What do you mean by velocity saturation ?

derive current density equation and

continuity equation and write the importance of these equations in analysis of
semiconductors.

Velocity saturation:-
The linear relationship between the average carrier velocity and the applied field breaks down when high
fields are applied. As the electric field is increased, the average carrier velocity and the average carrier
energy increase as well. When the carrier energy increases beyond the optical phonon energy, the
probability of emitting an optical phonon increases abruptly. This mechanism causes the carrier velocity to
saturate with increasing electric field. For carriers in silicon and other materials, which do not contain
accessible higher bands, the velocity versus field relation increases monotonically as shown

Velocity-field relation for a) materials without accessible higher bands such as silicon and
b) materials with an accessible higher band such as GaAs.
For those materials the velocity-field relation can be described by:

The maximum obtainable velocity, vsat, is referred to as the saturation velocity.

The analysis is more complex for materials such as GaAs and InP, which contain multiple closely spaced
conduction band minima. Electrons originating in the lowest G minimum accelerate under high field
conditions and gain enough energy to transfer to the X or L minima. Since the density of states in the X and
L minima is much higher because of the higher effective mass, the probability that the electron transfers
back into the G minimum is small because of the small number of available states. The electrons therefore
remain in the higher minima as long as the electric field exceeds the peak field. The corresponding velocity
initially increases with increasing applied electric field. However as carriers transfer to the higher minimum
with a higher effective mass, the average mobility and carrier velocity decrease. This causes a distinct peak
in the velocity field curve as .Such velocity-field curves are therefore characterized by the peak
velocity, vpeak, and the peak field, Epeak, in addition to the mobility, m, and the saturation velocity, vsat.
A first estimate of the saturation velocity, vsat, of a material can be obtained by calculating the carrier
velocity when it reaches an energy equal to the optical phonon energy.
While this equation can at best provide a rough estimate of the actual saturation velocity, it does indicate the
right trend. Materials with a small effective mass and high optical phonon energy are more likely to have a
high saturation velocity. Materials with multiple band minima can have a rather low saturation velocity,
relative to the peak velocity, if the carriers in the higher minima have a larger effective mass.

current density equation:-

For calculating current density of semiconductor, some factors to be considered.

1. In semiconductor current flows not only due to electrons instead it is due to drift of
electrons as well as holes.
2. Movement of holes is always in opposite to that of corresponding electrons.
3. Holes contribute current to their direction of movement whereas electrons contribute
current opposite to their direction of movement. Hence both currents will be in same
direction.
4. Electrons involved in causing current in semiconductor, move through conduction band
whereas holes causing current in semiconductor move through valance band. That is
why mobility of electrons and holes are different in semiconductor.

Current density in semiconductor will be,

Where, Jn is the current density due to mobile electrons.

Where, Jp is the current density due to mobile holes,

Then,

Where, n and p are the concentration of mobile electrons and holes respectively, e is
absolute charge of each electron and hole and μn and μp are mobility of electrons and holes
respectively.

Continuity equation:-
When carriers diffuse through a certain volume of semiconductor, the current density leaving
the volume may be smaller or larger depending upon the recombination or generation taking
place inside the volume. Let us consider a small length Δx of a semiconductor with cross-
sectional area Δ in the yz plane. The electron current density entering the volume Δ’ Δx is J,(x)
while that leaving is J(x + Δx). The net increase in the electron concentration per unit time,
an/&, is the difference between the electron flux per unit volume entering and leaving minus
the recombination rate
R, plus the generation rate G,. That is
 in the limit of Δx + 0, we get

Similarly for holes we have

where R, and G, are recombination and generation rates for holes. These equations are called
continuity equations for electrons and holes respectively and describe the time dependent
relationship between current density, recombination and generation rates and distance. They
are used for solving transient phenomena and diffusion with recombination-generation of
carriers.
2. Explain current voltage characteristics of pn junction with help of suitable expressions
and discuss its temperature dependency

V-I characteristics of p-n junction

The V-I characteristics or voltage-current characteristics of the p-n junction diode is shown in
the below figure. The horizontal line in the below figure represents the amount
of voltage applied across the p-n junction diode whereas the vertical line represents the amount
of current flows in the p-n junction diode.
Forward V-I characteristics of p-n junction diode
If the positive terminal of the battery is connected to the p-type semiconductor and the negative
terminal of the battery is connected to the n-type semiconductor, the diode is said to be in
forward bias. In forward biased p-n junction diode, VF represents the forward voltage
whereas IF represents the forward current.

 Forward V-I characteristics of silicon

If the external voltage applied on the silicon diode is less than 0.7 volts, the silicon diode
allows only a small electric current. However, this small electric current is considered as
negligible. When the external voltage applied
on the silicon diode reaches 0.7 volts, the p-n
junction diode starts allowing large electric
current through it. At this point, a small
increase in voltage increases the electric
current rapidly. The forward voltage at which
the silicon diode starts allowing large electric
current is called cut-in voltage. The cut-in
voltage for silicon diode is approximately 0.7
volts.

 Forward V-I characteristics of

germanium diode

If the external voltage applied on the

germanium diode is less than 0.3 volts, the
germanium diode allows only a small electric
current. However, this small electric current is
considered as negligible. When the external
voltage applied on the germanium diode reaches
0.3 volts, the germanium diode starts allowing
large electric current through it. At this point, a
small increase in voltage increases the electric
current rapidly. The forward voltage at which the
germanium diode starts allowing large electric
current is called cut-in voltage. The cut-in voltage
for germanium diode is approximately 0.3 volts.

Reverse V-I characteristics of p-n junction diode

If the negative terminal of the battery is connected

to the p-type semiconductor and the positive
terminal of the battery is connected to the n-type
semiconductor, the diode is said to be in reverse
bias. In reverse biased p-n junction
diode, VR represents the reverse voltage
whereas IR represents the reverse current.

If the external reverse voltage applied on the p-n

junction diode is increased, the free
electrons from the n-type semiconductor and
the holes from the p-type semiconductor are
moved away from the p-n junction. This increases
the width of depletion region.

The wide depletion region of reverse biased p-n

junction diode completely blocks the majority
charge carrier current. However, it allows the
minority charge carrier current. The free electrons
(minority carriers) in the p-type semiconductor
and the holes (minority carriers) in the n-type semiconductor carry the electric current. The
electric current, which is carried by the minority charge carriers in the p-n junction diode, is
called reverse current.

Derivation of V-I Characteristics of p-n Junction Diode

In n-type and p-type semiconductors, very small number of minority charge carriers is present.
Hence, a small voltage applied on the diode pushes all the minority carriers towards the
junction. Thus, further increase in the external voltage does not increase the electric current.
This electric current is called reverse saturation current. In other words, the voltage or point at
which the electric current reaches its maximum level and further increase in voltage does not
increase the electric current is called reverse saturation current. Let us study the derivation of
the mathematical expression for the current through a diode, which gives its V-I characteristics.
Let pp = Hole concentration in p-type at the edge of depletion
region
nn = Electron concentration in n-type at the edge of
depletion region
pn = Hole concentration in n-type at the edge of depletion
region
np = Electron concentration in p-type at the edge of
depletion region
Note : Note that in the symbol basic letter indicates type of charge
carrier concentration, hole (p) or electron (n). The base indicates type
of material in which exists.
Under unbiased condition, when holes move from p-side to n-side due to diffusion, their
concentration behaves exponentially. This is mathematically expressed as,

where VJ = Barrier potential or junction potential

Now consider forward biased diode. The junction is at x = 0.
 Thought the proportion of holes and electrons in constituting a current through the p-
region is changing the hole concentration throughout the entire p-region is constant and
denoted as,
PP0 = Hole concentration in p-region
As holes cross the junction, this concentration becomes p n(0) which is concentration of
holes on n-side just near the junction. This further behaves exponential as given in the equation
(1). From equation (1) we can write,

Note : The term V1 becomes V1 -V as the forward biased voltage V opposes the barrier
potential. So net voltage across the junction becomes V1 - V.
The equation (2) can be written for open circuited unbiased p-n junction diode by putting
V = 0 as,

where pn0 is the concentration of holes on n-side just near the junction when diode is open
circuited i.e. at thermal equilibrium and hence different than p n(0).
As the concentration of holes in entire p-region is constant equating equations (2) and (3)
we get,

Note : This equation represents boundary condition and called law of junction.
This indicates that the hole concentration pn(0) at the junction under forward biased
condition is greater than its thermal equilibrium value p n0. For large forward biasing pn(0)
becomes much larger compared to pn0.
Note : The discussion is equally applicable for the electron concentration on the p-side.

Now the difference between two concentrations at the junction under unbiased and biased
condition is called injected or excess concentration denoted as pn(0).

Using equation (4) in equation (6),

The hole current crossing the junction from p-side to n-side is given by,

While an electron current crossing the junction from n-side to p-side is given by,

where A = Area of cross-section of junction

Dp = Diffusion constant for holes
Dn = Diffusion constant for electrons
 Lp = Diffusion length for holes
Ln = Diffusion length for electrons
Using equations (7), (8) in equations (9), (10), the total current I at the junction is given
by,

The equation (11) is the required expression for diode current.

Note : In the derivation, the generation and recombination in the depletion region is neglected.
To consider its effect, which is dominant is Si diodes, the factor η is introduced in the equation.

The value of η = 1 for Ge diodes and η = 2 for Si diodes.-

Temperature dependence:-

The reverse saturation current is depends on the temperature. If temperature increases the
generation of minority charge carriers increases. Hence, the reverse current increases with the
increase in temperature. However, the reverse saturation current is independent of the external
reverse voltage. Hence, the reverse saturation current remains constant with the increase in
voltage. However, if the voltage applied on the diode is increased continuously, the p-n
junction diode reaches to a state where junction breakdown occurs and reverse current
increases rapidly.

In germanium diodes, a small increase in temperature generates large number of minority

charge carriers. The number of minority charge carriers generated in the germanium diodes is
greater than the silicon diodes. Hence, the reverse saturation current in the germanium diodes
is greater than the silicon .