OBJECTIVES AND GUIDE CARD

Quantities of Rotational Kinematics

Angular Position, Theta

The angle of rotation is a measurement of the amount (the angle) that a figure is rotated
about a fixed point— often the center of a circle.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

Assess the relationship between radians the the revolution of a CD

KEY TAKEAWAYS

Key Points

 The arc length Δs is the distance traveled along a circular path. r is the radius of curvature
of the circular path.
 The rotation angle is the amount of rotation and is analogous to linear distance. We define
the rotation angle ΔθΔθ to be the ratio of the arc length to the radius of
curvature: ΔθΔθ = Δs/r.
 For one complete revolution the rotation angle is 2π.

Key Terms

 Angular position: The angle in radians (degrees, revolutions) through which a point or
line has been rotated in a specified sense about a specified axis.

When objects rotate about some axis—for example, when the CD (compact disc)
rotates about its center—each point in the object follows a circular arc. Consider a line
from the center of the CD to its edge. Each pit used to record sound along this line
moves through the same angle in the same amount of time. The rotation angle is the
amount of rotation, and is analogous to linear distance. We define the rotation
angleΔθΔθ to be the ratio of the arc length to the radius of curvature:

Δθ=Δs/rΔθ=Δs/r (illustrated in ).
Rotation Angle: All points on a CD travel in circular arcs. The pits along a line from the center to the edge all
move through the same angle Δ in a time Δt.

In mathematics, the angle of rotation (or angular position ) is a measurement of the

amount (i.e., the angle) that a figure is rotated about a fixed point (often the center of a
circle, as shown in ).
 8

Angle θ and Arc Length s: The radius of a circle is rotated through an angle Δ. The arc length Δs is described
on the circumference.

The arc length Δs is the distance traveled along a circular path. r is the radius of
curvature of the circular path. We know that for one complete revolution, the arc length
is the circumference of a circle of radius r. The circumference of a circle is 2πr. Thus, for
one complete revolution the rotation angle is:

Δθ=(2πr)/r=2πΔθ=(2πr)/r=2π.

This result is the basis for defining the units used to measure rotation angles to be
radians (rad), defined so that:

2π rad = 1 revolution.

If ΔθΔθ = 2π rad, then the CD has made one complete revolution, and every point on
the CD is back at its original position. Because there are 360º in a circle or one
revolution, the relationship between radians and degrees is thus 2π rad=360º, so that:

1rad = 360º/2π = 57.3º.

Angular Velocity, Omega

Angular velocity ω is the rate of change of an angle, mathematically defined as ω

= ΔθΔθ/Δt/Δt.
 LEARNING OBJECTIVES

Examine how fast an object is rotating based on angular velocity

KEY TAKEAWAYS

Key Points

 The greater the rotation angle in a given amount of time, the greater the angular velocity.
 Angular velocity ω is analogous to linear velocity v.
 We can write the relationship between linear velocity and angular velocity in two different
ways: v=rω or ω=v/r.

Key Terms

 angular velocity: A vector quantity describing an object in circular motion; its magnitude
is equal to the speed of the particle and the direction is perpendicular to the plane of its
circular motion.

To examine how fast an object is rotating, we define angular velocity ω as the rate of
change of an angle. In symbols, this is

ω=Δθ/Δtω=Δθ/Δt,

where an angular rotation Δ takes place in a time Δt. The greater the rotation angle in a
given amount of time, the greater the angular velocity. The units for angular velocity are
radians per second (rad/s).

Angular velocity ω is analogous to linear velocity v. To find the precise relationship

between angular and linear velocity, we again consider a pit on the rotating CD. This pit
moves an arc length Δs in a time Δt, and so it has a linear velocity v = Δs/Δt.

From Δθ=(Δs)/rΔθ=(Δs)/r we see that Δs=r⋅ ΔθΔs=r⋅Δθ. Substituting this into the
expression for v gives v=(r⋅ Δθ)/(Δt)=r(Δθ/Δt)=rωv=(r⋅Δθ)/(Δt)=r(Δθ/Δt)=rω.

We can write this relationship in two different ways: v=rω or ω=v/r.

The first relationship states that the linear velocity v is proportional to the distance from
the center of rotation, thus it is largest for a point on the rim (largest r), as you might
expect. We can also call this linear speed v of a point on the rim the tangential speed.
The second relationship can be illustrated by considering the tire of a moving car, as
shown in the picture below. Note that the speed of the point at the center of the tire is
the same as the speed v of the car. The faster the car moves, the faster the tire spins—
large v means a large ω, because v=rω. Similarly, a larger-radius tire rotating at the
same angular velocity (ω) will produce a greater linear speed (v) for the car.

Angular Velocity: A car moving at a velocity v to the right has a tire rotating with an angular velocity ω. The
speed of the tread of the tire relative to the axle is v, the same as if the car were jacked up. Thus the car moves
forward at linear velocity v=rω, where r is the tire radius. A larger angular velocity for the tire means a greater
velocity for the car.

Angular Acceleration, Alpha

Angular acceleration is the rate of change of angular velocity, expressed mathematically

as α=Δω/Δtα=Δω/Δt.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

Explain the relationship between angular acceleration and angular velocity

 KEY TAKEAWAYS

Key Points

 The faster the change in angular velocity occurs, the greater the angular acceleration.
 In circular motion, linear acceleration is tangent to the circle at the point of interest, and is
called tangential acceleration.
 In circular motion, centripetal acceleration refers to changes in the direction of the velocity
but not its magnitude. An object undergoing circular motion experiences centripetal
acceleration.

Key Terms

 angular acceleration: The rate of change of angular velocity, often represented by α.

 tangential acceleration: The acceleration in a direction tangent to the circle at the point
of interest in circular motion.

Angular acceleration is the rate of change of angular velocity. In SI units, it is measured

in radians per second squared (rad/s2), and is usually denoted by the Greek letter alpha
(αα).

Consider the following situations in which angular velocity is not constant: when a skater
pulls in her arms, when a child starts up a merry-go-round from rest, or when a
computer’s hard disk slows to a halt when switched off. In all these cases, there is an
angular acceleration in which ωω changes. The faster the change occurs, the greater
the angular acceleration. Angular acceleration is defined as the rate of change of
angular velocity. In equation form, angular acceleration is expressed as follows:

α=Δω/Δtα=Δω/Δt

where ΔωΔω is the change in angular velocity and ΔtΔt is the change in time. The units
of angular acceleration are (rad/s)/s, or rad/s2. If ωω increases, then αα is positive.
If ωωdecreases, then αα is negative.

It is useful to know how linear and angular acceleration are related. In circular motion,
there is acceleration that is tangent to the circle at the point of interest (as seen in the
diagram below). This acceleration is called tangential acceleration, at.
Tangential acceleration: In circular motion, acceleration can occur as the magnitude of the velocity changes:
a is tangent to the motion. This acceleration is called tangential acceleration.

Tangential acceleration refers to changes in the magnitude of velocity but not its
direction. In circular motion, centripetal acceleration, ac, refers to changes in the
direction of the velocity but not its magnitude. An object undergoing circular motion
experiences centripetal acceleration (as seen in the diagram below.) Thus, a t and ac are
perpendicular and independent of one another. Tangential acceleration a t is directly
related to the angular acceleration and is linked to an increase or decrease in the
velocity (but not its direction).
Centripetal Acceleration: Centripetal acceleration occurs as the direction of velocity changes; it is
perpendicular to the circular motion. Centripetal and tangential acceleration are thus perpendicular to each
other.

Moment of Inertia

Moment of inertia is the name given to rotational inertia, the rotational analog of mass for linear
motion. It appears in the relationships for the dynamics of rotational motion. The moment of inertia
must be specified with respect to a chosen axis of rotation. For a point mass the moment of inertia is
just the mass times the square of perpendicular distance to the rotation axis, I = mr2. That point mass
relationship becomes the basis for all other moments of inertia since any object can be built up from a
collection of point masses.
Common Moments of Inertia

Moment of Inertia Examples

Moment of inertia is defined with respect to a specific rotation axis. The moment of inertia of a point
mass with respect to an axis is defined as the product of the mass times the distance from the axis
squared. The moment of inertia of any extended object is built up from that basic definition. The general
form of the moment of inertia involves an integral.

Moment of Inertia, General Form

Since the moment of inertia of an ordinary object involves a continuous distribution of mass at a
continually varying distance from any rotation axis, the calculation of moments of inertia generally
involves calculus, the discipline of mathematics which can handle such continuous variables. Since the
moment of inertia of a point mass is defined by

then the moment of inertia contribution by an infinitesmal mass element dm has the same form. This
kind of mass element is called a differential element of mass and its moment of inertia is given by
Note that the differential element of moment of inertia dI must always be defined with respect to a
specific rotation axis. The sum over all these mass elements is called an integral over the mass.

Usually, the mass element dm will be expressed in terms of the geometry of the object, so that the
integration can be carried out over the object as a whole (for example, over a long uniform rod).

Having called this a general form, it is probably appropriate to point out that it is a general form only for
axes which may be called "principal axes", a term which includes all axes of symmetry of objects. The
concept of moment of inertia for general objects about arbitrary axes is a much more complicated
subject. The moment of inertia in such cases takes the form of a mathematical tensor quantity which
requires nine components to completely define it.
A force may be thought of as a push or pull in a specific direction. When a force is applied to an object,
the resulting motion of the object depends on where the force is applied and how the object is confined.
If the object is unconfined and the force is applied through the center of gravity, the object moves in
pure translation, as described by Newton's laws of motion. If the object is confined (or pinned) at some
location called a pivot, the object rotatesabout the pivot, but does not translate. The force is
transmitted through the pivot and the details of the rotation depend on the distance from the applied
force to the pivot. If the object is unconfined and the force is applied at some distance from the center
of gravity, the object both translates and rotates about the center of gravity. The details of the rotation
depend on the distance from the applied force to the center of gravity. The motion of flying objects
is described by this third type of motion; a combination of translation and rotation.

A force F is a vector quantity, which means that it has both a magnitude and a direction associated with
it. Thedirection of the force is important because the resulting motion of the object is in the same
direction as the force. The product of the force and the perpendicular distanceto the center of gravity
for an unconfined object, or to the pivot for a confined object, is^M called the torque or themoment. A
torque is also a vector quantity and produces a rotation in the same way that a force produces a
translation. Namely, an object at rest, or rotating at a constant angular velocity, will continue to do so
until it is subject to an external torque. A torque produces a change in angular velocity which is called an
angular acceleration.

The distance L used to determine the torque T is the distance from the pivot p to the force, but
measured perpendicular to the direction of the force. On the figure, we show four examples of torques
to illustrate the basic principles governing torques. In each example a blue weight W is acting on a red
bar, which is called an arm.

In Example 1, the force (weight) is applied perpendicular to the arm. In this case, the perpendicular
distance is the length of the bar and the torque is equal to the product of the length and the force.

T=F*L

In Example 2, the same force is applied to the arm, but the force now acts right through the pivot. In this
case, the distance from the pivot perpendicular to the force is zero. So, in this case, the torque is also
zero. Think of a hinged door. If you push on the edge of the door, towards the hinge, the door doesn't
move because the torque is zero.

Example 3 is the general case in which the force is applied at some angle a to the arm. The
perpendicular distance is given by trigonometry as the length of the arm (L) times the cosine (cos) of the
angle. The torque is then given by:

T = F * L * cos(a)

Examples 1 and 2 can be derived from this general formula, since the cosine of 0 degrees is 1.0 (Example
1), and the cosine of 90 degrees is 0.0 (Example 2).

In Example 4, the pivot has been moved from the end of the bar to a location near the middle of the bar.
Weights are added to both sides of the pivot. To the right a single weight W produces a force F1 acting
at a distance L1from the pivot. This creates a torque T1 equal to the product of the force and the
distance.

T1 = F1 * L1

To the left of the pivot two weights W produce a force F2at a distance L2. This produces a torque T2 in a
direction opposite from T1 because the distance is in the opposite direction.

T2 = F2 * L2

If the system were in equilibrium, or balanced, the torques would be equal and no net torque would act
on the system.

T1 = T2 or T1 - T2 = 0

F1 * L1 = F2 * L2

If the system is not in equilibrium, or unbalanced, the bar rotates about the pivot in the direction of the
higher torque. If F2 = 2 * F1, what is the relation between L1 and L2 to balance the system? If F2 = 2 *
F1, and L1 = L2, in which direction would the system rotate?
Aeronautical engineers use the torque generated by aerodynamic surfaces to stabilize and control
aircraft. On airplanes, the control surfaces produce aerodynamic forces. These forces are applied at
some distance from the aircraft cg and therefore cause the aircraft to rotate. The elevators produce
a pitching moment, the rudderproduce a yawing moment, and the ailerons produce arolling moment.
The ability to vary the amount of the force and the moment allows the pilot to maneuver or to trimthe
aircraft. On model rockets, the fins are used to generate a torque about the rocket center of gravity to
provide stability during powered flight. On kites, the aerodynamic and weight forces produce a torque
about the bridle point. The distance from the bridle point and the magnitude of the forces has a strong
effect on theperformance of the kite.

REFERENCE CARD

https://www.grc.nasa.gov/www/k-12/airplane/torque.html

http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/mi.html

https://www.khanacademy.org/science/physics/torque-angular-momentum/torque-tutorial/a/torque

https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-physics/chapter/quantities-of-rotational-kinematics/
ASSESSMENT CARD and ANS W ER KEY
1. A rope is wrapped many times around a drum of radius 50 cm. How many revolutions
of the drum are required to raise a bucket to a height of 20 m?

2. A bicycle tire has a radius of 25 cm. If the wheel makes 400 rev, how far will the bike
have traveled?
3. A rope is wrapped many times around a drum of radius 20 cm. What is the angular
velocity of the drum if it lifts the bucket to 10 m in 5 s?

4. In the previous example, what is the frequency of revolution for the drum? Recall that
 = 10.0 rad/s.
5. The block is lifted from rest until the angular velocity of the drum is 16 rad/s after a time
of 4 s. What is the average angular acceleration?

6. Let R be the triangle with vertices (0, 0), (1, 0), (1, 3) and density δ = 1. Find the polar
moment of inertia.

Answer:

Answer: The region R is a 30, 60 , 90 triangle. y

√
3

r = sec θ

r
x
1
The polar moment of inertia is the moment of inertia around the origin (that is, the z-
axis). The figure shows the triangle and a small square piece within R. If the piece has
area dA then its polar moment of inertia is dI = r2δ dA. Summing the contributions of all
such pieces and using δ = 1, dA = rdr dθ, we get the total moment of inertia is

Next we find the limits of integration in polar coordinates. The line

x = 1 ⇔ r cos θ = 1 ⇔ r = sec θ.
So, using radial stripes, the limits are: (inner) r from 0 to sec θ; (outer) θ from 0 to π/3.
Thus,
 Inner integral: .
Outer integral: Use sec4 θ = sec2 θ sec2 θ = (1 + tan2 θ) d(tan θ) ⇒ the outer integral is

The polar moment of inertia is .

1. Torque always points in the direction of what other quantity?

2. How much torque is produced by opening a jar of pickles if the lid on the jar has a radius of 3.8
centimeters and the force exerted tangentially to the lid is 150 newtons?
Assume that the force is concentrated at one point on the lid. Round your answer to the
nearest tenth of a newton-meter.
3. A 78-gram pendulum swings in a clock, never swinging past an angle of 8 degrees with the
vertical.

If the pendulum swings on a 2.8-meter-long string attached to a pivot, what is the

maximum amount of torque about the pivot? Round your answer to the nearest tenth
of a newton-meter.
Answers

The following are the answers to the practice questions:

1. angular acceleration

Just as force always points in the same direction as linear acceleration, torque points in the same
direction as angular acceleration.

2. 5.7 N·m

First, convert the given length into meters:

Then use the formula for torque,

where F is the force exerted, r is the distance from the center of rotation to the point where the force is
exerted, and

is the angle between the two vectors. The angle here is 90 degrees because the force is exerted
tangentially to the lid:
Therefore,

3.
First, convert the mass into “correct” units:

Use the formula for torque,

where F is the force exerted, r is the distance from the center of rotation to the point where the force is
exerted, and

is the angle between the two vectors.

In this problem, the string is the pivot arm, so r = 2.8 meters. The force exerted on it at the point of
contact with the pendulum is the force of gravity on the pendulum: the weight of the pendulum. The
angle between the two vectors can be seen as either 8 degrees or 172 degrees:
Either number works in the formula, so you can choose to focus on the 8 degree angle. The problem
asks you to find the maximum torque — for angles less than 90 degrees, the larger the angle, the larger
the sine of the angle will be. So the maximum torque occurs at the maximum angle: 8 degrees.
Therefore, the maximum torque is