Graddol, D. Dick Leith, Joan Swann, Martin Rhys and Julia Gillen (eds.) (2007) Changing English.

Abingdon, UK: Routledge.

Chapter 2: The Origins of English

“The past is a foreign country; they do things differently there.”
― L.P. Hartley

1) Discuss the following questions in pairs or small groups

History & English

1) What are the two kinds of evidence required to study the history of any
language?
2) What problems may arise in connection with evidence?

Old English

1) What languages are found in the British Isles in AD 43-410?

2) When did Old English first appear?
3) Describe the three “strands” of Latin influence on English.
4) What changes were brought about by the Anglo-Saxons’ conversion to
Christianity?
5) What contradictions arise from the accounts by Bede and Gildas?
6) According to David Crystal, why are there so few Celtic loanwords in Old
English?
7) After the Vikings’ invasions, how does prolonged contact with Old Norse affect
Old English? Provide examples.
8) How can linguistic change be accounted for?

Middle English

1) How has the Norman Conquest been viewed so far?

2) What were the two varieties of French influencing English during this period?
3) What values and notions were commonly associated with French at the time?
4) How did French influence English? Provide examples.
5) When did English start being used in higher social domains? How can this be
accounted for?
6) What is Chancery English?

2) Complete the table below

Periods Evidence Influential Domains of Main Features

Languages Use
Internal External

OLD ENGLISH
(450-1100 AC)

MIDDLE
ENGLISH
(1100-1500)

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Graddol, D. Dick Leith, Joan Swann, Martin Rhys and Julia Gillen (eds.) (2007) Changing English.
Abingdon, UK: Routledge.

Chapter 3: Modernity & English as a National Language

1) How is Modernity defined?

2) Describe the main economic, political & social changes surrounding the birth of
English as a national language.

3) What is a standard variety? How do languages become standardized?

4) Describe and summarize the main aspects of the following stages in the
standardization of English: selection, elaboration, codification and
implementation.

5) What difficulties had to be faced before English could become the language of
science?

6) What attitudes towards English (and particularly towards “correct” English)

seem to emerge during this period?

7) Compare the following extracts of Old, Middle and Modern English. How has
English changed?

Key to Pronunciation
þ - pronounced "th" as in thick
ð - pronounced "th" as in the
æ - pronounced as a flat "a" (as in cat)
ȝ - pronounced "y" or "g"

Old English Middle English Early Modern English

and heo cende hyre
frumcennedan sunu. and hine
mid cildclaþum bewand. and
hine on binne alede. forþam
þe hig næfdon rum on
cumena huse;
& she childide hir first
goten sone, & wlappede
hym in cloþis & putte
hym in a cracche, for
þer was not place to
hym in þe comun stable
And she brought foorth her
first borne son, and
wrapped him in swaddling
clothes, and laid him in a
manger, because there was
no roome for them in the
Inne.

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 Graddol, D. Dick Leith, Joan Swann, Martin Rhys and Julia Gillen (eds.) (2007) Changing English. Abingdon, UK: Routledge.
Chaucer’s Canterbury Tales (Middle English version)
With us ther was a Doctour of Phisyk;
In al this world ne was ther noon hym lyk
To speke of phisik and of surgerye;
For he was grounded in astronomye.
He kepte his pacient a ful greet deel
In houres, by his magik natureel.
Wel coude he fortunen the ascendent
Of his images for his pacient.
He knew the cause of everich maladye,
Were it of hoot or cold, or moiste, or drye,
And where engendred, and of what humour;
He was a verrey parfit practisour.
The cause y-knowe, and of his harm the rote,
Anon he yaf the seke man his bote.
Ful redy hadde he his apothecaries,
To sende him drogges and his letuaries,
For ech of hem made other for to winne;
Hir frendschipe nas nat newe to biginne.
Wel knew he th’ olde Esculapius,
And Deiscorides, and eek Rufus,
Old Ypocras, Haly, and Galien;
Serapion, Razis, and Avicen;
Averrois, Damascien, and Constantyn;
Bernard, and Gatesden, and Gilbertyn.
Of his diete nesurable was he,
For it was of no superfluitee,
But of greet norissing and digestible.
His studie was but litel on the bible.
In sangwin and in pers he clad was al,
Lyned with taffata and with sendal;
And yet he was but esy of dispence;
He kepte that he wan in pestilence.
For gold in phisik is a cordial,
Therefore he lovede gold in special.
Chaucer’s Canterbury Tales (translation 1)
With us there was a doctor of physic;
In all this world was none like him to pick
For talk of medicine and surgery;
For he was grounded in astronomy.
He often kept a patient from the pall
By horoscopes and magic natural.
Well could he tell the fortune ascendent
Within the houses of his sick patient.
He knew the cause of every malady,
Were it of hot or cold, of moist or dry,
And where engendered, and of what humour;
He was a very good practitioner.
The cause being known, down to the deepest root,
Anon he gave to the sick man his boot.
Ready he was, with his apothecaries,
To send him drugs and all electuaries;
By mutual aid much gold they’d always won---
Their friendship was a thing not new begun.
Well read was he in Esculapius,
And Deiscorides, and in Rufus,
Hippocrates, and Hali, and Galen
Serapion, Rhazes, and Avicen,
Averrhoës, Gilbert, and Constantine,
Bernard, and Gatisden, and John Damascene.
In diet he was measured as could be,
Including naught of superfluity,
But nourishing and easy. It’s no libel
To say he read but little in the Bible.
In blue and scarlet he went clad, withal,
Lined with a taffeta and with sendal;
And yet he was right chary of expense;
He kept the gold he gained from pestilence.
For gold in physic is a fine cordial,
And therefore loved he gold exceeding all.
Chaucer’s Canterbury Tales (translation 2)
With us there was a doctor of medicine
In all this world there was no one like him,
To speak of medicine and of surgery,
For he was instructed in astronomy.
He took care of his patient very many times
In (astronomically suitable) hours by (use of) his natural science.
He well knew how to calculate the planetary position
Of his astronomical talismans for his patient.
He knew the cause of every malady,
Were it of hot, or cold, or moist, or dry elements,
And where they were engendered, and by what bodily fluid.
He was a truly, perfect practitioner:
The cause known, and the source of his (patient's) harm,
Straightway he gave the sick man his remedy.
He had his apothecaries all ready
To send him drugs and his electuaries,
For each of them made the other to profit –
Their friendship was not recently begun.
He well knew the old Aesculapius,
And Dioscorides, and also Rufus,
Old Hippocrates, Haly, and Galen,
Serapion, Rhazes, and Avicenna,
Averroes, John the Damascan, and Constantine,
Bernard, and Gaddesden, and Gilbertus.
He was moderate in his diet,
For it was of no excess,
But greatly nourishing and digestible.
His study was but little on the Bible.
He was clad all in red and in blue,
Lined with taffeta and with silk.
And yet he was moderate in spending;
He kept what he earned in (times of) plague.
Since in medicine gold is a restorative for the heart,
Therefore he loved gold in particular.