The Difference between Growth and Development

Growth is the progressive increase in the size of a child or parts of a child. Development is progressive
acquisition of various skills (abilities) such as head support, speaking, learning, expressing the feelings
and relating with other people. Growth and development go together but at different rates.

Growth (Quantitative)

1. the process of increasing in physical size.

2. something that has grown or is growing.

Development (Qualitative)

1. the process of developing or being developed.

2. a specified state of growth or advancement.

Theories of Growth and Development

(1) Cognitive Theory by Jean Piaget

Jean Piaget's theory of cognitive development suggests that children move through four different stages
of mental development. His theory focuses not only on understanding how children acquire knowledge,
but also on understanding the nature of intelligence.1 Piaget's stages are:

 Sensorimotor stage: birth to 2 years

 Preoperational stage: ages 2 to 7
 Concrete operational stage: ages 7 to 11
 Formal operational stage: ages 12 and up

Piaget believed that children take an active role in the learning process, acting much like little scientists
as they perform experiments, make observations, and learn about the world. As kids interact with the
world around them, they continually add new knowledge, build upon existing knowledge, and adapt
previously held ideas to accommodate new information.

The Sensorimotor Stage

Ages: Birth to 2 Years

Major Characteristics and Developmental Changes:

 The infant knows the world through their movements and sensations
 Children learn about the world through basic actions such as sucking, grasping, looking, and
listening
 Infants learn that things continue to exist even though they cannot be seen (object permanence)
 They are separate beings from the people and objects around them
  They realize that their actions can cause things to happen in the world around them

During this earliest stage of cognitive development, infants and toddlers acquire knowledge through
sensory experiences and manipulating objects. A child's entire experience at the earliest period of this
stage occurs through basic reflexes, senses, and motor responses.

It is during the sensorimotor stage that children go through a period of dramatic growth and learning. As
kids interact with their environment, they are continually making new discoveries about how the world
works.

The cognitive development that occurs during this period takes place over a relatively short period of
time and involves a great deal of growth. Children not only learn how to perform physical actions such
as crawling and walking; they also learn a great deal about language from the people with whom they
interact. Piaget also broke this stage down into a number of different substages. It is during the final
part of the sensorimotor stage that early representational thought emerges.

Piaget believed that developing object permanence or object constancy, the understanding that objects
continue to exist even when they cannot be seen, was an important element at this point of
development.

The Preoperational Stage

Ages: 2 to 7 Years

Major Characteristics and Developmental Changes:

 Children begin to think symbolically and learn to use words and pictures to represent objects.
 Children at this stage tend to be egocentric and struggle to see things from the perspective of
others.
 While they are getting better with language and thinking, they still tend to think about things in
very concrete terms.

The foundations of language development may have been laid during the previous stage, but it is the
emergence of language that is one of the major hallmarks of the preoperational stage of development.3

Children become much more skilled at pretend play during this stage of development, yet continue to
think very concretely about the world around them.

The Concrete Operational Stage

Ages: 7 to 11 Years
Major Characteristics and Developmental Changes

 During this stage, children begin to thinking logically about concrete events
 They begin to understand the concept of conservation; that the amount of liquid in a short, wide
cup is equal to that in a tall, skinny glass, for example
 Their thinking becomes more logical and organized, but still very concrete
 Children begin using inductive logic, or reasoning from specific information to a general principle

While children are still very concrete and literal in their thinking at this point in development, they
become much more adept at using logic.2 The egocentrism of the previous stage begins to disappear as
kids become better at thinking about how other people might view a situation.

While thinking becomes much more logical during the concrete operational state, it can also be very
rigid. Kids at this point in development tend to struggle with abstract and hypothetical concepts.

The Formal Operational Stage

Ages: 12 and Up

Major Characteristics and Developmental Changes:

 At this stage, the adolescent or young adult begins to think abstractly and reason about
hypothetical problems
 Abstract thought emerges
 Teens begin to think more about moral, philosophical, ethical, social, and political issues that
require theoretical and abstract reasoning
 Begin to use deductive logic, or reasoning from a general principle to specific information

The final stage of Piaget's theory involves an increase in logic, the ability to use deductive reasoning, and
an understanding of abstract ideas.3 At this point, people become capable of seeing multiple potential
solutions to problems and think more scientifically about the world around them.

The ability to thinking about abstract ideas and situations is the key hallmark of the formal operational
stage of cognitive development. The ability to systematically plan for the future and reason about
hypothetical situations are also critical abilities that emerge during this stage.

(2) Erik Erikson's Stages of Psychosocial Development

Erik Erikson was an ego psychologist who developed one of the most popular and influential theories of
development. While his theory was impacted by psychoanalyst Sigmund Freud's work, Erikson's theory
centered on psychosocial development rather than psychosexual development. The stages that make up
his theory are as follows:
  Stage 1 - Trust vs. Mistrust
 Stage 2 - Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt
 Stage 3 - Initiative vs. Guilt
 Stage 4 - Industry vs. Inferiority
 Stage 5 - Identity vs. Confusion
 Stage 6 - Intimacy vs. Isolation
 Stage 7 - Generativity vs. Stagnation
 Stage 8 - Integrity vs. Despair

Psychosocial Stage 1 - Trust vs. Mistrust

The first stage of Erikson's theory of psychosocial development occurs between birth and one year of
age and is the most fundamental stage in life.

Because an infant is utterly dependent, developing trust is based on the dependability and quality of the
child's caregivers. At this point in development, the child is utterly dependent upon adult caregivers for
everything that he or she needs to survive including food, love, warmth, safety, and nurturing.
Everything. If a caregiver fails to provide adequate care and love, the child will come to feel that he or
she cannot trust or depend upon the adults in his or her life.

If a child successfully develops trust, he or she will feel safe and secure in the world.2 Caregivers who are
inconsistent, emotionally unavailable, or rejecting contribute to feelings of mistrust in the children
under their care. Failure to develop trust will result in fear and a belief that the world is inconsistent and
unpredictable.

Psychosocial Stage 2 - Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt

The second stage of Erikson's theory of psychosocial development takes place during early childhood
and is focused on children developing a greater sense of personal control.

At this point in development, children are just starting to gain a little independence. They are starting to
perform basic actions on their own and making simple decisions about what they prefer. By allowing
kids to make choices and gain control, parents and caregivers can help children develop a sense of
autonomy.2

Like Freud, Erikson believed that toilet training was a vital part of this process. However, Erikson's
reasoning was quite different than that of Freud's. Erikson believed that learning to control one's bodily
functions leads to a feeling of control and a sense of independence.

Other important events include gaining more control over food choices, toy preferences, and clothing
selection.

Psychosocial Stage 3 - Initiative vs. Guilt

The third stage of psychosocial development takes place during the preschool years.
At this point in psychosocial development, children begin to assert their power and control over the
world through directing play and other social interactions.

Children who are successful at this stage feel capable and able to lead others. Those who fail to acquire
these skills are left with a sense of guilt, self-doubt, and lack of initiative.

Psychosocial Stage 4 - Industry vs. Inferiority

The fourth psychosocial stage takes place during the early school years from approximately age 5 to 11.2

Through social interactions, children begin to develop a sense of pride in their accomplishments and
abilities. Children who are encouraged and commended by parents and teachers develop a feeling of
competence and belief in their skills. Those who receive little or no encouragement from parents,
teachers, or peers will doubt their abilities to be successful.

Psychosocial Stage 5 - Identity vs. Confusion

The fifth psychosocial stage takes place during the often turbulent teenage years. This stage plays an
essential role in developing a sense of personal identity which will continue to influence behavior and
development for the rest of a person's life.

During adolescence, children explore their independence and develop a sense of self.2 Those who
receive proper encouragement and reinforcement through personal exploration will emerge from this
stage with a strong sense of self and feelings of independence and control. Those who remain unsure of
their beliefs and desires will feel insecure and confused about themselves and the future.

When psychologists talk about identity, they are referring to all of the beliefs, ideals, and values that
help shape and guide a person's behavior. Completing this stage successfully leads to fidelity, which
Erikson described as an ability to live by society's standards and expectations.

While Erikson believed that each stage of psychosocial development was important, he placed a
particular emphasis on the development of ego identity. Ego identity is the conscious sense of self that
we develop through social interaction and becomes a central focus during the identity versus confusion
stage of psychosocial development.

According to Erikson, our ego identity constantly changes due to new experiences and information we
acquire in our daily interactions with others. As we have new experiences, we also take on challenges
that can help or hinder the development of identity.

Psychosocial Stage 6 - Intimacy vs. Isolation

This stage covers the period of early adulthood when people are exploring personal relationships.2

Erikson believed it was vital that people develop close, committed relationships with other people.
Those who are successful at this step will form relationships that are enduring and secure.
Remember that each step builds on skills learned in previous steps. Erikson believed that a strong sense
of personal identity was important for developing intimate relationships. Studies have demonstrated
that those with a poor sense of self do tend to have less committed relationships and are more likely to
suffer emotional isolation, loneliness, and depression.

Psychosocial Stage 7 - Generativity vs. Stagnation

During adulthood, we continue to build our lives, focusing on our career and family.

Those who are successful during this phase will feel that they are contributing to the world by being
active in their home and community.2 Those who fail to attain this skill will feel unproductive and
uninvolved in the world.

Psychosocial Stage 8 - Integrity vs. Despair

The final psychosocial stage occurs during old age and is focused on reflecting back on life.2

At this point in development, people look back on the events of their lives and determine if they are
happy with the life that they lived or if they regret the things they did or didn't do.

Those who are unsuccessful during this stage will feel that their life has been wasted and will experience
many regrets. The individual will be left with feelings of bitterness and despair.

Psychosocial Stages Summary Chart

Stage 1: Infancy (birth to 18 months)

 Basic Conflict: Trust vs. Mistrust

 Important Events: Feeding
 Outcome: During the first stage of psychosocial development, children develop a sense of trust
when caregivers provide reliability, care, and affection. A lack of this will lead to mistrust.

Stage 2: Early Childhood (2 to 3 years)

 Basic Conflict: Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt

 Important Events: Toilet Training
 Outcome: Children need to develop a sense of personal control over physical skills and a sense
of independence. Potty training plays an important role in helping children develop this sense of
autonomy. Children who struggle and who are shamed for their accidents may be left without a
sense of personal control. Success during this stage of psychosocial development leads to
feelings of autonomy, failure results in feelings of shame and doubt.

Stage 3: Preschool (3 to 5 years)

 Basic Conflict: Initiative vs. Guilt

 Important Events: Exploration
  Outcome: Children need to begin asserting control and power over the environment. Success in
this stage leads to a sense of purpose. Children who try to exert too much power experience
disapproval, resulting in a sense of guilt.

Stage: School Age (6 to 11 years)

 Basic Conflict: Industry vs. Inferiority

 Important Events: School
 Outcome: Children need to cope with new social and academic demands. Success leads to a
sense of competence, while failure results in feelings of inferiority.

Stage: Adolescence (12 to 18 years)

 Basic Conflict: Identity vs. Role Confusion

 Important Events: Social Relationships
 Outcome: Teens need to develop a sense of self and personal identity. Success leads to an
ability to stay true to yourself, while failure leads to role confusion and a weak sense of self.

Stage: Young Adulthood (19 to 40 years)

 Basic Conflict: Intimacy vs. Isolation

 Important Events: Relationships
 Outcome: Young adults need to form intimate, loving relationships with other people. Success
leads to strong relationships, while failure results in loneliness and isolation.

Stage: Middle Adulthood (40 to 65 years)

 Basic Conflict: Generativity vs. Stagnation

 Important Events: Work and Parenthood
 Outcome: Adults need to create or nurture things that will outlast them, often by having
children or creating a positive change that benefits other people. Success leads to feelings of
usefulness and accomplishment, while failure results in shallow involvement in the world.

Stage: Maturity (65 to death)

 Basic Conflict: Ego Integrity vs. Despair

 Important Events: Reflection on life
 Outcome: Erikson's theory differed from many others because it addressed development
throughout the entire lifespan, including old age. Older adults need to look back on life and feel
a sense of fulfillment. Success at this stage leads to feelings of wisdom, while failure results in
regret, bitterness, and despair. At this stage, people reflect back on the events of their lives and
take stock. Those who look back on a life they feel was well-lived will feel satisfied and ready to
face the end of their lives with a sense of peace. Those who look back and only feel regret will
instead feel fearful that their lives will end without accomplishing the things they feel they
should have.
 (3) Psychosexual Theory by Sigmund Freud

Freud proposed that psychological development in childhood takes place during five
psychosexual stages: oral, anal, phallic, latency, and genital.
These are called psychosexual stages because each stage represents the fixation of
libido (roughly translated as sexual drives or instincts) on a different area of the body. As
a person grows physically certain areas of their body become important as sources of
potential frustration (erogenous zones), pleasure or both.
Freud (1905) believed that life was built round tension and pleasure. Freud also believed
that all tension was due to the build-up of libido (sexual energy) and that all pleasure
came from its discharge.
In describing human personality development as psychosexual Freud meant to convey
that what develops is the way in which sexual energy of the id accumulates and is
discharged as we mature biologically. (NB Freud used the term 'sexual' in a very general
way to mean all pleasurable actions and thoughts).
Freud stressed that the first five years of life are crucial to the formation of adult
personality. The id must be controlled in order to satisfy social demands; this sets up a
conflict between frustrated wishes and social norms.
The ego and superego develop in order to exercise this control and direct the need for
gratification into socially acceptable channels. Gratification centers in different areas of
the body at different stages of growth, making the conflict at each stage psychosexual.
Oral Stage (Birth to 1 year)
In the first stage of personality development, the libido is centered in a baby's mouth. It gets much
satisfaction from putting all sorts of things in its mouth to satisfy the libido, and thus its id
demands. Which at this stage in life are oral, or mouth orientated, such as sucking, biting, and
breastfeeding.
Freud said oral stimulation could lead to an oral fixation in later life. We see oral personalities all around
us such as smokers, nail-biters, finger-chewers, and thumb suckers. Oral personalities engage in such
oral behaviors, particularly when under stress.

Anal Stage (1 to 3 years)

The libido now becomes focused on the anus, and the child derives great pleasure from defecating. The
child is now fully aware that they are a person in their own right and that their wishes can bring them
into conflict with the demands of the outside world (i.e., their ego has developed).
Freud believed that this type of conflict tends to come to a head in potty training, in which adults
impose restrictions on when and where the child can defecate. The nature of this first conflict with
authority can determine the child's future relationship with all forms of authority.
Early or harsh potty training can lead to the child becoming an anal-retentive personality who hates
mess, is obsessively tidy, punctual and respectful of authority. They can be stubborn and tight-fisted
with their cash and possessions.
This is all related to pleasure got from holding on to their faeces when toddlers, and their mum's then
insisting that they get rid of it by placing them on the potty until they perform!
Not as daft as it sounds. The anal expulsive, on the other hand, underwent a liberal toilet-training
regime during the anal stage.
In adulthood, the anal expulsive is the person who wants to share things with you. They like giving
things away. In essence, they are 'sharing their s**t'!' An anal-expulsive personality is also messy,
disorganized and rebellious.
Phallic Stage (3 to 6 years)

Sensitivity now becomes concentrated in the genitals and masturbation (in both sexes) becomes a new
source of pleasure.
The child becomes aware of anatomical sex differences, which sets in motion the conflict between erotic
attraction, resentment, rivalry, jealousy and fear which Freud called the Oedipus complex (in boys) and
the Electra complex (in girls).
This is resolved through the process of identification, which involves the child adopting the
characteristics of the same sex parent.
Oedipus Complex

The most important aspect of the phallic stage is the Oedipus complex. This is one of Freud's most controversial ideas and one that many people
reject outright.

The name of the Oedipus complex derives from the Greek myth where Oedipus, a young man, kills his father and marries his mother. Upon
discovering this, he pokes his eyes out and becomes blind. This Oedipal is the generic (i.e., general) term for both Oedipus and Electra
complexes.

In the young boy, the Oedipus complex or more correctly, conflict, arises because the boy develops sexual (pleasurable) desires for his
mother. He wants to possess his mother exclusively and get rid of his father to enable him to do so.

Irrationally, the boy thinks that if his father were to find out about all this, his father would take away what he loves the most. During the
phallic stage what the boy loves most is his penis. Hence the boy develops castration anxiety.

The little boy then sets out to resolve this problem by imitating, copying and joining in masculine dad-type behaviors. This is
called identification, and is how the three-to-five year old boy resolves his Oedipus complex.

Identification means internally adopting the values, attitudes, and behaviors of another person. The consequence of this is that the boy takes on
the male gender role, and adopts an ego ideal and values that become the superego.

Freud (1909) offered the Little Hans case study as evidence of the Oedipus complex.

Electra Complex

For girls, the Oedipus or Electra complex is less than satisfactory. Briefly, the girl desires the father, but realizes that she does not have a
penis. This leads to the development of penis envy and the wish to be a boy.

The girl resolves this by repressing her desire for her father and substituting the wish for a penis with the wish for a baby. The girl blames her
mother for her 'castrated state,' and this creates great tension.

The girl then represses her feelings (to remove the tension) and identifies with the mother to take on the female gender role.

Latency Stage (6 years to puberty)

No further psychosexual development takes place during this stage (latent means hidden). The libido is
dormant.
Freud thought that most sexual impulses are repressed during the latent stage, and sexual energy can
be sublimated (re: defense mechanisms) towards school work, hobbies, and friendships.
Much of the child's energy is channeled into developing new skills and acquiring new knowledge, and
play becomes largely confined to other children of the same gender.
Genital Stage (puberty to adult)
This is the last stage of Freud's psychosexual theory of personality development and begins in
puberty. It is a time of adolescent sexual experimentation, the successful resolution of which is settling
down in a loving one-to-one relationship with another person in our 20's.
Sexual instinct is directed to heterosexual pleasure, rather than self-pleasure like during the phallic
stage.
For Freud, the proper outlet of the sexual instinct in adults was through heterosexual
intercourse. Fixation and conflict may prevent this with the consequence that sexual perversions may
develop.
For example, fixation at the oral stage may result in a person gaining sexual pleasure primarily from
kissing and oral sex, rather than sexual intercourse.

(4) Theory of Moral Development by Lawrence Kohlberg

Kohlberg’s theory of moral development states that we progress through three levels of moral thinking
that build on our cognitive development.

KEY POINTS

o Lawrence Kohlberg expanded on the earlier work of cognitive theorist Jean Piaget to
explain the moral development of children, which he believed follows a series of stages.
o Kohlberg defined three levels of moral development: preconventional, conventional, and
postconventional. Each level has two distinct stages.
o During the preconventional level, a child’s sense of morality is externally controlled.
Children accept and believe the rules of authority figures, such as parents and teachers,
and they judge an action based on its consequences.
o During the conventional level, an individual’s sense of morality is tied to personal and
societal relationships. Children continue to accept the rules of authority figures, but this is
now because they believe that this is necessary to ensure positive relationships and
societal order.
o During the postconventional level, a person’s sense of morality is defined in terms
of more abstract principles and values. People now believe that some laws are unjust and
should be changed or eliminated.
o Kohlberg’s theory has been criticized for its cultural and gendered bias toward white,
upper-class men and boys. It also fails to account for inconsistencies within moral
judgments.
Kohlberg’s stages of moral development

Kohlberg identified three levels of moral reasoning: pre-conventional, conventional, and post-
conventional. Each level is associated with increasingly complex stages of moral development.

Level 1: Preconventional

Throughout the preconventional level, a child’s sense of morality is externally controlled. Children
accept and believe the rules of authority figures, such as parents and teachers. A child with pre-
conventional morality has not yet adopted or internalized society’s conventions regarding what is right
or wrong, but instead focuses largely on external consequences that certain actions may bring.

Stage 1: Obedience-and-Punishment Orientation

Stage 1 focuses on the child’s desire to obey rules and avoid being punished. For example, an action is
perceived as morally wrong because the perpetrator is punished; the worse the punishment for the act
is, the more “bad” the act is perceived to be.

Stage 2: Instrumental Orientation

Stage 2 expresses the “what’s in it for me?” position, in which right behavior is defined by whatever the
individual believes to be in their best interest. Stage two reasoning shows a limited interest in the needs
of others, only to the point where it might further the individual’s own interests. As a result, concern for
others is not based on loyalty or intrinsic respect, but rather a “you scratch my back, and I’ll scratch
yours” mentality. An example would be when a child is asked by his parents to do a chore. The child asks
“what’s in it for me?” and the parents offer the child an incentive by giving him an allowance.

Level 2: Conventional

Throughout the conventional level, a child’s sense of morality is tied to personal and societal
relationships. Children continue to accept the rules of authority figures, but this is now due to their
belief that this is necessary to ensure positive relationships and societal order. Adherence to rules and
conventions is somewhat rigid during these stages, and a rule’s appropriateness or fairness is seldom
questioned.

Stage 3: Good Boy, Nice Girl Orientation

In stage 3, children want the approval of others and act in ways to avoid disapproval. Emphasis is placed
on good behavior and people being “nice” to others.
Stage 4: Law-and-Order Orientation

In stage 4, the child blindly accepts rules and convention because of their importance in maintaining a
functioning society. Rules are seen as being the same for everyone, and obeying rules by doing what one
is “supposed” to do is seen as valuable and important. Moral reasoning in stage four is beyond the need
for individual approval exhibited in stage three. If one person violates a law, perhaps everyone would—
thus there is an obligation and a duty to uphold laws and rules. Most active members of society remain
at stage four, where morality is still predominantly dictated by an outside force.

Level 3: Postconventional

Throughout the postconventional level, a person’s sense of morality is defined in terms of more abstract
principles and values. People now believe that some laws are unjust and should be changed or
eliminated. This level is marked by a growing realization that individuals are separate entities from
society and that individuals may disobey rules inconsistent with their own principles. Post-conventional
moralists live by their own ethical principles—principles that typically include such basic human rights as
life, liberty, and justice—and view rules as useful but changeable mechanisms, rather than absolute
dictates that must be obeyed without question. Because post-conventional individuals elevate their own
moral evaluation of a situation over social conventions, their behavior, especially at stage six, can
sometimes be confused with that of those at the pre-conventional level. Some theorists have speculated
that many people may never reach this level of abstract moral reasoning.

Stage 5: Social-Contract Orientation

In stage 5, the world is viewed as holding different opinions, rights, and values. Such perspectives should
be mutually respected as unique to each person or community. Laws are regarded as social contracts
rather than rigid edicts. Those that do not promote the general welfare should be changed when
necessary to meet the greatest good for the greatest number of people. This is achieved through
majority decision and inevitable compromise. Democratic government is theoretically based on stage
five reasoning.

Stage 6: Universal-Ethical-Principal Orientation

In stage 6, moral reasoning is based on abstract reasoning using universal ethical principles. Generally,
the chosen principles are abstract rather than concrete and focus on ideas such as equality, dignity, or
respect. Laws are valid only insofar as they are grounded in justice, and a commitment to justice carries
with it an obligation to disobey unjust laws. People choose the ethical principles they want to follow,
and if they violate those principles, they feel guilty. In this way, the individual acts because it is morally
right to do so (and not because he or she wants to avoid punishment), it is in their best interest, it is
expected, it is legal, or it is previously agreed upon. Although Kohlberg insisted that stage six exists, he
found it difficult to identify individuals who consistently operated at that level.
 (5) Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Systems Theory

The Bronfenbrenner Ecological Model: Microsystem

The Bronfenbrenner theory suggests that the microsystem is the smallest and most immediate
environment in which children live. As such, the microsystem comprises the daily home, school or
daycare, peer group and community environment of the children.

Interactions within the microsystem typically involve personal relationships with family members,
classmates, teachers and caregivers. How these groups or individuals interact with the children will
affect how they grow.
Similarly, how children react to people in their microsystem will also influence how they treat the
children in return. More nurturing and more supportive interactions and relationships will
understandably foster they children’s improved development.

One of the most significant findings that Urie Bronfenbrenner unearthed in his study of ecological
systems is that it is possible for siblings who find themselves in the same ecological system to
experience very different environments.

Therefore, given two siblings experiencing the same microsystem, it is not impossible for the
development of them to progress in different manners. Each child’s particular personality traits, such as
temperament, which is influenced by unique genetic and biological factors, ultimately have a hand in
how he/she is treated by others.
The Bronfenbrenner Ecological Model: Mesosystem

The mesosystem encompasses the interaction of the different microsystems which children find
themselves in. It is, in essence, a system of microsystems and as such, involves linkages between home
and school, between peer group and family, and between family and community.

According to Bronfenbrenner’s theory, if a child’s parents are actively involved in the friendships of their
child, for example they invite their child’s friends over to their house from time to time and spend time
with them, then the child’s development is affected positively through harmony and like-mindedness.

However, if the child’s parents dislike their child’s peers and openly criticize them, then the child
experiences disequilibrium and conflicting emotions, which will likely lead to negative development.

The Bronfenbrenner Ecological Model: Exosystem

The exosystem pertains to the linkages that may exist between two or more settings, one of which may
not contain the developing children but affect them indirectly nonetheless.

Based on the findings of Bronfenbrenner, people and places that children may not directly interact with
may still have an impact on their lives. Such places and people may include the parents’ workplaces,
extended family members, and the neighborhood the children live in.

For example, a father who is continually passed up for promotion by an indifferent boss at the
workplace may take it out on his children and mistreat them at home.

The Bronfenbrenner Ecological Model: Macrosystem

The macrosystem is the largest and most distant collection of people and places to the children that still
have significant influences on them. This ecological system is composed of the children’s cultural
patterns and values, specifically their dominant beliefs and ideas, as well as political and economic
systems.

For example, children in war-torn areas will experience a different kind of development than children in
peaceful environments.

The Bronfenbrenner Ecological Model: Chronosystem

The Bronfenbrenner theory suggests that the chronosystem adds the useful dimension of time, which
demonstrates the influence of both change and constancy in the children’s environments. The
chronosystem may include a change in family structure, address, parents’ employment status, as well as
immense society changes such as economic cycles and wars.

By studying the various ecological systems, Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Systems Theory is able to
demonstrate the diversity of interrelated influences on children’s development. Awareness of the
contexts that children are in can sensitize us to variations in the way children may act in different
settings.
For example, a child who frequently bullies smaller children at school may portray the role of a terrified
victim at home. Due to these variations, adults who are concerned with the care of a particular child
should pay close attention to his/her behavior in different settings, as well as to the quality and type of
connections that exist between these settings.

(6) Socio Cultural Threory by Vygotsky

(see attached)

(7) Social Learning Theory by Albert Bandura

In social learning theory, Albert Bandura (1977) agrees with the behaviorist learning theories of classical
conditioning and operant conditioning. However, he adds two important ideas:

1. Mediating processes occur between stimuli & responses.

2. Behavior is learned from the environment through the process of observational learning.

Individuals that are observed are called models. In society, children are surrounded by many influential
models, such as parents within the family, characters on children’s TV, friends within their peer group
and teachers at school. These models provide examples of behavior to observe and imitate, e.g.,
masculine and feminine, pro and anti-social, etc.
Children pay attention to some of these people (models) and encodetheir behavior. At a later time they
may imitate (i.e., copy) the behavior they have observed.
They may do this regardless of whether the behavior is ‘gender appropriate’ or not, but there are a
number of processes that make it more likely that a child will reproduce the behavior that its society
deems appropriate for its gender.
First, the child is more likely to attend to and imitate those people it perceives as similar to itself.
Consequently, it is more likely to imitate behavior modeled by people of the same gender.
Second, the people around the child will respond to the behavior it imitates with either reinforcement
or punishment. If a child imitates a model’s behavior and the consequences are rewarding, the child is
likely to continue performing the behavior.
If a parent sees a little girl consoling her teddy bear and says “what a kind girl you are,” this is rewarding
for the child and makes it more likely that she will repeat the behavior. Her behavior has been
reinforced (i.e., strengthened).
Reinforcement can be external or internal and can be positive or negative. If a child wants approval
from parents or peers, this approval is an external reinforcement, but feeling happy about being
approved of is an internal reinforcement. A child will behave in a way which it believes will earn
approval because it desires approval.
Positive (or negative) reinforcement will have little impact if the reinforcement offered externally does
not match with an individual's needs. Reinforcement can be positive or negative, but the important
factor is that it will usually lead to a change in a person's behavior.
hird, the child will also take into account of what happens to other people when deciding whether or not
to copy someone’s actions. A person learns by observing the consequences of another person’s (i.e.,
models) behavior, e.g., a younger sister observing an older sister being rewarded for a particular
behavior is more likely to repeat that behavior herself. This is known as vicarious reinforcement.

This relates to an attachment to specific models that possess qualities seen as rewarding. Children will
have a number of models with whom they identify. These may be people in their immediate world, such
as parents or older siblings, or could be fantasy characters or people in the media. The motivation to
identify with a particular model is that they have a quality which the individual would like to possess.
Identification occurs with another person (the model) and involves taking on (or adopting) observed
behaviors, values, beliefs and attitudes of the person with whom you are identifying.
The term identification as used by Social Learning Theory is similar to the Freudian term related to the
Oedipus complex. For example, they both involve internalizing or adopting another person’s
behavior. However, during the Oedipus complex, the child can only identify with the same sex parent,
whereas with Social Learning Theory the person (child or adult) can potentially identify with any other
person.
Identification is different to imitation as it may involve a number of behaviors being adopted, whereas
imitation usually involves copying a single behavior.

Mediational Processes
SLT is often described as the ‘bridge’ between traditional learning theory (i.e., behaviorism) and the
cognitive approach. This is because it focuses on how mental (cognitive) factors are involved in learning.
Unlike Skinner, Bandura (1977) believes that humans are active information processors and think about
the relationship between their behavior and its consequences.
Observational learning could not occur unless cognitive processes were at work. These mental factors
mediate (i.e., intervene) in the learning process to determine whether a new response is acquired.
Therefore, individuals do not automatically observe the behavior of a model and imitate it. There is
some thought prior to imitation, and this consideration is called mediational processes. This occurs
between observing the behavior (stimulus) and imitating it or not (response).
There are four mediational processes proposed by Bandura:
1. Attention: The extent to which we are exposed/notice the behavior. For a behavior to be
imitated, it has to grab our attention. We observe many behaviors on a daily basis, and many of
these are not noteworthy. Attention is therefore extremely important in whether a behavior
influences others imitating it.
2. Retention: How well the behavior is remembered. The behavior may be noticed but is it not
always remembered which obviously prevents imitation. It is important therefore that a
memory of the behavior is formed to be performed later by the observer.
Much of social learning is not immediate, so this process is especially vital in those cases. Even if
the behavior is reproduced shortly after seeing it, there needs to be a memory to refer to.
3. Reproduction: This is the ability to perform the behavior that the model has just demonstrated.
We see much behavior on a daily basis that we would like to be able to imitate but that this not
 always possible. We are limited by our physical ability and for that reason, even if we wish to
reproduce the behavior, we cannot.
This influences our decisions whether to try and imitate it or not. Imagine the scenario of a 90-
year-old-lady who struggles to walk watching Dancing on Ice. She may appreciate that the skill is
a desirable one, but she will not attempt to imitate it because she physically cannot do it.
4. Motivation: The will to perform the behavior. The rewards and punishment that follow a
behavior will be considered by the observer. If the perceived rewards outweigh the perceived
costs (if there are any), then the behavior will be more likely to be imitated by the observer. If
the vicarious reinforcement is not seen to be important enough to the observer, then they will
not imitate the behavior.