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ATOMIC STRUCTURE (BASIC INFORMATION)

• Prime deal of atomic structure is with arrangement and properties of

fundamental particles of an atom in an atom.
• Differences in internal structure of different atoms of different elements cause
rich diversity of chemical behaviour of different elements.
• The word atom is from Greek word “atomio” (means uncutable or non -
divisible).
• The characteristics of cathode rays (electrons) are independent of the material
of electrodes and nature of the gas present in cathode ray tube. Thus it is
concluded that electrons are basic constituent of all the atoms.
 e 
• Specific charge   of cathode rays (electrons) independent on nature of gas.
 me 
• The positively charged particles depend on the nature of the gas.
• q = ne, where ‘q’ is magnitude of electrical charge and ‘e’ is electrical charge n
= 1, 2, 3….. The magnitude of electrical charge q, on the droplets is always an
integral multiple of the electrical charge e, that is
q = ne where n = 1, 2, 3…..

Properties of fundamental particles of an atom

Particle → Electron Proton Neutron
↓ Property
Approximate -1 +1 0
relative charge
Actual charge in C 1.602 x 10-19 1.602 x 10-19 0
Actual charge in 4.8 x 10 -10 4.8 x 10-10 0
esu
Actual charge in 1.602 x 10-20 1.602 x 10-20 0
emu
Approximate 1 1 1
relative mass 1836
Mass in Kg 9.1 x 10-31 1.673 x 10-27 1.675 x 10-27
Mass in amu 5.485 x 10-4 1.007 1.008
Mass relative to 1 1836 1839
the electron
Discovered by JJ. Thomson Goldstein J. Chadwick

• Thomson atomic model : Atom is a sphere with uniform distribution of positive

charge in which electrons are embedded with most stable electrostatic
arrangement to make the atom as a whole neutral. Thomson model explains
overall neutrality of the atom.

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• According to Thomson mass of the atom is assumed to be uniformly distributed

in the atom.
• Thomson model led to the dimensions of atoms. According to Thomson size of
an atom is 10-9 cm to 10-8 cm.
• Thomson’s model could not explain Rutherford’s α - particles scattering
experiment results.
• Rutherford Experiment and Atomic model
Experimental Explanation Conclusion
Observation
 Most of the α -  The deflection must  Most of the space in
particles passed be due to enormous the atom is empty and
through gold foil repulsive force spherical in shape.
undeflected. showing that the  Positive charge not
 Some α -particles positive chrge of the spread throughout the
deflected by small atom is not spread atom.
angles. throughout the atom  Positive charge is
 A very few α - as Thomson had densely
particles bounced presumed.  concentrated in
back. i.e. were  Volume occupied by extremely small region
deflected by 1800. the nucleus is called nucleus.
negligibly small as
compared to the total
volume of the atom.
[Radius of the atom is
about 10-10 m. While
that of nucleus is 10-15
m].
• The centre of an atom has a positive charged body called nucleus, which repels
positively charged α - particles and thus explained scattering phenomenon.
• As atomic number increases, the angle of deflection ( θ ) increases.
1
θ∝ . The number of α -particles showing scattering is minimum when
4 θ 
sin  
2
θ
= 900 i.e. θ = 1800 .
2
• Positive charge and most of the mass are at centre of the atom called nucleus
and electrons revolve around the nucleus in circular paths called orbits, like
planet revolve around sun in solar system. Thus electrons are termed as
planetary electrons.
• Electrons and the nucleus are held together by electrostatic force of attraction.

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• Rutherford could not explain stability of atom. According to classical

q1q2
mechanics, the Coulomb force = K where q1, q2 are the charges, ‘r’ is the
r2
distance of separation of charges and ‘k’ is proportionality constant between
electron and nucleus.
• When classical mechanics is applied, electron moving around nucleus in well
defined orbits, undergoes acceleration because of changing direction.
According to the electromagnetic theory of Maxwell, charged particles when
accelerated should emit electromagnetic radiation, therefore an electron in an
orbit will emit radiation, the energy carried by radiation changes the path of
electron.. The orbit will thus continue to shrink along a spiral path of
continuously diminishing radius and finally electron falls into nucleus. The
atomic system conceived by Rutherford should collapse, However it is not
happening. (Against to electrodynamics theory of Maxwell).
• According to electromagnetic theory, the frequency of radiation from a charged
body will be equal to its frequency of revolution. In that case the frequency of
radiation emitted by the electron should change continuously, because it
approaches
proaches the nucleus along a spiral path of continuously diminishing radius.
The observed spectra of such an n atom should then be continuous. But the
spectra of elements indicated that atoms emit continuous radiations of isolated
wave-lengths.
• Thus the Rutherford
therford atom model cannot explain the observed spectra of atoms.
• Rutherford atomic model could not explain electronic structure of atoms and
energy of electrons.
• Mosley postulated that the frequency of x - rays produced, when metal used as
anticathode exposed
posed to cathode rays is related to the charge present on the
nucleus of an atom (atomic number, z) of the element.
• Atomic number(z) = nuclear charge or number of protons in the nucleus of an
atom
= number of electrons in a neutral atom.

• v ∝Z
v = a( z − b )... Mosley’s equation.
where v is frequency of characteristic x - rays.
z is atomic number
a, b are constants.
• Mass number (A) = P + n(or)Z +n P is number of protons.
n is number or neutrons. z is atomic number.
• Atomic number and Mass number are always whole numbers.

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• Atomic weight may or may not be a whole number because it is average of

isotopic weights.
c  1 
• v= = cv  sin ce = v 
λ  λ 
v is frequency c is velocity of light i.e. 3x 1010 cm s-1
λ is wavelength, v is wave number

SPECTRUM

EMISSION ABSORTION
• is due to deexcitation of exited • is due to excitation of
electron electron
• appears as bright light on dark • appears as dark on bright
background background
• source of emission spectrum is
solid, liquid, gas

CONTINUOUS
DISCONTINUOUS
• lines or bands exist
without any gap on • lines and bands on
photographic film
photographic film e.g.
exist separately
incandescent coal,
Black body radiation

LINE
• Atomic spectrum or fingerprint
spectrum e.g. inert gases, metals
in vapour state, non - metals in
atomic state, vapourisable salts
like KCl. NaCl.
BAND
• Molecular spectrum
• It is given by any molecule.
• It is due to vibrations and
radiation of atoms in a
molecule and transitions of
electron.

• Flame test works on the principle of emission line spectrum.

• Ortho hydrogen and Para hydrogen differ in band spectrum.
• Under identical conditions a sample produces a line or band with same
frequency or wavelength in emission spectrum and as well as in absorption
spectrum.

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E.g.: Sodium vapour lamp produces two lines in emission and absorption
spectra.  D1 line : λD = 5890 A0 ,D2 line, λD 2 = 5896 A0 
 1 
Hydrogen Spectrum
• Example for line emission spectrum
• Excitation and de-excitation of electrons in H - atoms takes place in non -
uniform manner.
• λ : Hα > H β > H δ > H ε ....... > H ∞ . v ,v and E: E : Hα < H β < Hδ < H ε ....... < H ∞
• Intensity and spacing between spectral lines decreases as wavelength
decreases.
1 1
• Balmer’s equation v = R  2
− 2
 2 n2 
1 1 1
• Rydberg modified Balmer’s equation: = v = RH  2 − 2 
λ  n1 n2 
n1 corresponds to spectral series or orbit to which electron is coming during
electron transition.
n2 corresponds to a specific spectral line or orbit from which electron is coming
during electron transition.
1 v 1 1
• Balmer’s equation is similar to Ritz equation v = = = R 2 − 2 
λ c x y 
Where ‘R’ is Rydberg constant R = 109678 cm-1(Theoritical Value of R)
• Bohr equation: to calculate ‘R’ value
2π 2 me 4
R= 3
= 109681cm −1 (experimental value of R)
ch
1 1
• Frequency of spectral line, v = 3.27 x 1015  2
− 2  Hz
 n1 n2 
• Number of spectral lines in H-spectrum
(i) in H – atom = n2-n1 n2 = higher energy level, n1 = lower energy level
n(n − 1)
(ii) in Hydrogen gas : n 2 − n1 (or ) =
2
(where n is higher energy level

number)
(iii) in Hydrogen gas if electrons are de-excited from higher excited to lower
excited level (not to ground state):
n(n + 1)
(where n = n2 – n1)
2
(n 2 − n1 )(n 2 − n1 + 1)
(iv) Number of spectral lines =
2
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Name of Region n1 n2 Equation Series Wavelen

Series observ Limit gth of
ed in Hα Hβ Hγ H∞ marginal
line
1. U.V.reg 1 2, 3, 4 ∞ 1 1  RH 1
Lymann ion v = RH  2 − 2  v = = RH λ =
1 RH
1 n2 

2. Balmer Visible 2 3, 4, 5 ∞ 1 1 RH 4
region v = RH  2 − 2  v = λ=
4 RH
 2 n2 

3. Near 3 4, 5, 6 ∞ 1 1 RH 9
Paschen I.R. v = RH  2 − 2  v = λ=
9 RH
 3 n2 

4.Brackett I.R. 4 5, 6, 7 ∞ 1 1 RH 16
v = RH  2 − 2  v= λ=
 4 n2  16 RH

5. Pfund Far I.R. 5 6, 7, 8 ∞ 1 1 RH 25

v = RH  2 − 2  v= λ=
 5 n2  25 RH

6. Far I.R. 6 7, 8, 9 ∞ 1 1 RH 36
Humphy v = RH  2 − 2  v= λ=
 6 n2  36 RH

• When number of spectral lines of same transition increases intensity of spectral

line increases.
Photoelectric Effect
• Observed by Hertz.
• Plank could not explain photo electric effect. According to plank light travels in
the form of wave and a wave cannot transfer its energy to a particle.
• Photoelectric effect revels the particle nature of light (conclusion)
• In photoelectric effect a light of certain frequency strikes the surface of the
metal used as cathode and electrons are ejected from the cathode metal.
These photo electrons complete the circuit through the gas in the tube which
was otherwise a non conductor.
• In most of the photoelectric cells cesium is used
E = w + KE w is threshold energy (or) work function
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1 2
hv = hv0 + mv v is frequency of light falling on the metal
2
1
h(v – v0)= mv 2 v is velocity of emitted electrons giving KE to it
2
1 1  1
hc  −  = mv 2 v0 is threshold frequency
 λ λ0  2
• The energy of an individual photon depends only on its frequency and not on
intensity of the light beam.
• Intensity of light beam is the measure of number of photon
photons in the light beam but
not of the energies of those photons.
• Number of photo electrons ejected per unit time depends on intensity of light
beam used in photoelectric effect.
• Increase in the frequency of light beam used in photoelectric effect increases
KE of photoelectrons. However work function of the same metal remains same.

A plot of number of photoelectrons ejected

from metal surface with va
variation of frequency
Black body radiations
• Black body is perfect absorber and perfect emitter. Black body absorbs and
emits any wavelengths E.g.: Sun, incandescent coal, a metallic sphere coated
inside with platinum black
ck with a small hole.
• As wavelength of Black body radiation increases intensity first increases and
then decreases.
• Intensity of radiation varies as T4
E ∝ T 4 , E = σ T 4 ; where ‘E’ is intensity, “T” is temperature
"σ " is Stefan’s constant [σ = 5.67 ×10−8 wm−2 K −4 ]
• At smaller wavelengths and larger wavelengths intensity is less.
• Intensity is maximum at medium wavelengths.
• As temperature increases wavelength corresponding to the maximum intensity
decreases.

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• The radiations emitted from black body are in a non uniform manner.

T1 < T2 < T3
T3 K

T2 K
T1 K

Plank’s Quantum Theory

• Failed to explain photoelectric effect.
• Applicable only for black body radiations.
• Substances radiate or absorb energy discontinuously in the form of small
packets (or) bundles of energy called quanta.
• Radiations are emitted due to vibrations of charged particles (electrons in case
of atoms)
• Radiations are emitted as small discrete particles called quanta and propagate
as a wave [dual nature]
• Max plank explained the distribution of intensity in radiation from black body as
a function of frequency at different temperatures.
1
E∝v E∝v E∝ E = Energy of quantum or quanta
λ
hc
E = hv E = hcv E =
λ
nhc
E = nhv E = nhcv E =
λ
• Radiation exists till they are absorbed by a medium.
• Emission and absorption of radiations occur as quantum or whole multiples of
ntization of energy) i.e. h v ,2h v , 3h v . . . nh v .
quanta (quantization
• E= Energy of quantum or quanta
• n = number of quanta i.e. 1, 2, 3, 4, . . . .
• h = plank’s constant
ant and its value is 6.627 x 10-27 erg-sec or 6.627 x 10-34 J –sec
Modified plank’s quantum theory
• Done by Einstein
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• The radiations are emitted as small packets called photons and they propagate
as photons.
• Photon is an energy particle. Its rest mass is zero.
• Energy of photon is hv.
E = NA h v . . . (where NA is Avagadro’s number 6.023 x 1023)
• Energy of photon, E = ω + KE
Where ‘ ω ’ is work function, KE is Kinetic Energy
Advantages
• Photo electric effect can be successfully explained by Einstein’s theory.
• Plank’s quantum theory is applicable only to black body radiations but
Einstein’s theory applicable to all electromagnetic radiations.
Bohr’s Model of Atom
• Bohr model is based on
(i) Plank’s quantum theory and (ii) Some of the assumptions of Rutherford’s
model.

According to Bohr atomic model

• Atoms are spherical in shape and are mostly empty. (Rutherford model).
• Atom consists a dense nucleus located at the centre of the atom.
• Electrons are revolving around the nucleus in closed circular paths called
energy states or energy shells or orbits.
• Each orbit is associated with a definite amount of energy.
• The electrons revolving in the orbits neither lose nor gain any energy, so
electrons do not fall in the nucleus and thus these orbits are termed as
stationary orbits.
• Required centripetal force is provided by electron static force of attraction
between nucleus and electrons.
• The different orbits are designated by principal quantum number (n)
Where n = 1, 2, 3, 4, . . . . ∞ (or )
n = K, L, M, N, . . . . As principle quantum number increases, i.e., distance
of the orbit from the nucleus increases, energy (associated with) orbit
−13.6
increases i.e. E1 < E2 < E3 < E4 < ….E ∞ Since E = 2
eV [ E ∝ n 2 ]..... for
n
hydrogen atom
• Each stationary orbit is associated with certain amount of energy and it is
termed as energy state or energy level.
• Electron revolves around nucleus in a particular orbit without losing energy and
is stable, that state is called ground state or normal state.
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• When energy is supplied to an atom, electron absorbs energy and gets excited
( ) ( ) and the new state of
(from lower energy level En 1 to higher energy level En 2
electron is called as excited state.
• The energy absorbed by electron is equal to the energy difference between
normal state and excited state.
E2 − E1 = ∆E = hv or nhv
• More is the energy less is the stability, excited stat
state energy is more hence atom
in this state is less stable, hence lose
loses its energy and comes back to the ground
state.
• Among the finite number of circular orbits, electrons can revolve only in those
orbits whose angular momentum (mvr) is an integer multiple of factor h/2 π
nh
mvr = where m is mass of the electron, v is velocity of electron, n is orbit
2π
number in which electron is present, r is radius of the orbit.
• Radius of nth orbit
Consider an electron of mass ‘m’ and charge ‘e’ revolving around nucleus of
charge Ze where, z is atomic number and ‘e’ is charge of proton, with a
tangential velocity v. ‘r’ is the radius of the orbit.
v v
rn F.E = Electrostatic force
F.E v = tangential Velocity

v v
According to coulomb’s law the force between two charged bodies (F) is
rtional to product of charges (q1 , q2 ) and inversely proportional to
directly proportional
the square of distance(s) between them
1 q1q2 qq
Columbic Force F = . 2 = K . 1 22
4π ∈0 rn rn
By coulomb’s law, the electrostatic force of attraction between the moving
electron and nucleus is:
kze2 1
Columbic force = ;K =
rn 2
4π ∈0
Where ∈0 is permittivity of free space or absolute permittivity of the medium (the
vacuum in this case).
k = 9 x 109 N m2 C-2
In C.G.S. units value of K is 1 dyne cm2 (e s u)-2

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Required centripetal force is provided by electrostatic force, hence the

electron is in circular orbit.

kze 2 mv 2
=
rn 2 rn

kze 2
v2 = ….(i)
mrn

According to Bohr

nh
mvrn =
2π

nh
v=
2π mrn

n2h2
v = 2 2 2
2
…..(ii)
4π m rn

from (i) and (ii) (for nth orbit)

n2h2 kze2
=
4π 2 m 2 rn2 mrn
n2h2
rn =
4π 2 m kze2
If n = 1, Z = 1
h2
r1 = = a0
4π 2 me 2 K
n2h2 12 × ( 6.626 × 10 −34 )2
r1 = =
4π 2 m kze 2 4 × ( 3.14 )2 × 9 ×10−31 × ( 1.6 × 10−19 )2 × 9 × 109
= 0.529 x 10-10 m = 0.529 A0
For nth orbit with atomic number Z
n2 0
rn = 0.529 A
z
Velocity of an electron in nth orbit:
nh
mvrn =
2π

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nh
v=
2π mrn
n.h × 4π 2 m kze 2
vn =
2π m × n 2 h 2
2π ze 2
vn =
nh
2.189 ×106
• For Hydrogen z = 1; vn = m sec −1
n
2.189 ×108
• For H - like species vn = × Z cm sec −1
n

Energy of an electron:

Energy of an electron indicates the extent of attraction force on the electron in

nth orbit under the influence of nucleus where ‘n’ is less than ∞

• Total energy of electron in nth orbit

En = PE + KE PE = Potential Energy
KE = Kinetic energy
1 2
KE = mv
2
Potential energy is work done when an electron is brought from an
infinite distance to the orbit of the atom at a distance rn from the nucleus.
rn
kze 2 kze 2
PE = 0 rn2 = −
rn
1 2 kze 2
• Total energy, En = mv − . . .(i)
2 rn
kze2
• But we know that mv 2 =
rn
1 2 kze 2
Therefore mv = . . . (ii)
2 2rn
On substituting equation (ii) in (i)
kze 2 kze 2 kze 2
Total energy of nth orbit En = − =− . . .(iii)
2rn rn 2rn
n2h2
Substitute rn = in equation (iii) and
4π 2 mkze2
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−2π 2 mk 2 z 2 e4
on solving En =
n2h2
negative sing indicates work done against force of attraction of nucleus
over electron.
• In the ground state
n = 1, m = 9.1 x 10-31 kg, e = 1.6 x 10-19 c, h = 6.626 x 10-34 Js, K = 8.99 x 109
Nm2 c-2
E1= -2.17 x 10-18 J. atom-1
= -2.17 x 10-18 x 6.02 x 1023 J mol-1
• E, v, v increases by z2 while λ decreases by z2
E is energy of electron, v is frequency, v is wave number, λ is
wavelength, z is atomic number
KE PE TE
2π mk z e
2 2 2 4
4π mk z e
2 2 2 4
2π mk z e
2 2 2 4
− −
n 2 h2 n2h2 n2h2
kze 2 kze2 kze2
− −
2rn rn 2rn
z2 z2 z2
13.6 x ev per atom -27.2 x ev per atom -13.6 x ev per atom
n2 n2 n2
z2 z2 z2
2.18 x 10-18 x 2 J per -4.36 x 10-18 x 2 J per -2.18 x 10-18 x 2 J per
n n n
atom atom atom
2 2
z z z2
2.18 x 10-11 x erg -4.36 x 10-11 x erg -2.18 x 10-11 x erg
n2 n2 n2
per atom per atom per atom
2 2
z z z2
313.6 x k cal per -627.2 x k cal per -313.6 x k cal per
n2 n2 n2
mol mol mol
2 2
z z z2
1312 x kJ per mol -2624 x kJ per mol -1312 x kJ per mol
n2 n2 n2

• Introduction of integers (n) in selecting the stable orbits for electrons was also
arbitrary, merely to fit experimental results. There was no theoretical
justification for it.
• Ionization energy
Energy required to remove the electron from the outermost orbit of the atom in
isolated gaseous phase is ionization energy ( IE ) .

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If an electron is adequately away from the nucleus there will not be interaction
between them. It is possible when n = ∞ and E∞ = 0
The energy of the electron is negative indicates that the electron in an atom is
bound to the nucleus.
z2
IEz = IE( H )
n2
Where IE(H)= 13.6 eV atom-1 or 2.17 x 10-18 J atom-1

• Bohr’s view on hydrogen spectrum

According to Bohr, as long as electron revolves in stationary orbit, energy is
neither absorbed nor emitted by it. However, when hydrogen gas is subjected
to high temperature or electric discharge. Hydrogen molecules convert into
atoms and electron in Hydrogen atom gets excited i.e. jumps from lower energy
level (n1) to higher energy level (n2). Excited electron returns to ground state in
one transition or several transitions by emitting energy in the form of photon of
definite wavelength (or) frequency.
When electrons drops from higher orbit n2 to lower orbit n1, the radiations are
emitted and appear in the form of lines called spectrum.
The frequency of the photon emitted depends upon energy difference between
n1 and n2 energy levels.
2π 2 mk 2 z 2 e 4 1
E1 = − × 2 …(i)
h2 n1
2π 2 mk 2 z 2 e 4 1
E2 = × 2 …(ii)
h2 n2

(ii) –(i)

Energy difference

−2π 2 mk 2 z 2 e 4 1 1
E2 − E1 = ∆E = hv =  2 − 2
h2  n2 n1 

2π 2 mk 2 z 2 e4 1 1
∆E =  2 − 2
h2  n1 n2 

1 1
= ( IE ) z  2
− 2
 n1 n2 

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1 1 2
= ( IE ) H  2
− 2z
 n1 n2 

Where (IE)z is the ionization energy of the atom with atomic number z and (IE)H
is the ionization energy of the H – atom.

1 ∆E 2π 2 m z 2 e4 k 2 1 1
v= = =  2 − 2
λ hc ch3  n1 n2 

1 1
= RH Z 2  2 − 2 
 n1 n2 

( IE ) z 1 1
=  2 − 2
hc  n1 n2 

( IE ) H 1 1 2
=  2 − 2z
hc  n1 n2 

2π 2 me4 k 2
Where RH = 3
= 1.09678 ×107 m −1
ch

RH is Rydberg constant

1 1 2
Frequency, v = RH. C  2
− 2z
 1 n2 
n

• When the spectrum of each series is towards an intersecting point beyond

which the spectrum is continuous. This happen when n2 is ∞ and it gives a
spectral line of maximum energy (or) wave number and minimum wavelength.
The reason for the continuity is that when electron is completely free from the
field of nucleus it is no longer restricted to quantized discrete energy state.
• Minimum energy or wave number can be obtained when
n2 = (n + 1)
1 1 1 
vmin = = RH z 2  2 − 2
λmax  n1 (n1 + 1) 

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• The continuous spectrum may due to ordinary kinetic energy of translation,

1 2
corresponding to its speed in free space, mv .
2
Merits of Bohr Atomic Model
• It explains successfully the stability of atoms.
• Origin of atomic spectrum.
• Production of characteristic x-ray by elements.
• Experimental Rydberg constant is in agreement with Bohr calculated Rydberg
constant value.
• Excitation potential of atoms.
Bohr’s Atomic Model Defects
• Failed to explain line spectrum of H - atom
• It is against to wave nature of light.
• It is against to Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle.
• It failed to explain Stark and Zeeman effect.
• Applicable only to those containing only one electron (H, He+, Li+2, Be3+ …. etc)
• Resolution of spectral lines (or) fine structure of spectral lines could not be
explained i.e., Zeeman’s effect (magnetic field) and stark’s effect (Electrical
field)
• It could not explain spectrum of multi electron atoms.
Particle and Wave Nature of Electron (Debroglie’s Theory)
Theory):
It is based on Milliken’s oil drop experiment (particle nature) and diffraction
study (wave nature). Suggests dual nature of electron.
• Every particle in motion should have wavelength.
hc
E1 = ...... according to plank’s theory (wave nature)
λ
E2 = mc2 ……… According to Einstein. (Particle nature)
Because of dual nature E1 = E2
hc
= mc 2
λ
h h h h
λ= = = = . Debroglie’s equation.
mc mv p 2m( KE )
‘h’ is plank’s constant, ‘m’ is mass, ‘c’ is velocity of light. V is velocity of
particle, ‘p’ is momentum.
• Davison and Germer proved that rays of beam of electrons is diffracted by
nickel prism have experimental value of λ and that determined by using
Debroglie equation were in close agreement.
• Waves that are associated with particle are matter waves or material waves,
these waves are of stationary waves type.
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• If the two ends of the wave • If the two ends of the wave do not meet
meet to give a regular at one point to give regular sequence
sequence of crest and of crest and trough, then the wave it
trough, then the wave is said to be “out of the phase”
said to be in one phase (destructive interference of the wave)
(constructive interference
of waves)
• Such an electronic motion is • Such an electronic motion is said to be
described as energy non- energy radiating motion.
radiating motion.
• For such an orbit, • For such an orbit circumference 2π r
circumference ( 2π r ) of the ≠ nλ may be 2π r > nλ
circle is an integral multiple (r ) 2π r < nλ
of ‘ λ ’ 2π r = nλ . i.e. circumference is bigger or smaller
Where ‘n’ is number of waves nh
in one complete revolution than the value of , the wave will no
(or) orbit number (principal 2π
quantum number). longer remain in phase.
• Such orbits exists in atoms • Such orbits never exist in atoms.
and atoms are stable. Therefore electron does not fall into
the nucleus.
• 2π r = nλ
h
2π r = n.
mv
nh
mvr = (Debroglie
lie theory is in agreement with Bohr’s postulates).
2π
h
• λ= (explains the dual nature of electron)
mv
• The expression for the wavelength ( λ ) of an electron in terms of kinetic
energy.
1 2
mv = KE
2

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2KE h
v= ….(i) λ= …..(ii)
m mv

(i)and (ii)

h
λ=
2 KE
m
m

h
λ=
2mKE

h h h
λ= = =
p mv 2m( KE )

where ( p = mv = 2m( KE )) momentum of the particle of mass ‘m’ moving with

velocity v. Using above equation and assuming that one circular orbit of radius
‘r’ can be divided into ‘n’ number of waves of wavelength ‘ λ ’ each, it can be
shown that angular momentum is quantized in the multiples of h/2 π . Also
circumference of nth orbit is equal to ‘n’ times the wavelength of the electron.

h
2π rn = nλ = n
mv

nh
mvrn =
2π

Where ‘n’ stands for principal quantum number.

• It shows that electron can move only in those orbits for which the angular
h
momentum is an integral multiple of .
2π
• Dual nature is universal since diffraction effects have also been observed with
neutrons, protons, hydrogen atom etc.
v v mv 2 2 KE
v= = = =
• Frequency of matter wave λ h h h .
mv
Quantum Numbers
1. Principal Quantum Number (n):

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• It tells about, orbit to which electron belongs to, size of an atom, size of orbital
and energy of electron in an orbital.
n 2 .a 0
• Position of the electron from the nucleus in nth orbit is given by rn = and
z
13.6 z 2
corresponding energy is Em =
n2
• Number of electron in an orbit = 2n2.
n = 1, 2, 3, 4 …. (or) K. L. M. N…..
er (
) :
Number
2. Azimuthal (or)Orbital (or) Angular Momentum Quantum Numb
• It tells us about the sub shell to which electron belong to and shape of the
orbital.
• Azimuthal quantum number posses special value therefore sub orbits exists in
special shapes and it is called quantization of shapes.
• Total number of
values equal to principal quantum number (n) and range
from ‘0’ (zero) to (n – 1).
• If n = 4, ' l ' has four values.
• A sub shell is only possible with ' l ' < n.
• l = 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5,….. represents s,p, d, f, g, h ….. sub shells respectively.
• Shapes of orbits are given with spectral lines as sharp, principle, diffused,
fundamental degenerate spectral lines with symbols for s, p, d, f respectively.
• Orbital angular momentum of the electron measured by azimuthal quantum
number.
h
mvr =
(
+ 1)
2π
h
If =
2π

For ‘s’ electrons mvr = 0 ‘p’ electrons mvr = 2

‘d’ electrons = 6 12
‘f’ electrons mvr =
• Maximum number of electrons in a sub shell = 4l + 2
• The magnitude of magnetic moment ( µ L ) is given by :
eh eh
(µL ) = l (l + 1) Where = 9.2732 ×10−14 J / gauss
4π mc 4π mc
3. Magnetic Quantum Number (m):
• It determines the number of special orientations of sub-sub shells.
• Tells about the orbital in which electron belongs to.

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• It, explains Zeeman effect and Stark effect and these effects are due to
presence of sub-sub orbitals.
• In presence of an external magnetic field, such shells get split up and get
oriented in different directions.
• Number of special orientations = (2l + 1)
• Values of m is equal to (2l + 1) i.e. ranges from −l to + l including zero.
• Magnetic quantum number m = 0 for all (i) s-electron (ii) d z 2 electron
(iii) pz electron
4. Spin Quantum Number (S or ms):
• It explains double lined spectrum of alkali metals.
• When electron revolves around the nucleus, it makes revolution around its
own axis, hence behaves as a small magnet. In the presence an external
magnetic field either it moves in the direction of magnetic field or away from
the magnetic field, hence electron can have spin angular momentum which is
also quantized.
h 1
mvr = S ( s + 1) where S =
2π 2
eh
• The spin magnetic moment ( µ s) is given by µ s = S ( s + 1)
4π mc
1 1
• Where ‘s’ is spin quantum number whose values are + and − .
2 2
1 1
• Conventionally ↑ or + - clockwise spin of electron and ↓ or − -
2 2
anticlockwise spin of electron.

Note: (i) Principal quantum number is independent of other quantum numbers

(ii) spin quantum number is unnecessary for defining an orbital.

(iii) The difference between any two adjacent quantum number is 1.

1
(v) The least sum of n, l , m and s of electron in an atom is .
2

S-Orbital

• ψ ,ψ 2 depends on distance from the nucleus ψ = f (r ) .

• Spherically symmetrical
• As principal quantum number increases size of orbital increases.

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• Non direction in nature (or) it is equal in all directions.

• Can form only σ − bonds.

P-Orbital

• ψ ,ψ 2 depends on distance from the nucleus r and on one spatial direction.

(i) for Px, orbital : ψ x = f (r ). f ( x )
(ii) for Py orbital : ψ y = f (r ). f ( y)
(iii) for Pz orbital : ψ z = f (r ). f ( z )
• number of lobes in any p=orbital is two.
• two lobes are separated by an angle of 1800.
• posses strong directional character.
• can form both σ and π -bonds.

d-Orbital

• ψ and ψ 2 depends on distance from nucleus and on two special orientations.

(i) For dxy orbital Ψ xy = f ( r ). f ( x)( y )
(ii) For dyz orbital Ψ yz = f ( r ). f ( y )( z )
(iii) For dxz orbital Ψ xz = f ( r ). f ( x )( z )
For d x 2 − y 2 orbital Ψ x 2 − y 2 = f (r ). f ( x )( y )
2 2
(iv)

(v) For d z 2 orbital Ψ z 2 = f ( r ). f ( z 2 )( z 2 )

• Double dumb-bell shape except for dz2 orbital.
• Each d-orbital (except dz2 orbital) consists of four lobes with adjacent lobes at
900.

f-orbital
• Complicated or diffused or four –fold dumb-bell shape.

Electronic configuration:
configuration:

The arrangement of electrons in various sub-shells (or) orbitals (in the ground state
of an atom)

• nlx method
where n is orbit number. l is sub-shell. x is number of electrons.
• Box method nl
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Pauli’s Exclusion Principle:

Principle:
• No two electrons in an atom or orbital can have all the four quantum numbers
same. They can have same n,l,m but differ in spin quantum number.
• The maximum capacity of any orbital is two electrons with spin in opposite
direction. (Significance)
Example:
√ × × ×
• Maximum capacity of s-sub shell is 2 electrons S1 and S2 are valid but S2, S1……
are not valid.
• Maximum capacity of p-sub shell is 6 electrons p1,p2,p3,p4,p5,p6 are valid
p7,p8,……. are not valid.
• Maximum capacity of d-sub shell is 10 electrons d1, d2, d3, d4, d5, d6, d7, d8, d9,
d10 are valid d11, d12 …….. are not valid.
• Maximum capacity of f-sub shell is 14 electrons f1, f2, f3, f4, f5, f6, f7, f8, f9, f10, f11,
f12, f13, f14 are valid f15, f16….. are not valid.

Aufbau Principle:

• According to this principle, electrons are arranged in various sub shells in the
increasing order of their (n+l) values.
• If two or more sub orbits have same values of (n+l), sub orbits with lower values
of ‘n’ has lower energy and thus will be filled first.
• This rule can be used to determine block of the element to which it belongs.
• The ground state electronic configuration of the atom of an element
corresponds to the state of the lowest total electronic energy.
• 1s<2s<2p<3s<3p<4s<3d<4p<5S<4d<5p<6s<4f<5d<6p<7s<5f<6d<7p<8s
• The actual order differs slightly from theoretical order.
• Upto atomic number 20,3d>4s there after energy of 3d starts decreasing,
• Upto atomic number 20, 4d>5s
After atomic number 30, 4d<5s
• Upto atomic number 20, 4f>6s
after atomic number 57, 4f<6s
after atomic number 90, 5f<7s
• For hydrogen atom energy order is
1s<2s=2p<3s=3p=3d<4s=4p=4d-4f

Hund’s Rule
Rule of Maximum Multiplicity
• Degenerate orbital are those having same energy (or) orbitals having same n
and l values but differ in ‘m’ values.
• According to Hund’s rule pairing of electrons in degenerate orbitals occur only
when all other orbitals are single filled and should be spinning only in one
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direction.

Example:

• Symmetrical distribution of electrons, i.e. completely filled or half filled sub

shells, have symmetrical distribution of electrons in them and therefore are
more stable.
• Two or more electrons with same spin are present in the same degenerate
orbits of a sub shell tend to exchange their positions and the energy released
due to this process is exchange energy
energy. More is the exchange energy more is
the stability of the atom.
• The sub shells with half filled or completely filled have maximum number of
exchanges and thus exchange energy will be more, results high stability of
atoms.
• Electronic configuration of chromium (Cr):
Cr → 1s 2 2s 2 2 p 6 3s 2 3 p 6 4s1 3d 5 but not
1s 2 2s 2 2 p 6 3s 2 3 p 6 4 s 2 3d 4
Because the average exchange energy associated with first configuration is 15 K
10 K  2c 
5
( 2C6 )
and that of second configuration is  
• Greater the average exchange energy, greater is the stability (Average
exchange energy is otherwise known as lowering energy.)
Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Principle:
Principle:
• According to Heisenberg’s principle,
nciple, the exact position and momentum cannot
be calculated simultaneously and accurately.
• To see an electron, light of wavelength less than the dimensions of object is
needed, when such a high energetic light is focused on electron, part of energy
of light
ght is transferred to the electron, electron goes out of the orbit causing
uncertainty in position and momentum of electron.
h
∆x.∆p ≥
nπ
Where ∆x is uncertainty in position of electron, ∆p is uncertainty in momentum
of electron.

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n is equal to 1,2,3,4 ……

• For particle like electrons, n=4

h  h
∆x.∆p = = ( where  = )
4π 2 2π
h
∆x.∆p =
4π
+h
∆x.m∆v =
4π
where ‘m’ is mass of electron, ∆v is uncertainty in velocity.

• If exact position of an electron is determined i.e. ∆x=0 then ‘∆p’ becomes

infinity.
• If exact momentum of electron is determined i.e. ∆p=0 then ‘∆x’ becomes
infinity.
• Heisenberg uncertainty principle led to a new principle called probability of
finding an electron.
• Maximum uncertainty in position cannot be more than the size of an atom
(10-8cm)

Schrodinger’s Wave Equation

∂ 2 Ψ ∂ 2 Ψ ∂ 2 Ψ 8π 2 m
• + + + 2 ( E − V )Ψ = 0
∂x 2 ∂y 2 ∂z 2 h
• It explains wave and particle nature of electron.
• The main object of this equation is to estimate the probability of finding an
electron.
• ‘ Ψ ’ stands for wave function and indicates amplitude of wave (A)
• Ψ 2 is intensity.
• Significance: As Ψ may be positive or negative but intensity is a positive
value hence Ψ 2 is taken and is always positive.
• For electron Ψ 2 is probability of finding electrons. E is total energy and v is
potential energy.
• Another significance of this theory is that shape of orbital is evaluated when
equation is solved.

Schrodinger’s Wave Theory :

• According to this theory an electron is described as 3D waves and
properties of electron were explained as wave.

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Quantum Mechanical Model of an Atom

• It is based on Schrodinger wave equation, Heisenberg’s uncertainty

principle and wave nature of electron.
• According to this model electron occupies a three dimensional space
around nucleus of an atom and this space is termed as quantum mechanical
model of orbitals.
• Orbit is three dimensional circular path (Bohr orbit is two dimensional
circular path.)
• Schrodinger wave equation describes allowable patterns for electron waves
i.e. estimation of probability of finding an electron.
• Schrodinger wave equation is
∂ 2 Ψ ∂ 2 Ψ ∂ 2 Ψ 8π 2 m
+ + + 2 ( E − v)Ψ = 0
∂x 2 ∂y 2 ∂z 2 h
Ψ stands for wave function or amplitude of wave (in case of light), It consists
three terms called quantum numbers n, l and m. Orbital results when specific
quantum number values are assigned.
where m is mass of electron. E the permissible total energy, v is potential
energy, h is plank’s constant and x, y, z are Cartesian or ordinates.
• Wave function describes properties of orbital and also properties of electron
present in orbital.
• From Ψ we can determine ______
(i) The type of orbital that the electron occupies
(ii) The energy of the electron in that orbital
(iii) Shape of the orbital
(iv) Probability of finding the electron in any particular region within the
orbital.
• The energy of a wave at a particular point proportional to square of its
amplitude ( Ψ 2 )
• Ψ 2 at any point is proportional to the probability of finding a particle at a
particular point.
• Distribution of an electron in an orbital is described in terms of electron
density at various regions of the orbital.
• The radial probability density 4πr2 Ψ indicates probability of finding the
2

electron within the volume of a very thin spherical shell at a distance r from
the nucleus.

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• If there are (n+1) nodes in a string of length l, then it is related to wavelength

λ by relation.

Quantum Mechanical Treatment of the Hydrogen Atom

Due to spherical symmetry of the atom Schrodinger equation is conveniently
written in terms of polar co-ordinates.
ordinates.
Equation is solved based on
H Ψ = EΨ where H is Hamiltonian operator.
. .
H = T + V T is kinetic energy operation. v is potential energy operation.
. 
 T + V  Ψ = EΨ
 
Solution of the Schrodinger wave equation is based on Cartesian co
co-ordinates
ordinates r, θ and φ
x, y and z related to polar co-ordinates
x = r sin θ cos φ , y = r sin θ sin φ , z = r cos θ , x 2 + y 2 + z 2 = r 2
When wave equation in polar co-ordinates
ordinates is solved for hydrogen atom, it gives
es and the corresponding wave function [ Ψ( r,θ ,φ )] which
possible energy states
is called Hydrogenic orbital (or) atomic orbital.
ψ n ,l ,m (r , θ , ϕ ) = Rn ,l (r ) θl ,m (θ )φm (φ )

R is radial wave function.

R2 is radial probability density.

Radial probability function: 4π2 r2R2

• Radio Probability density R2 as a function of r

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Angular Wave Function: ‘ θ ,φ ’

Depends on only on l and ml and independent of n for a given type of orbital.

Angular Probability Density Function

Variation of Ψ 2 in space is represented in the form of

(a) Charge cloud diagram, which gives the probability density of finding the
electron in that region.

(b) Boundary surface diagram, which defines the shape of various orbitals
(1s, 2 s, 2 px , 2 p y .....)

PRACTICE QUESTIONS:

1. (a) State the postulates of Bohr’s atomic theory

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(i) It was proposed by Neil’s Bohr to explain the stability and spectrum of
atoms.
(ii) It was proposed on the basis of quantum theory

Postulates of Bohr’s theory:

1) In an atom e-1 s revolve around the nucleus in closed circular paths

which are called as orbits.
2) There orbits are numbered as 1, 2, 3, 4 ……. From the nucleus onwards.
These are also designated as K, L, M, N ……..
3) Each orbit is associated with a definite amount of energy. These are also
known as main energy levels or main shells.
4) As long as e revolves in a particular orbit it possesses a certain angular
momentum. This angular momentum of an electron is quantized and it is
h h
equal to an integral multiple of ; mvr = n , where m = mass of e ; V
2π 2π
= velocity and r = radius of orbit mvr of e in 1st arbit = h/2 π , 2nd = h/ π ,
3rd = 1.5 h/ π .
5) When an electron jumps from higher energy level to lower energy level it
emits energy and it absorbs energy if it jumps from lower to higher
energy level. The energy difference between two energy levels is
∆ E = E2 − E1 = h ϑ .

(b) Based on Bohr postulates explain hydrogen spectrum.

When a sample of hydrogen gas is heated the hydrogen atoms absorb

energy and gets into excited state (higher energy levels). But in the higher
energy level the electrons are unstable hence they come back into their
normal state. During this electrons come back directly in one step or several
steps. Hence, they produce radiations of different frequencies. Therefore,
different spectral lines are produced. For example: If an e jumps from higher
to 2nd energy level then the spectral lines produced are called Balmer series
and so on………….

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Energy

2. What are quantum numbers? Explain the significance of various types of

quantum numbers.
A. To describe an electron completely in an atom four Quantum numbers are
given. They are
a) Principal quantum number b) Azimuthal quantum number
c) Magnetic quantum number and d) Spin quantum number.

a) Principal quantum number:

1) The was proposed by Neil’s Bohr,
2) It is denoted by the letter ‘n’.
3) It represents the circular orbits around the nucleus.
4) As the value of ‘n’ increases the size and energy of the orbit also
increases.
5) The values of n are 1, 2, 3 …… According to letter method ‘n’ can be
represented by the letters K, L, M………..
6) In any orbit, the maximum number of subsub-orbit = n, number of orbitals =
n = ; number of electrons = 2n .
2 2

7) This quantum number describes the size and energy of the orbit.
−2π 2 z 2 e 4 m  n2 
E= , rn = 52.9 ×   pm.
n2 h 2 Z 
b) Azimuthal Quantum
Quantum Number:
1) It is also known as Angular momentum quantum number
2) It is denoted by the letter ‘
’. (For a given value of “n”
values are
from 0 to (n-1).

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3) This quantum number represent the sub levels present in the main
levels.
4) The sub levels are s, p, d and f.
5) The l values of s, p, d and f sub levels are 0, 1, 2 and 3 respectively.
6) The first main level contains only one sub level and it is ‘s’. The
second main level contains s, p sub levels. The third main level
contains s, p, d sub levels. The fourth main level contains s, p, d and
f sub-levels.

Main Sub Sub sub

level levels levels
1 s 1s
2 s 2s
p 2p
3 s 3s
p 3p
d 3d
4 s 4s
p 4p
d 4d
f 4f
7) This quantum number describes the shape of the orbital.
Sub Shape
level
s Spherical
p Dumbell
d Double dumbell
f Four-fold dumbell
c) Magnetic Quantum Number:
1) This was proposed by Lande.
2) It is denoted by the letter ‘m’
3) This quantum number describes the orbitals present in a given sub-
level.
4) ‘m’ has values from −
to +
through ‘0’.
5) The total number of ‘m’ values for a given value of ‘
’ is (2
+ 1)
Sub I values m values No. of
level orbitals
s 0 0 1
p 1 -1, 0, +1 3
d 2 -2, -1, 0, +1, +2 5
f 3 -3, -2, -1, 0, +1, +2, +3 7
6) All the orbitals present in a given sub-level possess the same energy
values, because they possess the same ‘n’ and '
' values.

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7) This quantum number describes the orientation of the oribtals in

space.
d) Spin Quantum number:
1) This was proposed by Uhlenbeck and Goudsmidt.
2) It is denoted by the letter ‘s’.
3) This Quantum number describes the spin of the removing electron.
4) The spin quantum number values of an electron revolving in
clockwise direction is +1/2 and that of an electron revolving in anti-
clockwise direction is -1/2.
5) The clock wise revolving electron is represented by upward arrow
mark (↑)
6) The anti-clockwise revolving electron is represented by downward
arrow mark (↓) .
7) This quantum number describes the direction of spin of the revolving
electron.
3. Explain Heisenberg’s un-
un-certainty principle:
1) It was proposed by Erwin Heisenberg to explain wave nature of electron.
2) It states that it is impossible to determine the exact position and
momentum of an e in an atom simultaneously.
3) According to Heisenberg, the product of uncertainty in position (∆x) and
h
uncertainty in momentum (∆p) is ≥ .
4π
h
∆x.∆p ≥ ; where ∆ × = uncertainty is position.
4π
h
∆x Units – cm or m. ∆p units – g.cm/sec; kg m/sec. But ∆x ∆v ≥
4π m
Since the product of ∆x & ∆v is inversely proportional to mass, the
product values is very less in case of heavier particles or bodies.
h h
If ∆x =0, then ∆v = . = = ∞.
4π m∆x 4π m.0
If ∆x = 0; ∆v = ∞.
Conclusion:
Accuracy in one factor admits inaccuracy in another factor.

4. In which region the spectral line is obtained when an electron is transferred

from n1 = 4 to n2 = 5 orbit?
When an e- is transferred from n1 = 4 to n2 = 5, the spectral lines formed are
belong to Bracket series in the middle infrared region.

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5. How many ‘p’ electrons are present in sulphur atom?

Atomic number of sulphur = 16
Electronic configuration = 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p4
Hence there are ‘10’ ‘p’ electrons in sulphur.
6. Why the three p-
p- electrons in Nitrogen are unpaired and also parallel?
The configuration of Nitrogen (Z = 7) is [He] 2s2 2p3
(or)
[He] ↑↓ ↑ ↑ ↑
This is according to Hund’s Rule of maximum multiplicity.

7. What will be the de-

de-Broglie wave length of a ball of mass of 0.1 kg moving
with a velocity of m/s (h = 6.626 × 10-34 Js)
h
Debrogle wave length of ball λ =
mv
6.626 × 10−34 J .S
= = 6.626 ×10 −34 metres.
0.1 kg × 10m / s

8. What are the limitations of Bohr’s Theory

(1) Read point given in page : 16 of notes.
(2) Bohr’s model of hydrogen atom not only ignores dual behavior of matter.
But also contradicts HeisenBerg’s uncertainity principle.

9. Define (a) nodal plane (b) Radial node/node/nodal point.

Nodal Plane: The plane at which the probability of finding an e is zero.

The number of nodal planes for an orbital is given by ‘
’ (Azimuthal quantum

number). For s-orbit number of nodal planes = 0; for p = 1; d =
2; f = 3 Nodal plane or nodal region.

Node or nodal point: The pt. at which the probability of finding an e is zero
called Node or nodal point. Its value is (n –
– 1).

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ASSIGNMENT - I

1. ___________ Number of neutrons present in fluorine.

2. Among the ions CN-, O2+, O2-, N2+, the iso electronic with CO is____________.
3. Among the atoms 92 U 230 , 93 Np 230 , 94 Pu 239 , the atom contains least number of
neutrons is _________________
4. Among the particles proton, neutron, electron, positron, the particle not
deflected by magnetic field is ___________________
5. When passing through a magnetic field, the greatest deflection is
experienced by ________ rays.
6. Isotones have same ___________________.
7. Two nuclides X and Y are isotonic to each other with mass number 70 and 72
respectively. If the atomic number of X is 34, then that of Y would be _____.
8. If the wavelength of a certain wave of light is 2.0 × 103 cm. Then the
frequency of this wave is __________________.
9. __________ is the wave number for light with a wavelength of 4000 A0 (in cm-1).
10. _________________ is frequency of radiation whose wavelength is 600 nm.
11. Among the colors red, blue, green and yellow, the colored radiation with
lowest energy is _______________.
12. The energy of a photon is 3×10-12 ergs. Then its wavelength is ______ (in nm).
13. If the wavelength of green light is about 5000 A0. Then the frequency of its
wave is _________.
14. Among these x-rays, IR, visible, and UV, the radiation of least energy is _____.
15. The wavelength of two different radiations are 3000 A0 and 5000 A0. Their
frequencies ratio is _______________.
16. The source of ultra violet radiation is ___________________.
17. Among the rays UV, X-ray, IR and radio waves, the radiation having maximum
wavelength is ___________________.
18. The ejection of electrons when the surface of metal is irradiated by light is
called _________ effect.
19. In photoelectric effect the number of photo electrons emitted is proportional
to _________________.
20. The kinetic energy of the photo electrons doesn’t depend upon ___________.
21. The ratio of energy to frequency of electromagnetic radiation is called _____
constant.
22. The ratio of energy of a photon of 200 nm wavelength radiation to that of
400 nm radiation is ___________________.
23. The work function of a metal is 4.2 ev. If radiation of 2000 A0 falls on the
metal, then the kinetic energy of the fastest photo electrons is _________
(in joules).
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24. If threshold wavelength for ejection of electron from metal is 330 nm, then
the work function for the photoelectric emission is _______________(in joules).
25. The minimum energy is required to eject an electron from an atom is called
__________.
26. When an electron falls from 4th orbit to 2nd orbit in hydrogen atom, the
spectral time is observed in ___________________ region.
27. The Number of spectral lines possible when an electron falls from 5th orbit to
ground state in hydrogen atom is ________________.
28. Transition of electron in hydrogen atom from n=5 to n=1 results in the
formation of hydrogen atom spectral lines in ______________ series.
29. ______ is the wavelength of Hβ line in the Balmer series of hydrogen spectra.
30. _________ is wave number of the first emission line in the atomic spectrum of
hydrogen in the Balmer series.
31. _______________ are the values of n1 and n2 respectively for Hβ line in Lyman
series of hydrogen atomic spectrum.
32. When an electron in hydrogen atom jumps from n=5 to n=2 the emitted
radiation lies in ______________region.
33. If the energy of the electron in first Bohr orbit of H-atom is E, _____energy of
the electron the first Bohr Orbit of Li2+ ion.
34. If the wave number of the first line in the Balmer series of Hydrogen atom is
15,000 cm-1, the wave number of the first line of the Balmer series of Li+2 is
________.
35. The λ for Hα line of Balmer series is 6500 A0. Thus λ for Hβ line of Balmer
series is ___________.
36. The wavelength of spectral line emitted by hydrogen atom in the Lyman
16
series is cm. Then the value of n2 is ___________________
15R
37. _________ is the wave number of fourth line in Balmer series of hydrogen atom.
38. The angular momentum of an atom in a Bohr orbit is ____________________.
39. The ratio of kinetic energy and potential energy of an electron in a Bohr orbit
of a hydrogen atom is __________________.
40. The minimum energy required to be supplied to hydrogen atom to push its
electron from second orbit to third orbit is __________________. (in ev)
41. ______________ radius of first Bohr orbit in hydrogen atom (in pm).
42. The ionization energy of the ground state of hydrogen atom is 2.18 × 10-18 J.
The energy of electron in its second orbit would be _____________ (in joules).
43. The splitting of spectral lines of H-atom in presence of magnetic field is called
_________ effect.

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44. If Ionization potential of hydrogen atom is 13.6 eV, the ionization potential of
He+ is ____________ in eV.
45. _________________ is the number of elliptical orbits in 5th orbit.
46. The ratio of radius of second and third Bohr orbit is _______________________.
47. The energy of an electron in the first Bohr orbit of H-atom is -21.76×10-19 J.
The energy required to remove an electron from the third Bohr orbit of He+
ion will be _____________ (in joules).
48. The ionization energy of hydrogen atom is its ground state is 2.17 × 10-18
Joules. The ionization energy of Li+2 in the ground state will be ___(in joules).
49. _________ angular momentum of an electron in the M shell of hydrogen atom.
50. If the speed of electron in the Bohr’s 1st orbit of hydrogen atom is x, the
speed of electron in the third Bohr’s orbit is _______________.
51. The radius of the first orbit in hydrogen is 0.53 A0. So the radius of the
second orbit in He+ is _______________.
52. According to Bohr’s theory, the angular momentum for an electron of 5th
orbit is ______________.
53. When an electron of charge e and mass m moves with velocity V about the
nuclear charge Ze in the circular orbit of radius r, the potential energy of the
electron is ____________.
54. The kinetic energies of the electron in the hydrogen atom in its first, second
and third orbits are in the ratio ____________
55. The ratio of the difference in energy between the first and second Bohr
orbits to that between second and third Bohr’s orbit is ___________________.
56. The radius of Bohr’s first orbit in hydrogen atom is 0.053 nm. The radius of
the second orbit of He+ would be ____________________(in nm).
57. The angular momentum of an electron present in the excited state of
1.5h
hydrogen is . The electron is present in ___________________ orbit.
π
58. As electron moves away from the nucleus, its kinetic energy _____________.
59. Four quantum numbers of the valency electron of potassium atom are ____.
60. The Set of four quantum numbers of the differentiating electron of atom
(Z=55) is ___________________.
61. For the differentiating electrons of the atom (Z=37) the value of azimuthal
quantum number is ________________.
62. The minimum angular momentum of an electron with the magnetic quantum
numbers -1, 0, +1 is ____________________.
63. For a given principal level n=4, the energy of the correct increasing order of
s, p, d, f orbitals is ____________________.
64. _________________ number of electrons that can have n=4 and l=3.
65. The maximum number of electrons with spin value + ½ in the orbitals with
azimuthal quantum number value
= 4 is ______________________.

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66. Two electrons in an orbital are distinguished by ________________ quantum

number.
67. The orbital angular momentum of an electron in 2s orbital is _______________.
68. For a d electron, the orbital angular momentum is ____________________.
69. For the principal quantum number n=6, the maximum number of electrons
which can be accommodated in possible orbitals are _____________________
70. The shape of an orbital is given by __________________ quantum number.
71. The Maximum number of orbitals present in n=4 energy level of an atom is
________.
72. The Maximum number of 3d electrons can have the spin quantum number – ½
is ______________.
73. The four quantum numbers of fourth electron of Be are _________________
74. The number of sub-shells for principal quantum number n=4 is ___________
75. The maximum number of electrons present in n=5 energy level is __________.
76. _____ quantum number not obtained from the schrodinger’s wave equation.
77. The total values of magnetic quantum number of an electron when the value
of n=2 is ________.
78. The correct set of quantum numbers for the outer shell electron of 21 Sc is
___________.
79. _______________ quantum number which is designated by letters s, p, d, f
instead of number.
80. The maximum number of sub-levels, orbitals and electrons in ‘N’ shell of an
atom are respectively _________________.
81. The wavelength of a car with a mass of 1.3×106 gm moving at a speed of
1×103 cm/sec is ______ (in cm).
82. _______ wavelength of an electron moving with a velocity of 4.4 × 103 cm/sec.
(in A0).
83. The mass of the electron 9.1×10-28 gm and uncertainty in the velocity equal to
2×10-3 cm/sec. The uncertainty in the position of an electron is ____________.
84. If an electron is moving with a velocity of 1.1×106 m/sec, de Broglie wave
length approximately is ___________________.
85. Heisenberg uncertainty principle is mathematically represented as _________.
86. If Planck’s constant h = 6.6 × 10 -34 Joule-sec, the de Broglie wave length of a
particle having momentum 3.3×10 -24 kg-m/sec will be ___________________
87. If a particle of one gram is moving with a velocity 100 m/sec, its wavelength is
_________.

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88. If the uncertainty in the position of an electron is 10-8, the uncertainty in its
velocity is ____________________.
89. The momentum of the particle having the wavelength of 1 A0 is ______________.
90. The uncertainty in the momentum of an electron is 10-5 kg-m/sec. The
uncertainty in its position will be _____________________.
91. The de Broglie wavelength of a particle with mass 1 gm and velocity 100 m/sec
is _______________.
92. Uncertainty in position of a particle of 25 gm in space is 10 -5 m. Hence
uncertainty in velocity is ____________ (in m/sec).
93. If uncertainty in position of electron is zero, the uncertainty in its momentum
would be _______________.
94. The angular momentum of an electron present in the excited state of hydrogen
1.5h
is . The electron is present in _________________ orbit.
π
95. The maximum probability of finding an electron in hydrogen atom according
to wave mechanical model is at ____________________.
96. Among the orbitals s, p, d, f, the orbital doesn’t passes nodal plane is _______
97. Nodal plane of Px orbital can be shown as ___________________ plane.
98. The number of nodal planes in each p- orbital is _________________
99. In atomic orbital, the sign of lobes indicates the _________________
100. Shape of 2px orbital is ______________________.
101. Number of nodal planes in each d-orbital is ___________________.
102. Number of unpaired electrons in Cu+2 is ______________________.
103. Among these 3s, 3p, 4s, 4p, 3d, the correct increasing order of energies
_________.
104. After filling the 4d orbitals, an electron will enters in _______________ orbital.
105. In a given atom no two electrons can have the same values for all the four
quantum numbers. This is called ___________________ principle (rule).
106. The various orbitals are filled by electrons in the increasing order of their n+

values. This statement is known as _______________________ rule.
107. A transition metal X has configuration Ar 3d4 in its +3 state. Its atomic
number is ______________________.
108. _______________ are the values of n1 and n2 respectively for Hβ line in the
Lyman series of hydrogen atomic spectrum.
109. The energy of an electron present Bohr’s second orbit of hydrogen atom is
__________ (in KJ/mol)
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110. The energy of an electromagnetic radiation is 19.875 × 10-13ergs. Then the

wave number is ________________ (in cm-1).

111. The atomic number of an element is 35. Then the total number of electrons
present in all the p orbitals of the ground state atom of the element is
____________.
112. If the wave length of an electromagnetic radiation is 2000 A0. Then the
energy is ___________ in ergs.
113. An element has 2 electrons in K shell, 8 electrons in L shell, 13 electrons in
M shell and 1 electron in N shell. The element is _______________.
114. The atomic numbers of elements X, Y and Z are 19, 21 and 25 respectively.
The correct decreasing order of number of electrons present in the M shell
is __________________.
115. An electron is moving in Bohr’s orbit. It’s de Broglie’s wavelength is λ. Then
the circumference of the fourth orbit is ___________________.
116. The maximum number of sub-levels, orbitals and electrons in ‘N’ shell, of an
atom are respectively ________________.
117. The wavelength of an emission line obtained for Li+2 during an electronic
transition from n2 = 2 to n1=1 is ________________________.
118. The wavelengths of electron waves in two orbits is 3:5. Then the ratio of
kinetic energy of electrons will be _________________.
119. If the uncertainty in velocities of two particles A and B with mass 1.0 ×10 -27
kg and 1.0 ×10 -31 kg respectively is the same, the ratio of uncertainty in the
positions of A and B is ___________________.
120. The quantum number which explains the line spectra observed as doublets
in case of hydrogen and alkali metals and doublets and triplets in case of
alkaline earth metals is ___________________.
121. In photoelectric effect, if the energy required to overcome the attractive
forces on the electron, (work function) of Li, Na and Rb are 2.41 eV, 2.30 eV
and 2.09 eV respectively, the work function of ‘K’ could approximately be
___________in eV.
122. If the difference in the wave numbers of the first (lowest) two lines of a series
of hydrogen atomic spectrum is 5331.7 cm-1, they belong to the___________
series. (RH = 109680 cm-1)
0
123. In a hydrogen atom, the electron is at a distance of 4.768 A from the
nucleus. The angular momentum of the electron is_____________.
124. When there are two electrons in the same orbital, they have _________ spins.

125. Isotopes of an element differ in the number of ___________ in their nuclei.

126. Elements of the same mass number but of different atomic numbers are
known as ___________.
127. The uncertainty principle and the concept of wave nature were given by
_____________ respectively.

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128. Wave functions of electrons in atoms and molecules are called ____________.

129. The potential energy (PEn) of ions formula is _________________.

130. The wavelength (λn) of the pion orbiting in nth stationary state is given by
formula is ______________.
131. Which of the following is not a characteristic of Planck’s quantum theory of
radiation?
(1) Radiations are associated with energy
(2) Magnitude of energy associated with a quantum is equal to h hυ
(3) Radiation energy is neither emitted nor absorbed continuously
(4) A body can emit less or more th
than a ‘quantum of energy
132. Which out of the following configurations is incorrect?
(1) 1s 2 2s 2 2 px2 2 p 2y 2 pz0 (2) 1s 2 2s 2 2 p1x 2 p1y

(3) 1s 2 2s 2 2 p1x 2 p1y 2 p1z (4) 1s 2 2s 2 2 p 6 3s 2 3 p 6 3d 5 4s1

133. For which of the following electron distributions in ground state, the Pauli’s
exclusion
exclusion principle
principle is violated?

134. What is the total number of pairs of electrons atleast same quantum
numbers for Be?
135. A certain transition in H spectrum from an excited state to ground state in
one or more steps gives rise to total 10 lines. How many of these belongs
to UV spectrum?
136. The sum of all the quantum numbers of helium atom is

137. The maximum number of electrons that can be accommodated in an orbital is

138. How many of the following are possible: (1p, 2s, 3p, 3f, 3d)

139. The number of nodes in 3p orbital.

140. Which of the following is/are not indicated by the sign of lobes in an atom?
(1) Sign of charges (2) Sign of probability distribution
(3) Sign of wave function (4) Presence or absence of electron

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TRUE/FALSE TYPE QUESTIONS

(1) There is no probability of finding a p – electron right at the nucleus

(2) The orbital dz2 has two lobes of electron density directed along the z – axis and a
ring of electron density (called dough nut) centred in the xy – plane
(3) The orientation of p and d orbitals minimizes electron - electron repulsion in
many electron atoms
(4) For all values of n, the p orbitals have the same shape but the overall size
increases as n increase, for a given atom
(5) The fact that there is a particular direction along which each p orbital has
maximum electron density, plays an important role in determining molecular
geometries
(6) The charge cloud of a single electron in 2px atomic orbital consists of two lobes
of electron density

PASSAGE (For 7 -9 Questions)

The charged cloud of a single electron in a 2px atomic orbital has two lobes of
electron density. This means

(7) There is a high probability of locating the electron in the 2px atomic orbital at
values of x > 0
(8) There is a high probability of locating it at values of x > 0 but no probability at all
of the locating it any where the yz – plane along which x = 0
(9) There is a great probability of finding a p electron right at the nucleus
(10) The energy of an electron in a many electron atom generally increases with
an increase in value of n, but for a given, the lower the value of l the lower
the energy
(11) An electron close to the nucleus experiences a large electrostatic attraction
(12) For a given value of n, an s – electron penetrates of the nucleus more than a
p-electron, which penetrates more than a d-electron, and so on
(13) It states that if more than one atomic orbital of the same energy is available,
electrons will occupy different atomic orbitals with parallel spins, as far as
possible, in the configuration of lowest energy
(14) Total energy of many electron atom with more than one electron occupying
a set of degenerate orbitals is lowest if as far as possible, electrons occupy
different atomic orbitals and have parallel spins
(15) Hunds rule forbid any configuration that does not violate the Pauli’s
exclusion principle
(16) Hund’s rule simply tells us which of the possible configurations is lowest in
energy and other configurations are those of excited states, higher in energy
than the ground state
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(17) A configuration with the maximum spin multiplicity has the minimum energy
and thus is most stable
(18) The energy of 3d orbital may be greater than or lesser than, or equal to that
of 4s orbital depending upon the atomic number of atom
(19) All p orbitals have the same type of angular dependence irrespective of the
value of principal quantum number n
(20) In a given electrical field, β - particles are deflected more than α -particles in
spite of α -particles having larger charge

PASSAGE (For 21-22 Questions)

The two electrons have the following sets of quantum numbers:
X : 3, 2, -2, +1/2 Y: 3, 0, 0, +1/2
(21) X and Y have same energy
(22) X and Y have unequal energy
(23) X and Y represent same electron

Note: statements concerning Bohr’s model. (for 23-27 questions)

(24) It predicts that probability of electron near nucleus is more

(25) The angular momentum of electron in H atom = nh / 2π
(26) It introduces the idea of stationary states
(27) It explains the line spectrum of hydrogen
(28) The angular momentum of an electron due to its spinning is given as
 h 
s( s + 1)   , where s can take a value of 1/2
 2π 
(29) The angular momentum of an electron due to its spinning is given as
 h 
ms   , where ms can take the value of +1/2
 2π 
(30) The azimuthal quantum number cannot have negative values
(31) The potential energy of an electron in an orbit is twice in magnitude as
compared to its kinetic energy
(32) According to Pauli’s exclusion principle, no two electrons in an atom can
have the same values of quantum numbers n, l and m.
(33) The total energy of an electron in an orbit is half of its potential energy
(34) The speed of an electron in a orbit increases with increase of its quantum
number n
(35) The energy of an electron in a orbit decreases with increase of its quantum
number n
(36) The ionization energy of a hydrogen – like species in its ground state is equal
to the magnitude of energy of the orbit having n = 1

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(37) The ionization energy of a hydrogen – like species in its ground state
increases in proportion to the positive charge in its nucleus
h
(38) According to the uncertainty principle, ∆p∆x ≤
4π
(39) The energy of an electron in an orbital of a multielectron atom depends only
on the principal quantum number n
(40) The energy of an electron in an orbital of a hydrogen-like species depends
only on the principal quantum number n
(41) The angular momentum of an electron in an orbital of multielectron atom
depends on the quantum numbers l and m
(42) The expression of angular momentum of an electron in an orbital is given as
 h 
l (l − 1)  
 2π 
(43) The z – component of angular momentum of an electron in an orbital is given
 h 
as m  
 2π 
(44) The number of orbitals for a given value of
is equal to 2
+1
(45) The number of orbitals for a given value of n is equal to n2
(46) An atom having unpaired electrons is diamagnetic in nature
(47) All s orbitals are spherical symmetrical in shape
(48) The half – filled and fully – filled electronic configurations are less stable
than the other configurations having the same number of electrons
(49) The symbol s for the orbitals having
= 0 has its origin from the term
spherical symmetrical
(50) The increasing order for the value of e/m (charge/mass) for electron (e),
proton (p), neutron (n), and apha particle ( α ) is n < α < p < e
(51) The energy of photon having wavelength 800 nm is larger than that having
400 nm
(52) Pfund spectral series for which n1 = 5 and n2 = 6, 7, … lies in the far infrared
region of the electro magnetic radiation
(53) Visible region of electromagnetic radiations has wavelength from 400 nm to
800 nm
(54) Balmer spectral series lies in the visible portion of the electromagnetic
radiation
(55) Lyman spectral series lies in the visible portion of the electromagnetic
radiation
(56) Bracket spectral series for which n1 = 4 and n2 = 5, 6, 7, … lies in the infrared
region of the electromagnetic radiation
(57) The orbital 3d z2 is symmetrical about z – axis

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(58) The orbital 3dxy has no probability of finding electron along x – and y – axis
(59) The orbital 3d x2 − y 2 has no probability of finding electron along x – and y – axis
(60) The number of electrons and protons are always equal in all atoms
(61) Neutron can be found in all the atoms
(62) Isotopes have same number of atomic mass
14 14
(63) 7 N and 6 C are isobars
(64) Bohr’s model failed to explain atomic spectra of multielectron atoms
(65) Electron was discovered by Goldstein
(66) Electron has wave nature as well as particle nature
(67) The velocity of the electron is maximum in the Bohr’s first orbit
(68) The order of energy of orbitals is s < p < d< f
(69) Fe3+ is paramagnetic
(70) The azimuthal quantum number (
) determines the energy level of the shell
(71) e/m ratio of proton is greater than that of electron
(72) px orbital is symmetrical about x – axis
(73) In an orbital, maximum two electrons can be accommodated
(74) Ψ 2 determines the probability of finding the electron in particular region of space
(75) All EMR travel with speed of light
(76) The s orbital is spherical in shape
(77) For any two electrons in an atom, the set of all four quantum number can be same
(78) Half – filled and fully – filled orbitals are more stable
h
(79) The orbital angular momentum of a p electron is equal to 2
2π
(80) The position and velocity of an electron can be determined precisely
(81) The magnetic quantum number gives the orientation of electron clouds with
respect to external magnetic field
(82) The electron distribution is spherically symmetrical for
= 2
(83) For hydrogen atom, the energies of the sub-shells 4s, 4p, 4d, and 4f are in
the order 4f > 4d > 4p > 4s.
(84) 3s orbital has three nodes
(85) 4s orbital has less energy than 3d orbital
(86) The order of shielding effect for different orbitals is s > p > d > f
(87) The 3g orbital is not possible
(88) A single photon excites only a single electron
(89) An electron can absorb more than one photon simultaneously
(90) Electrons behaves a wave
(91) s-orbital is non-directional
(92) An orbital can accommodate a maximum of two electrons with parallel spins
(93) The energies of the various sub-shells in the same shell are in the order
s>p>d>f
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(94) The outer electronic configuration of the ground state chromium atom is 3d2, 4s2.
(95) The energy of the electron in the 3d orbital is less than that in the 4s orbital
in the hydrogen atom.
(96) γ -rays are electromagnetic radiations of wavelengths of 10-6 to 10-5 cm.
(97) The electron density in the xy – plane in 3d x 2 − y 2 orbital is zero.

(98) In a given electric field, the β - particles are deflected more than the
α - particles in spite of the α - particles having a larger charge.

ASSIGNMENT – II

1. Calculate the wavelength of radiation emitted when an electron in a

hydrogen atom makes a transition from an energy level with n = 3 to level
with n = 2.
2. Give the number of identical orbitals in a given energy level and the values
for their m quantum numbers.
3. If the principal quantum number n has a value of 3, what are the permitted
values of the quantum number
?
4. Which of the following sets of quantum number for orbitals in hydrogen atom
has a greater energy of electrons?
a. n = 3, l = 2, and m = +1 b. n = 3, l = 2, and m = -1
5. If the energy difference between the electronic states is 214.68 kJ mol-1,
calculate the frequency of light emitted when an electron drops from the
higher to the lower state,(Planck’s constant,h = 39.79 x 10-14 kJ/ mol).
6. A spectral line in the Lyman series of hydrogen atom has a wave number of
82200 cm-1. What transition is responsible for the radiation? (R = 109600 cm-1)
−2.179 × 10−18
7. Energy in the nth Bohr’s orbit is given by E = J Calculate the
n2
frequency and wave number of the radiation emitted when an electron
jumps from the third orbit to the second orbit (h = 6.62 x 10-34 J s).
8. Calculate the momentum of a particle which has a de Broglie wavelength of
10 nm.
9. The binding energy of electrons in a metal is 193 kJ mol-1. Find the threshold
frequency of the metal.
10. An electron is accelerated to one-tenth the velocity of light. Suppose its
velocity can be measured with a precision of 1%, what must be the
uncertainty in position?
11. What is the energy difference and the frequency and the wavelength of light
emitted when the electron in a hydrogen atom undergoes transition from the
energy level n = 4 to the energy level n = 3, given that the value of Rydberg
constant is 1.0974 x 107m-1?
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12. Calculate the approximate radius of polonium 210 nucleus.

13. With what velocity should an α − particle travel towards the nucleus of a
copper atom so as to arrive at a distance 10-3 m from the nucleus of the
copper atom?
14. An electron diffraction experiment was performed with a beam of electrons
accelerated by a potential difference of 10.0 k eV. What is the wavelength of
the electron beam.
15. If 1.0 g body is travelling along the x – axis at 100 cm s-1 within 1 cm s-1, what
is the uncertainty in its position?
16. a. Calculate the radius of Bohr’s first orbit for hydrogen atom and the energy
of electron in this orbit.
b. Calculate the Bohr’s radius for the fifth orbit of the hydrogen atom.
17. Calculate the velocity of an electron in the first Bohr orbit of a hydrogen atom.
18. In a hydrogen atom, an electron jumps from the second orbit to the first
orbit. Find out
a. The frequency of the radiation emitted
b. The wavelength of the radiation
c. The region of the electromagnetic spectrum in which this line will fall
19. The energy of the electron in the second and third Bohr orbits of the
hydrogen atom is -5.42 x 10-12 erg and -2.41 x 10-12 erg, respectively.
Calculate the wavelength of the emitted radiation when the electron drops
from third to second orbit.
20. Calculate the wavelength and energy for radiation emitted for the electronic
transition from infinity (∞ ) to stationary state of the hydrogen atom.
R = 1.0967 x 107 m-1, h = 6.6256 x 10-34 J s, and C = 2.9979 x 108 m s-1
21. Calculate the wavelength in Angstroms of the photon that is emitted when an
electron in Bohr orbit n = 2 returns to the orbit n = 1 in the hydrogen atom.
The ionization potential of the ground state of hydrogen atom is 2.17 x 10-11
ergs per atom.
0
22. A light of wavelength 12818 A is emitted when the electron of a hydrogen
atom drops from fifth to third quantum level. Find the wavelength of the
photon emitted when electron falls from third to ground level.
23. Calculate the wavelength of the first number of Balmer series of hydrogen
spectrum (R for hydrogen = 1.09678 x 107 m-1)
24. In the Balmer series of atomic spectra of hydrogen, there is a line
0
corresponding to wavelength 4344 A . Calculate the number of higher orbits
from which the electron drops to generate other line
(R x c = 3.289 x 10 ).
15

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