsible for interpreting and executing most of the commands
from the computer's other hardware and software.

All sorts of devices use a CPU, including desktop, laptop, and tablet computers, smartphones... even your flat screen television set!

Intel and AMD are the two most popular CPU manufacturers for desktops, laptops, and servers, while Apple, NVIDIA, and
Qualcomm are big smartphone and tablet CPU makers.

You may see many different names used to describe the CPU, including processor, computer processor, microprocessor, central
processor, and "the brains of the computer".

Classification of Computers
Computers can be classified into three major classes based on the mode of data representation used.
1. Analog Computers
2. Digital Computers
3. Hybrid Computers
1. Analog Computers
1.An analog computer is a form of computer that uses continuous physical phenomena such as electrical, mechanical, or hydraulic
quantities to model the problem being solved.
It operates by measuring rather than counting.
It uses continuous signals as input.
Examples: Thermometer, Speedometer etc.
2. Digital Computers
1. A computer that performs calculations and logical operations with quantities represented as digits, usually in the binary number
system
2. These are the systems that are computationally complete and capable of solving all of the problems that can be solved
algorithmically.
Examples: Desktop, laptop etc
Hybrid Computers (Analog + Digital)
1. A combination of computers those are capable of inputting and outputting in both digital and analog signals. A hybrid computer
system setup offers a cost effective method of performing complex simulations.
2. It use both types of signals – analog as well as digital – as input.
3. Mostly used with process control equipments in continuous production plants e.g., oil refineries, Areas of application are nuclear
power plants, mines, intensive care units of hospitals (ICUs), chemical process plants etc.

Classification of Digital Computers On the basis of Size

The digital computers that are available nowadays vary in their sizes and types. The computers are broadly classified into four
categories based on their size and type

1. Microcomputers

2. Minicomputers

3. Mainframe computers

4. Supercomputer

1. Microcomputers

Microcomputers are small, low-cost and single-user digital computer. They consist of CPU, input unit, output unit, storage unit and
the software.

IBM PC based on Pentium microprocessor and Apple Macintosh are some examples of microcomputers. Microcomputers include
desktop computers, notebook computers or laptop, tablet computer, handheld computer, smart phones and netbook,

(a) Desktop Computer or Personal Computer (PC) - It is the most common type of microcomputer. It consists of three units—
keyboard, monitor, and a system unit containing the CPU, memory, hard disk drive, etc.

(b) Notebook Computers or Laptop - They are portable and have all the features of a desktop computer. The advantage of the laptop is
that it is small in size, can be carried anywhere.
(c) Netbook - These are smaller notebooks optimized for low weight and low cost, and are designed for accessing web-based
applications.

(d) Tablet - Tablet Computer has features of the notebook computer but it can accept input from a stylus or a pen instead of the
keyboard or mouse.

(e) Handheld Computer or Personal Digital Assistant (PDA) - It is a small computer that can be held on the top of the palm. It is small
in size. PDA uses a pen or a stylus for input, Instead of the keyboard. They have a limited memory and are less powerful.

(f) Smart Phones - These are cellular phones that function both as a phone and as a small PC. They may use a stylus or a pen, or may
have a small keyboard. They can be connected to the Internet wirelessly.

2. Minicomputers

Minicomputers are digital computers, generally used in multi-user systems. Minicomputers are mainly used as small or midrange
servers operating business and scientific applications. They have high processing speed and high storage capacity than the
microcomputers. Example Digital Alpha, Sun Ultra.

3. Mainframe Computers

Mainframe computers are multi-user, multi-programming and high performance computers. They operate at a very high speed, have
very large storage capacity and can handle the workload of many users. Mainframe computers are large and powerful systems
generally used in centralized databases. Computers with large storage capacities and very high speed of processing (compared to mini-
or microcomputers) are known as mainframe computers. Examples: - IBM 370, S/390.

4. Supercomputers

Supercomputers are the fastest and the most expensive machines. They have high processing speed compared to other computers. The
speed of a supercomputer is generally measured in FLOPS (Floating point Operations per Second). Some of the faster supercomputers
can perform trillions of calculations per second.

Generations of Computers :-
First Generation Computers (1942-1955)
1. They used vacuum tubes.
2. They were very expensive.
3. Consume more power with limited performance.
4. Magnetic tape / magnetic drum were used for storage.
5. They were heavy and large in size.
6. They generated a lot of heat.
7. Examples: (ENIAC - Electronic Numerical Integrator and Calculator
Second Generation Computers (1956-1964)
1. Transistors were used in place of vacuum tubes. (Invented at AT&T Bell lab in 1947)
2. Lesser power consumption and better performance
3.Lower cost than First Generation.
4. They were smaller in size than first generation computers.
5. They were faster than first generation computers and also less expensive.
6. Magnetic tapes and magnetic disks were used as secondary memory
7. Examples: ENIAC 1401, CDC 160, IBM 700, – IBM 7030, Digital Data Corporation’s PDP 1/5/8 Honeywell 400
Third Generation Computers (1965-1971)
1. They used electronic devices called Integrated Circuits (ICs) instead of Transistors.
2. They were smaller in size than second generation computers and also less expensive.
3. They were faster and more accurate than second generation computers.
4. Small Scale Integration and Medium Scale Integration technology were implemented in CPU, I/O processors etc.
5. Smaller & better performance
6. Comparatively lesser cost
7. Faster processors
8. In the beginning magnetic core memories were used. Later they were replaced by semiconductor memories (RAM& ROM)
9. Examples: VAX-750, IBM 360

Fourth Generation Computers -Microprocessors (1972 onwards)

1. They use a device called microprocessor instead of ICs
2. They are smaller in size.
3. They are cheaper and faster.
4. They are very easy to handle.
5. All present day computers come under this category.
6. Microprocessors were introduced as CPU– Complete processors and large section of main memory could be implemented in a
single chip
7. Tens of thousands of transistors can be placed in a single chip (VLSI design implemented)
8. CRT screen, laser & ink jet printers, scanners etc were developed.
9. High performance, lower cost and very compact
10. In 1981 IBM introduced its first computer for the home user, and in 1984 Apple introduced the Macintosh.

Fifth Generation Computers (Future Computers)

1. They will be intelligent like human beings, and will use Artificial Intelligence (AI) for working.
2. They will be able to think and take decisions like us.
3. They will be used in areas such as robotics, designing, defence.
4. Object oriented language like JAVA suitable for internet programming has been developed.
5. Portable note book computers introduced
6. Storage technology advanced – large main memory and disk storage available
7. Introduced World Wide Web. (And other existing applications like e-mail, e Commerce, Virtual libraries/Classrooms, multimedia
applications etc.)
8. New operating systems developed – Windows 95/98/XP/LINUX, etc.
9. IBM notebooks, Pentium PCs-Pentium 1/2/3/4/Dual core/Quad core... SUN work stations, Origin 2000, PARAM 10000, IBM
SP/2).
Ans. General-purpose Computer

General-purpose computer is the one that can work on different types of programs input to it and thus be used in countless
applications. The programs are not permanently stored but are input at the time of execution. These computers are very versatile.

Special-purpose Computer

Special-purpose computer is the one that is designed to perform a specific task. The instructions (programs) to carry out the task are
permanently stored in the machine. For the specific tasks, this type of computer works efficiently but such computers are not versatile.

Types of Computer Memorys:

Memory is the best essential element of a computer because computer can’t perform simple tasks. The performance of computer
mainly based on memory and CPU. Memory is internal storage media of computer that has several names such as majorly categorized
into two types, Main memory and Secondary memory.

1. Primary Memory / Volatile Memory.

2. Secondary Memory / Non Volatile Memory.

1. Primary Memory / Volatile Memory:

Primary Memory also called as volatile memory because the memory can’t store the data permanently. Primary memory select any
part of memory when user want to save the data in memory but that may not be store permanently on that location. It also has another
name i.e. RAM.

Random Access Memory (RAM):

The primary storage is referred to as random access memory (RAM) due to the random selection of memory locations. It performs
both read and write operations on memory. If power failures happened in systems during memory access then you will lose your data
permanently. So, RAM is volatile memory. RAM categorized into following types.

 DRAM
 SRAM
 DRDRAM

2. Secondary Memory / Non Volatile Memory:

Secondary memory is external and permanent memory that is useful to store the external storage media such as floppy disk, magnetic
disks, magnetic tapes and etc cache devices. Secondary memory deals with following types of components.

Read Only Memory (ROM) :

ROM is permanent memory location that offer huge types of standards to save data. But it work with read only operation. No data lose
happen whenever power failure occur during the ROM memory work in computers.

ROM memory has several models such names are following.

1. PROM: Programmable Read Only Memory (PROM) maintains large storage media but can’t offer the erase features in ROM.

2. EPROM : Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory designed for recover the problems of PROM and ROM. Users can delete
the data of EPROM thorough pass on ultraviolet light and it erases chip is reprogrammed.
3. EEPROM: Electrically Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory similar to the EPROM but it uses electrical beam for erase the
data of ROM.

Cache Memory: Mina memory less than the access time of CPU so, the performance will decrease through less access time. Speed
mismatch will decrease through maintain cache memory. Main memory can store huge amount of data but the cache memory
normally kept small and low expensive cost. All types of external media like Magnetic disks, Magnetic drives and etc store in cache
memory to provide quick access tools to the users.

HARD DISK

A computer hard disk drive (HDD) is the mechanism that controls the positioning, reading and writing of the hard disk, which
furnishes data storage. A hard disk drive -- often shortened to hard drive -- and hard disk are not the same thing, but they are packaged
as a unit and either term can refer to the whole unit. Hard disk drives can be found in desktop computers, mobile devices, consumer
electronics and enterprise storage arrays in data centers.

MAGNETIC TAPE

Magnetic tape is one of the oldest technologies for electronic data storage.

Tape has largely been displaced as a primary and backup storage medium, but it remains well-suited for archiving because of its high
capacity, low cost and long durability. It is a linear recording system that is not good for random access. If the tape is part of a library,
robotic selection and loading of the right cartridge into a tape drive adds more latency. In an archive, such latencies are not an issue.
With tape archiving, there is no online copy for quick retrieval, as everything is vaulted for the long term.

Floppy Disk

The term geometry refers to the organization of the disk's data structures. For hard disks this is a complicated issue due to the use of
physical, logical and translated geometry. For floppy disks it is quite simple: the geometry refers to the number of disk surfaces
(which is the same as the number of read/write heads), the number of tracks per surface, and the number of sectors per track. All
floppy disks use the same number of sectors for each track, despite the fact that the inner tracks on a disk are much smaller than the
outer tracks.

Since all (modern) floppy disks use both sides of the disk and therefore always have two heads and surfaces, the only important
parameters are the number of tracks and the number of sectors. While hard disks are always referred to as having cylinders, floppies
are sometimes said to have cylinders and sometimes to have tracks. Really, they are just different ways of referring to the same thing.
Since floppies always have two surfaces, cylinder #N simply refers to track #N on both sides of the disk.

Each floppy disk format (size) has a specific geometry, unlike hard disks which of course vary from disk to disk. Here are the
geometry specifications for the different disks formats:

Geometry 360 KB 1.2 MB 720 KB 1.44 MB 2.88 MB

Specification 5.25" 5.25" 3.5" 3.5" 3.5"

Tracks
40 80 80 80 80
(Cylinders)

Sectors Per
9 15 9 18 36
Track/Cylinder

Total Sectors Per

720 2,400 1,440 2,880 5,760
Disk

All floppy disks use 512 bytes per sector, which is the standard for both floppies and hard disks.
LOGIC GATES

Digital systems are said to be constructed by using logic gates. These gates are the AND, OR, NOT, NAND, NOR, EXOR and
EXNOR gates. The basic operations are described below with the aid of truth tables.

AND gate

The AND gate is an electronic circuit that gives a high output (1) only if all its inputs are high. A dot (.) is used to
show the AND operation i.e. A.B. Bear in mind that this dot is sometimes omitted i.e. AB

OR gate

The OR gate is an electronic circuit that gives a high output (1) if one or more of its inputs are high. A plus (+) is
used to show the OR operation.

NOT gate

The NOT gate is an electronic circuit that produces an inverted version of the input at its output. It is also known as an
inverter. If the input variable is A, the inverted output is known as NOT A. This is also shown as A', or A with a bar over
the top, as shown at the outputs. The diagrams below show two ways that the NAND logic gate can be configured to produce
a NOT gate. It can also be done using NOR logic gates in the same way.

COMPILER : Compilers are used to convert high level languages (like C, C++ ) into machine code .

Example : gcc , Microsoft Visual Studio

ASSEMBERS : Assembler are used to convert assembly language code into machine code.

Examples : List of assembler

INTERPRETER : An interpreter is a computer program which executes a statement directly (at runtime).

Examples: python , LISP, Ocamle

DISTRIBUTIVE LAW
· Distributive Law A.(B + C) = A.B + A.C

Distributive law holds true for any number of literals. Adding literals B and C followed by multiplying the result with literal A is the same
as multiplying literal A with literal B and adding the result to the product of literals A and C.

INPUT DEVICES

Input devices are necessary to convert our information or data into a form which can be understood by the computer. A good input
device should provide timely, accurate and useful data to the main memory of the computer for processing followings are the most
useful input devices.

Keyboard:

This is the standard input device attached to all computers. The layout of the keyboard is just like the traditional typewriter of the type
QWERTY. It also contains some extra command keys and function keys. It contains a total of 101 to 104 keys.

Mouse:

The mouse is an input device which is used with your personal computer. It rolls on a small ball and has two or three buttons on the
top.

Scanner:

The keyboard can input only text through keys provided in it. If we want to input a picture the keyboard cannot do that. The Scanner is
an optical device that can input any graphical matter and display it back.

Magnetic Ink Character Recognition (MICR):

This is widely used by banks to process large volumes of cheques and drafts. Cheques are put inside the MICR. As they enter the
reading unit the cheques pass through the magnetic field which causes the read head to recognize the character of the cheques.

Optical Mark Reader (OMR):

This technique is used when students have appeared in objective type tests and they had to mark their answer by darkening a square or
circular space by pencil. These answer sheets are directly fed to a computer for grading where OMR is used.

Optical Character Recognition (OCR):

This technique unites the direct reading of any printed character. Suppose you have a set of handwritten characters on a piece of paper.
You put it, inside the scanner of the computer. This pattern is compared with a site of patterns stored inside the computer. Whichever
pattern is matched is called a character read. Patterns that cannot be identified are rejected. OCRs are expensive though better the
MICR.

Joy Stick:

This is one of the popular input devices, which is used for playing video games.

Touch Screen:

The Touch screen takes input as when a finger or object comes in contact with the screen, the light beam is broken, and the location of
the breaking of a light beam is recorded, which acts as inputs.

9. Light Pen:

Light is a type of pointing device that is used to choose a displayed menu option on screen for a program. This pen contains a
photocell placed in a small tube.

OUTPUT DEVICES

Output devices can adopt different shapes and styles, which are used to give the output of the processing of data. The output can be in
any form i.e. typed, printed, sketched, visible, nonviable, audio, video etc. Output devices are those peripheral devices that allow a
user to retrieve information from a computer. Any Output devices can be divided into two basic categories.

1. Hard Copy:

It is that form of output which can be read directly and immediately, stored to be read later. This output is on paper and which is
permanent.

2. Soft Copy: It is the magnetic or audio form of output which is usually unreadable directly and which is not long-lasting.

Hard Copy Devices:

These are those devices, which produce a permanent record of data on media like paper. These are relatively slow in operation when
compared to soft copy devices. Some of the popular devices are Printers, Plotters, and Photographic output devices.

1. PRINTERS: PRINTERS CAN BE CATEGORIZED INTO

Impact Printers
Non-impact Printers

Impact Printers

These are those types of printers which have direct mechanical contact between the head of the printers and paper. The impact printers
are

a. Dot Matrix Printers:

These Printers print characters as a combination of dots arranged in a 5 x 7 matrix. The speed of these printers varies from about 30 to
600 characters per second. The printing head of these printer contains a vertical array of pins, which fires the selected pins against
carbon ribbon or linked surfac e while the head moves across the paper to form a pattern of dots representing characters. These
printers can print characters in draft quality, standard quality as well near letter quality.
b. Daisy Wheel Printers:

This printer is a solid font type character printer. The printing arms of the printer head look like petals of the flower. This printer is
very slow, it prints about 60-90 characters per second. The hub rotates continuously, rotating at high speed and hammer strikes the
appropriate character in its position. This printer also acts as a bi-directional printer.

c. Line Printers: These printers prints the total line at a time, giving the name line printers. They can be print 1000- 5000 lines per
minute

Non -Impact Printers:

These printers print without any direct mechanical contact between the head of the printer and paper. These printers can be
categorized into

a. Thermal Printers:

These Printers uses heat sensitive paper in dot matrix method, on which hot needles are pressed to form characters. These printers
print slow and make a little noise. The disadvantage is that it is not possible to print multiple copies simultaneously.

b. Inkjet Printers:

These printers use a mechanism where it sprays the ink from tiny nozzles through an electric field that arranges charged particles ink
into characters. The paper absorbs the ink and it dries instantaneously. It is capable to print about 500cps, expensive but faster and we
can also have color printing, by using ink various colors.

c. Laser Printer:

This type of printers uses laser beams which charge the drum negatively, to which black toner powder which is positively charged is
stuck. When the paper rolls by the drum, the toner powder is transferred to the paper. These printers are very fast, quality is very good
and speed about is 15,000 to 20,000 lines per minute.

d. Electrographic Printer:

This printer writes on special paper using electricity. The paper is held between two electrodes. These printers can either use wet
process or dry process. The speed of these printers is fairly high and is about 20,000 cps. These printers are very reliable as there are
very less moving parts.

e. Electro Static Printer:-

This printer uses a mechanism, where static electricity is used to create impressions on special paper. The charges attract toner power
to the charged spots, giving the print. These printers are very fast and are capable for plotting graphs etc. The speed is very high i.e up
to 20,000 lines per minute.
2. Plotter:

A plotter is an output device similar to the printer but normally allows you to print larger images. Their use is common in the design
and research sector.

II. SOFT COPY DEVICES:

These devices output is usually not visible directly but the output can be viewed with the help of computer where one can update,
modify data etc. Some of the softcopy output devices are.

a. Visual Display Unit:

The most popular input/output device is the Visual Display Unit (VDU). It is also called the monitor. A Keyboard is used to input
data and Monitor is used to display the input data and to receive a message from the computer. A monitor has its own box which is
separated from the main computer system and is connected to the computer by a cable. In some systems, it is compact with the system
unit. It can be color or monochrome.

b. Terminals:

It is a very popular interactive input-output unit. It can be divided into two types: hardcopy terminals and soft copy terminals. A hard
copy terminal provides a printout on paper whereas soft copy terminals provide a visual copy on the monitor. A terminal when
connected to a CPU sends instructions directly to the computer. Terminals are also classified as dumb terminals or intelligent
terminals depending upon the work situation.

III. Speakers:

Most computers are sold with the capability to add a pair of speakers to your system unit. In fact, in some cases, the monitor may have
speakers built directly into the unit. This enhances the value of educational and presentation products and can now be considered a
standard PC component.

BINARY CODED DECIMAL

Binary coded decimal (BCD) is a system of writing numerals that assigns a four-digit binary code to each digit 0 through 9 in a
decimal (base-10) numeral. The four-bit BCD code for any particular single base-10 digit is its representation in binary notation, as
follows:

0 = 0000

1 = 0001

2 = 0010

3 = 0011

4 = 0100

5 = 0101
6 = 0110

7 = 0111

8 = 1000

9 = 1001

Numbers larger than 9, having two or more digits in the decimal system, are expressed digit by digit.

MEMORY UNITS

Binary Digit, or Bit

The most basic unit of computer memory is the binary digit, which is more commonly referred to as a bit. A bit can represent only two
different values, either true (on) or false (off).

Byte
A group of eight bits makes up a byte, but even this unit is tiny, compared with the amount of data that is commonly transferred across
the Internet today.

Kilobyte
A kilobyte (KB) is 1024 bits long, or can also be thought of as 128 bytes.

Megabyte
A megabyte (MB) is made up of 1024 kilobytes. By now, you should be seeing a pattern emerging here. The now-defunct 3.5 inch
floppy-disk, (which was an early form of removable storage), had a maximum storage capacity of approximately 1MB.

Gigabyte
Again, a gigabyte (GB) contains 1024 megabytes. You could expect to find 4GB of RAM inside a typical computer being sold these
days.

Terabyte
Composed of 1024 gigabytes, a terabyte (TB) is approximately the largest amount of hard drive storage you'd expect to find in a
typical desktop computer, although it's becoming more common to see consumer machines with 2TB drives.

ALPHANUMERIC

Alphanumeric (sometimes seen as alphameric) is a term encompassing all the letters in a given language set as well as the numerals.
In layouts designed for English language users, alphanumeric characters are those comprised by the combined set of the 26 alphabetic
characters, A to Z, and the 10 Arabic numerals, 0 to 9.

For some computer purposes, such as file naming, alphanumeric characters are strictly limited to the 26 alphabetic characters and 10
numerals; however, for other usages, such as programming, other keyboard symbols are sometimes permitted. In some usages, the
alphanumeric character set may include both upper and lower case letters, punctuation marks, and symbols (such as @, &, and *, for
example).

FLOW CHART

A flow chart is a graphical or symbolic representation of a process. Each step in the process is represented by a different symbol and
contains a short description of the process step. The flow chart symbols are linked together with arrows showing the process flow
direction.
Common Flowchart Symbols
Different flow chart symbols have different meanings. The most common flow chart symbols are:

 Terminator: An oval flow chart shape indicating the start or end of the process.
  Process: A rectangular flow chart shape indicating a normal process flow step.
 Decision: A diamond flow chart shape indication a branch in the process flow.
 Connector: A small, labeled, circular flow chart shape used to indicate a jump in the process flow. (Shown as the circle with
the letter “A”, below.)
 Data: A parallelogram that indicates data input or output (I/O) for a process.
 Document: Used to indicate a document or report

SOFTWARE AND TYPES

Computer software (often called just software) is a set of instructions and associated documentation that tells a computer what to do
or how to perform a task or it can mean all the software on a computer, including the applications and the operating system.

What is System Software?

System software sits directly on top of your computer's hardware components (also referred to as its bare metal). It includes the range
of software you would install to your system that enables it to function. This includes the operating system, drivers for your hardware
devices, linkers and debuggers. Systems software can also be used for managing computer resources. Systems software is designed to
be used by the computer system itself, not human users.

Application Software Defined

Unlike systems software, applications software is designed to be used by end-users. Applications software, in essence, sits on top of
system software, as it is unable to run without the operating system and other utilities. Applications software includes things like
database programs, word processors and spreadsheets, e-mail applications, computer games, graphics programs and such. Generally,
people will refer to applications software as software.

NUMBER SYSTEM

When we type some letters or words, the computer translates them in numbers as computers can understand only numbers. A computer can
understand the positional number system where there are only a few symbols called digits and these symbols represent different values
depending on the position they occupy in the number.

Decimal Number System

The number system that we use in our day-to-day life is the decimal number system. Decimal number system has base 10 as it uses 10 digits
from 0 to 9. In decimal number system, the successive positions to the left of the decimal point represent units, tens, hundreds, thousands, and so
on.

Binary Number System

Characteristics of the binary number system are as follows −

 Uses two digits, 0 and 1

 Also called as base 2 number system

 Each position in a binary number represents a 0 power of the base (2). Example 20

 Last position in a binary number represents a x power of the base (2). Example 2x where x represents the last position - 1.

Example
Binary Number: 101012
 Octal Number System
Characteristics of the octal number system are as follows −

 Uses eight digits, 0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7

 Also called as base 8 number system

 Each position in an octal number represents a 0 power of the base (8). Example 80

 Last position in an octal number represents a x power of the base (8). Example 8x where x represents the last position - 1

Example
Octal Number: 125708

Hexadecimal Number System

Characteristics of hexadecimal number system are as follows −

 Uses 10 digits and 6 letters, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, A, B, C, D, E, F

 Letters represent the numbers starting from 10. A = 10. B = 11, C = 12, D = 13, E = 14, F = 15

 Also called as base 16 number system

 Each position in a hexadecimal number represents a 0 power of the base (16). Example, 160

 Last position in a hexadecimal number represents a x power of the base (16). Example 16x where x represents the last position - 1

Example
Hexadecimal Number: 19FDE16

RELATIONAL OPERATORS

There are six relational operators:

 < : less than

 <= : less than or equal to
 > : greater than
 >= : greater than or equal to
 == : equal to
 /= : not equal to

Here are important rules:

 Each of these six relational operators takes two operands. These two operands must both be arithmetic or both be
strings. For arithmetic operands, if they are of different types (i.e., one INTEGER and the other REAL), the
INTEGER operand will be converted to REAL.
 The outcome of a comparison is a LOGICAL value. For example, 5 /= 3 is .TRUE. and 7 + 3 >= 20 is .FALSE.

CHARLES BABBAGE ANALYTICAL ENGINE

A machine first proposed by Charles Babbage in 1837 that is considered the concept for the first general mechanical computer. The
Analytical Engine contained an Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU) and permitted basic programmatic flow control. It was programmed using
punch cards (inspired by the Jacquard Loom.

FOURTH GENERATION COMPUTERS -MICROPROCESSORS (1972 ONWARDS)

1. They use a device called microprocessor instead of ICs
2. They are smaller in size.
 3. They are cheaper and faster.
4. They are very easy to handle.
5. All present day computers come under this category.
6. Microprocessors were introduced as CPU– Complete processors and large section of main memory could be implemented in a
single chip
7. Tens of thousands of transistors can be placed in a single chip (VLSI design implemented)
8. CRT screen, laser & ink jet printers, scanners etc were developed.
9. High performance, lower cost and very compact
10. In 1981 IBM introduced its first computer for the home user, and in 1984 Apple introduced the Macintosh.

PLOTTER

A plotter is a computer hardware device much like a printer that is used for printing vector graphics. Instead of toner, plotters use a
pen, pencil, marker, or another writing tool to draw multiple, continuous lines onto paper rather than a series of dots like a traditional
printer. Though once widely used for computer-aided design, these devices have more or less been phased out by wide-format
printers. Plotters are used to produce a hard copy of schematics and other similar applications.

TRUTH TABLE

A truth table is a breakdown of a logic function by listing all possible values the function can attain. Such a table typically contains
several rows and columns, with the top row representing the logical variables and combinations, in increasing complexity leading up
to the final function.

What is the difference between SIMMs and DIMMs?

DIMM stands for dual inline memory module, and SIMM stands for single inline memory module. The gold or tin pins on the lower
edge of the front and back of a SIMM are connected, providing a single line of communication paths between the module and the
system.

The pins on a DIMM are not connected, providing two lines of communication paths between the module and the system, one in the
front and one in the back.

SIMMs and DIMMs are not interchangeable; they are different sizes and they install into different types of sockets.

NETWORK/LAN

A local area network (LAN) is a group of computers and associated devices that share a common communications line or wireless
link to a server. Typically, a LAN encompasses computers and peripherals connected to a server within a distinct geographic area such
as an office or a commercial establishment.

FLATBED SCANNER

A scanner that provides a flat, glass surface to hold a sheet of paper, book or other object for scanning. The scan head is
moved under the glass. Flatbed scanners often come with sheet feeders for scanning multiple sheets of paper rather than
one at a time. Contrast with "sheet-fed scanner," which accepts only paper, and contrast with handheld scanner and drum
scanner.

Hexadecimal Number System

Characteristics of hexadecimal number system are as follows −

 Uses 10 digits and 6 letters, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, A, B, C, D, E, F

  Letters represent the numbers starting from 10. A = 10. B = 11, C = 12, D = 13, E = 14, F = 15

 Also called as base 16 number system

 Each position in a hexadecimal number represents a 0 power of the base (16). Example, 160

 Last position in a hexadecimal number represents a x power of the base (16). Example 16x where x represents the last position - 1

Example
Hexadecimal Number: 19FDE16

CONTROL UNIT (CU):

The process of input, output, processing and storage is performed under the supervision of a unit called 'Control Unit'. It decides when
to start receiving data, when to stop it, where to store data, etc. It takes care of step-by-step processing of all operations inside the
computer

COMMUTATIVE LAW

Commutative law, in mathematics, either of two laws relating to number operations of addition and multiplication, stated
symbolically: a + b = b + a and ab = ba. From these laws it follows that any finite sum or product is unaltered by reordering its terms
or factors.

FUNCTION OF ASSEMBLER

An assembler is a program that takes basic computer instructions and converts them into a pattern of bits that the computer's
processor can use to perform its basic operations. Some people call these instructions assembler language and others use the term
assembly language.

SOFTWARE AND HARWARE

Computer hardware is any physical device used in or with your machine, whereas software is a collection of code installed onto your
computer's hard drive. For example, the computer monitor you are using to read this text and the mouse you are using to navigate this
web page is computer hardware

MICROCOMPUTERS

Microcomputers are small, low-cost and single-user digital computer. They consist of CPU, input unit, output unit, storage unit and
the software.

IBM PC based on Pentium microprocessor and Apple Macintosh are some examples of microcomputers. Microcomputers include
desktop computers, notebook computers or laptop, tablet computer, handheld computer, smart phones and netbook,

MINICOMPUTERS

Minicomputers are digital computers, generally used in multi-user systems. Minicomputers are mainly used as small or midrange
servers operating business and scientific applications. They have high processing speed and high storage capacity than the
microcomputers. Example Digital Alpha, Sun Ultra.

MAINFRAME COMPUTERS

Mainframe computers are multi-user, multi-programming and high performance computers. They operate at a very high speed, have
very large storage capacity and can handle the workload of many users. Mainframe computers are large and powerful systems
generally used in centralized databases. Computers with large storage capacities and very high speed of processing (compared to mini-
or microcomputers) are known as mainframe computers. Examples: - IBM 370, S/390.
SUPERCOMPUTERS

Supercomputers are the fastest and the most expensive machines. They have high processing speed compared to other computers. The
speed of a supercomputer is generally measured in FLOPS (Floating point Operations per Second). Some of the faster supercomputers
can perform trillions of calculations per second.