Chapter 5-Synchronous Generators PDF

EME4363 Electrical Machines – Synchronous Generators
Chapter 5: Synchronous Generator
Generally, there are two windings on a machine:

 Field windings – windings that produce the main magnetic
field.
 Armature windings – windings where main voltage is
induced.
Field Windings Armature Windings

Induction Machines On the stator On the rotor
Synchronous On the rotor On the stator
Machines
Synchronous generators or alternators – synchronous machines

used to convert mechanical power to AC electric power.
 A dc is applied to the rotor winding, which produces a rotor

magnetic field.
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5.1 Synchronous Generator Construction
The rotor of a synchronous:
 Essentially a large electromagnet

 It’s magnetic poles are either:
o Non-salient poles, i.e. cylindrical. Normally used for 2
or 4 pole rotors.
o Salient poles, i.e. poles that are “protruding” or

“sticking out” from the rotor surface. Normally used for
rotors with 4 or more poles.
 Constructed of thin laminations to reduce eddy current losses.

 Contains field windings supplied with DC current.
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There are two common approaches to supplying this DC current:
1. From an external DC source by means by slip rings and

brushes.
a. Slip rings – metal rings encircling the shaft of machine but

isolated from it.
b. Brush – a block of graphite-like carbon compound that

conducts electricity freely but has very low friction such
that it doesn’t wear down the slip ring.
c. In a synchronous machine,
i. One end of the dc rotor winding is tied to each of the
two slip rings, and
ii. A stationary brush rides on each slip ring.
d. If positive end of a DC voltage source is connected to one

brush and the negative end is connected to the other, then
the DC voltage will be applied to the field winding at all
times regardless of the angular position of the speed of the
rotor.
e. Problems with slip rings and brushes:

i. Increased maintenance required – check brushes for
wear regularly.
ii. Brush voltage drop can cause significant power losses
on machines with larger field currents.
Slip rings and brushes are used on all small synchronous

generators.
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2. From a special DC power source mounted directly on the

shaft of the synchronous generator.
a. Used on larger generators.

b. Brushless exciters – a small AC generator with its field
circuit mounted on the stator and it’s armature circuit
mounted on the rotor shaft.
i. The three-phase output of the exciter generator is

rectified to direct current by a three-phase rectifier
circuit and fed to the main DC field circuit of the
generator.
ii. Brushless exciter requires much less maintenance since
there is no mechanical contacts.
c. To makes the excitation generator completely independent

of any external power sources, a small pilot exciter is
often included.
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d. Pilot exciter 0 a small AC generator with permanent

magnets mounted on the rotor shaft and a three-phase
winding on the stator.
i. Produces power for the field circuit of the exciter.

ii. Many synchronous generators having brushless exciters
also have slip rings and brushes as an auxiliary source
of DC field current in emergencies.
5.2 The Speed of Rotation of a Synchronous Generator
Synchronous generators are synchronous because the electrical

frequency produced is locked in or synchronized with the
mechanical rate of rotation of the generator.
The rotor produces a magnetic field that points in the direction the
rotor is turned.
Hence, the rate of rotation of magnetic fields in the machine is

related to the stator electrical frequency by:
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Where fe = electrical frequency, in Hz

nm = mechanical speed of magnetic field, in r/min (equals
speed of rotor for synchronous machines)
P = number of poles
Electric power is generated at 50 or 60 Hz, so the generator must

turn at a fixed speed depending on the number of poles on the
machine.
5.3 The Internal Generated Voltage of a Synchronous

Generator
The magnitude of the voltage induced in a given stator phase was

found to be:
E A  2N Cf
It is seen that the induced voltage depends on the flux and

frequency or speed of rotation.
For simplicity, it can be expressed in a simpler form:
Where ∅ is flux, K = constant representing machine construction.
If ω is expressed in electrical radians per second,
If ω is expressed in mechanical radians per second,
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And flux  itself depends on the current flowing in the rotor field
circuit IF in the manner shown in the figure below.
Plot of flux versus field current The magnetizing curve for the
for a synchronous generator. synchronous generator.
Hence, the internal generator voltage EA is related to the field

current IF by the magnetizing curve or open-circuit characteristic
of the machine shown above.
5.4 The Equivalent Circuit of a Synchronous Generator


EA = Internal generator voltage produced in one phase of a
synchronous generator.

V =Voltage at the stator winding terminals of the generator, i.e.
output voltage of a phase.
When there is a load connected


to the generator, there will be

differences between E A and V due to:
 Armature reaction – distortion of the air gap magnetic field
by the current flowing in the stator.
 Self-inductance of the armature coils.
 Resistance of the armature coils.
 Effect of salient pole rotor shapes.
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Effect of the first three factors will be explored and a machine

model will be derived for them.
However, the effects of a salient-pole shape on the synchronous

machine operation will be ignored.
All machines in this chapter are assumed to have non-salient or

cylindrical motors.
Armature reaction

When the generator’s rotor is spun, E A is induced in the stator
windings.

At no load, peak E A will be in

phase with BR . Since there is no
load, there is no armature
current flow, and 𝐸𝐴 (generated
voltage) will be equal to the
phase voltage 𝑉∅ .
If a lagging load is attached to
the terminals of the generator,
the peak current will occur at an
angle behind the peak voltage.
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
The stator magnetic field BS
created from the original rotor

magnetic field BR . This effect is
known as armature reaction.

BS also produces its own voltage

E stat (armature reaction voltage)
as shown in the figure on the
left.
The output voltage of the phase is given by:
And the net magnetic field is:
How can the effects of armature reaction be modeled?
It is noted that:
 
 E stat lies at an angle of 90 behind the plane of maximum I A .
 
 E stat is directly proportional to I A .
Hence, the armature reaction voltage can be expressed as,
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Therefore, the voltage on a phase:
Thus, armature reaction voltage can be modeled as an inductor in


series with the internal generated voltage E A as shown in the circuit
below.
Self Inductance and Resistance of Armature Coils
In addition to the effects of armature reaction, the stator coils have

a self-inductance and a resistance
In the stator:
 Self-inductance is called L A (reactance X A )

 Resistance called R A
Total difference between EA and 𝑉∅ given as
Both the armature reaction effects and the self-inductance can be

combined and represented by the synchronous reactance of the
machine. Synchronous reactance is
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
Then, the final equation describing V is given by:
Therefore, the full equivalent circuit of 3-phase synchronous

generator is shown below.
The DC power source supplying the rotor field circuit is modeled

by:
 The coil’s inductance LF and resistance RF in series.

 And adjustable resistor Radj that controls the flow of field
current.
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There are three identical stator circuits due to the three phases of
the stator windings in which the voltages and currents are 120
apart.
The three phases can be either Y-connected or Δ-connected with

the terminal voltage found using:
VT  3V (for Y-connected)

VT  V (for Δ-connected)
Ideally, the terminal voltage for all three phases should be identical
since we assume that the loads connected are balanced.
This leads to the use of a per-phase equivalent circuit:
Note: If the generator’s loads are not balanced, a more in-depth

and sophisticated analysis technique is required.
5.5 The phasor diagram of a Synchronous Generator
The phasor diagram of a synchronous generator is a graphical


representation of the current I A and voltages in the generator which
is given by the following voltage equation:
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The reference phasor (assumed to be at angle 0 )
Unity Power Factor
Lagging Power Factor
Leading Power Factor
 
For a given V and I A ,

 A larger generated internal voltage E A is required for lagging
loads than for leading loads.

 Hence, larger field current I F is needed with lagging loads to

get the same terminal voltage V because
E A  K
ω must be constant to keep constant frequency.
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
For a given I F and magnitude of load current, the terminal voltage

V is lower for lagging loads and higher for leading loads.
In real synchronous machines,
X S  R A
So RA is often neglected in the qualitative study of voltage

variations.
For accurate numerical results, RA must be included.
5.6 Power and Torque in Synchronous Generator
The synchronous generator converts mechanical power to three-

phase electrical power.
Hence, the source of mechanical (input) power is from the prime

mover, which can be:
 A diesel engine
 A steam turbine
 A water turbine
 Or any similar device.
Regardless of the type of prime mover and the power demand, the
rotor speed must remain constant.
The power-flow diagram for a synchronous generator is shown

next:
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Input power = mechanical shaft power, i.e.
Converted power (from mechanical to electrical form):
Where γ = the angle between EA and IA
Rotor side losses – Stray losses, friction and windage losses, core
loss:
Real output power:
And the reactive output power:
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As mentioned previously, the armature resistance RA can be

ignored (since X S  RA ). If this is applied, then a very useful
equation can be derived to approximate the output power of the
generator.
By ignoring RA and assuming a lagging load is connected, a

simplified phasor diagram of a generator is obtained as shown
below:
From this simplified phasor diagram, it is seen that,
Substituting this equation into the equation, we have another

expression for real output power:
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From the above equation, it can be summarized that:

 
 Power produced depends on the angle δ between V and EA .
 δ is known as the torque angle of the machine.
 Maximum power occurs when δ =90, sin δ = 1
Equation above is called the static stability limit of the generator.
Note: Normally real generators never come close to this limit.
From Chapter 4, the induced torque in the generator can be

expressed as,  
Tind  kBR  BS
 
Tind  kBR  Bnet
Its magnitude is given by,

 
Tind  kBR Bnet sin 
 
Where δ = Torque angle = angle between BR and Bnet = angle
 
between E A and V .
   
In the generator, BR produces EA and Bnet produces V .
Since we assume RA = 0, hence Pconv  Pout .
Finally, the alternative induced torque expression is given by:
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Equation above expresses induced torque in terms of electrical

 
quantities whereas equation Tind  kBR  Bnet gives in torque in terms
of magnetic quantities.
5.7 Measuring Synchronous Generator Model Parameters
There are basically 3 quantities which must to be determined to

model a real synchronous generator:
a. Field current and flux relationship (and thus relationship


between field current and E A ).
b. Synchronous reactance, X S .
c. Armature resistance, R A .
Open Circuit Test

 
Gives relationship between IP and EA .
Steps:
1. Generator is rotated at rated speed.
2. No load is connected at the terminals.
3. Field current is gradually increased from 0 to maximum.
4. Record values of the terminal voltage at each increment of
field current.
  
Since there is no load, i.e. IA = 0, EA = V .
Therefore, it is possible to construct a plot (from the test data) of:
EA or VT versus IF called the

Open Circuit Characteristic (OCC)
With this characteristic, we can find EA value at any given value of

IF.
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 At first, curve is almost perfectly

linear (following the air gap line).
 Here iron is unsaturated and
reluctance of iron is several
thousand times lower than the air
gap reluctance. So all mmf is
across the air gap and resulting
flux is linear.
 When iron saturates, reluctance of
iron increases dramatically and
flux increases more slowly with
Typical OCC of a synchronous increase in mmf.
generator
Short Circuit Test
Steps:
1. Generator is rotated at rated speed.
2. Short circuit the terminals.
3. Field current is gradually increased from 0 to maximum.
4. Measure armature current or line current as the field current
is increased.
Therefore it is possible to construct a plot (from the test data) of:
IA versus IF
Called the Short Circuit Characteristic (SCC)
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 During the short circuit

analysis, the net magnetic
field is very small; hence
the core is not saturated.
That is why the SCC is
linear.
 The SCC is essentially a
straight line.
Typical SCC of a synchronous
generator
To understand why the SCC is a straight line, look at the

equivalent circuit in Figure below, when the stator (armature)
terminals are short circuited.
(b)
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(c)
(a) The equivalent circuit of a synchronous generator during the

short-circuit test. (b) The resulting phasor diagram. (c) The
magnetic fields during the short-circuit test.
Due to the short circuit, the armature current:
And its magnitude is given by:
It is seen that:
 
 BS almost cancels out BR .

 Bnet is very small (corresponding to internal resistive and
inductive drops only).

Therefore, since Bnet is small, the machine is unsaturated and the
SCC is linear.
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How can we obtain the parameters from these two tests?
From the short circuit test equivalent circuit, the internal machine
impedance is given by:
Since X S  R A , the equation reduces to:
Hence, the synchronous reactance XS can be found at a given field

current through these steps:

1. Get the internal generated voltage E A from OCC at that field
current.

2. Get the short circuited current flow I A,SC at that field current
from SCC.
3. Find X S using equation above
Problem with this approach:


 is taken from the OCC whereby the core would be
EA
unsaturated for large field currents.

 While I A is taken from the SCC where the machine is
unsaturated at all field currents.
 Therefore, at a given field current (especially when field
 
current is high), E A taken from OCC is not the same as E A
under the short-circuit conditions. This difference causes: X S
would be approximate value.
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To gain better accuracy, the test should be done at low field

currents which looks at the linear region of the OCC test.
How to find the winding’s resistance RA of the machine?
1. Apply DC voltage to the stator winding terminals.

2. Generator is stationary.
3. Measure the current IDC that is flowing.
Value of RA found from the DC test may increase the XS accuracy,
The Short Circuit Ratio:
Ratio of the field current required for the rated voltage at open
circuit to the field current required for rated armature current at
short circuit.
This quantity is just the reciprocal of the per-unit value of the

approximate saturated XS calculated.
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Synchronous generators are connected to loads and its behavior

under load varies depending on:
 The power factor of the load.

 Whether it is operating alone or in parallel with other
generators.
5.8 The Synchronous Generator Operating Alone
The generator is assumed to be connected to a load.
Other assumptions:
 The effect of RA is ignored in all phasor diagrams.

 Generator speed ω is constant.
 Rotor flux Φ is constant (i.e. field current is kept constant by
not changing the field resistor).
Hence, the internal generated voltage magnitude, E A  k
When the load is increased, we observe:
 An increase in IA drawn from the generator.

 Also, an increase in the armature reaction voltage, jXsIA
drawn from the generator.
If we have a lagging load:
 Load is increased with the lagging power factor maintained.


 I A will increase but will remain at the same angle with

reference to V .
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
 The armature reaction voltage jX S I A will also increase and
will maintain the same angle. Since,

 Note that E A has to remain constant (refer to the assumption
stated earlier).
 Hence the only element which would change to compensate

would be V . This change may be seen in the phasor diagram.
The effect of an increase

in generator loads at
constant power factor
upon its terminal voltage
at lagging power factor.
Therefore, if the constraints are observed, as the lagging load

increases, voltage, 𝑉∅ decrease sharply.
If we have a unity-power factor load:
 Load is increased with the unity power factor maintained.

 
 I A and jX S I A will increase but maintaining the same angle

with reference to V .
 
 Since E A has to remain constant, V will have to change as
seen in the phasor diagram.
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The effect of an increase in

generator loads at constant
power factor upon its terminal
voltage at unity power factor.
Hence, with the same constraints as before (i.e. with the lagging
load), it is observed that with an increasing unity load, voltage, 𝑉∅
decrease slightly.
If we have a leading load:
 Load is increased with the leading power factor maintained.

 
 I A and jX S I A will increase but maintaining the same angle

with reference to V .
 
 Furthermore, E A has to remain constant causing V to
change. This can be seen in the phasor diagram.
The effect of an increase

in generator loads at
constant power factor
upon its terminal voltage
at leading power factor.
Therefore, as the leading load is increased, terminal voltage will

increase.
An easy way to compare the voltage behaviors of 2 generators is
by voltage regulation. VR is defined by
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However, in reality, it is best to keep the output voltage of a

generator constant.

Hence, E A has to be controlled to compensate for changes in load.
Recall that,

E A  E A  k

Thus, EA can be controlled by varying flux in the machine.
Note: Varying IF will vary the flux Φ in the core which will then
vary EA accordingly as referred from OCC.
5.9 Parallel Operations of AC Generators
Advantages for operating in parallel:
 Ability to handle larger loads

 Increased power system reliability
 Ability to carry out maintenance without power disruption.
 Increased efficiency.
Conditions required for paralleling
The figure below shows a synchronous generator G1 supplying a

load with another generator G2 about to be paralleled with G1 by
closing the switch S1.
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If the switch is closed arbitrarily at some moment, the generators

are liable to be severely damaged and the load may lose power.
Hence, paralleling 2 or more generators must be done carefully as

to avoid generator or other system component damage. Its
conditions are as follows:
a. RMS line voltages of two generators must be equal. If

they are not exact, then there will be a very large current
flow when the switch is closed.
b. The generators to be paralleled must have the same phase
sequence. If the phase sequence is different (as shown
below), then even though one pair of voltages are in phase,
the other two pairs are 120o out of phase and large currents
will flow which can damage both machines.
c. Generator output phase angles must be the same.

d. The oncoming generator must have a slightly higher as
compared to the system frequency. This is done so that the
phase angles of the oncoming machine will change slowly
with respect to the phase angles of the running system to
facilitate closing of S1 when the systems are exactly in
phase.
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General procedures for paralleling generators
Suppose that generator G2 is to be connected to the running system

as shown below:
1. Using voltmeters, the field current of the oncoming generator

should be adjusted until its terminal voltage is equal to the
line voltage of the running system
2. Check and verify that the phase sequence of the oncoming
generator is identical to the system phase sequence. There are
2 suggested methods to do this:
a. Alternately connect a small induction motor to the

terminals of each of the two generators. If the motor
rotates in the same direction each time, then the phase
sequence differ and two of the conductors on the
incoming generator must be reversed.
b. Using the three-light-bulb method, whereby three light
bulbs are stretched across the open terminals of the
switch connecting the generator to the system (as
shown in the figure on the previous page). As the phase
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changes between the two systems, the light bulbs first

get bright (large phase difference) and then get dim
(small phase difference). If all three bulbs get bright
and dark together. Then the systems have the same
phase sequence. If the bulbs brighten in succession,
then the systems have the opposite phase sequence, and
one of the sequences must be reversed.
3. Check and verify generator frequency to be slightly higher

than the system frequency. This is done by watching a
frequency meter until the frequencies are close and then by
observing changes in the phase between the systems.
4. Once the frequencies are nearly equal, the voltages in the two
systems will change phase with respect to each other very
slowly. The phase changes are observed and when the phase
angles are equal, the switch connecting the two systems are
shut.
How to verify that the two systems are finally in phase? Use the:
 Three-light-bulb method – when all three bulbs go out, the

voltage difference across them is zero and the systems are in
phase.)
 Synchroscope – A meter that measures phase ‘a’ angle
difference between the two systems (it does not check for
phase sequence).
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Frequency-Power and Voltage-Reactive Power Characteristics of a

Synchronous Generator
All generators are driven by a prime mover (source of mechanical

power).
All prime movers behave in a similar fashion – as power drawn

increases, the turning speed decreases.
The speed decrease is generally non-linear, but a governor

mechanism is usually included to make the decrease in speed linear
with increase in power demand.
The governor mechanism is adjusted to always provide a slight

drooping characteristic with increase in load.
The speed droop (SD) of a prime mover is defined as:
Where nnl = no load prime mover speed,

nfl = full load prime mover speed.
Typical values of SD are 2 - 4%
A typical speed vs power plot is shown below.
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(a) The speed-versus-power curve for a typical prime mover.

(b) The resulting frequency-versus-power curve for the generator.
The mechanical speed is related to the electrical frequency by,
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Hence a similar plot for frequency against power is shown above.
The relationship between electrical frequency and output power is

thus given by:
Where P = output power of generator.

fnl = no load frequency of the generator.
fsys = operating frequency of the system.
sp = slope of curve, in kW/Hz or MW/Hz.
A similar relationship can be derived for the reactive power Q and

terminal voltage VT.
In conclusion, for a single generator:
1. For any given real power P, the governor set points control
the generator’s operating frequency fe.
2. For any given reactive power Q, the field current controls the
generator’s terminal voltage VT.
3. The amount of real and reactive power supplied will be
demanded by the attached load, i.e. P and Q supplied cannot
be controlled by the generator’s controls.
5.10 Synchronous Generator Ratings
There are certain basic limits to the speed and power that may be
obtained from a synchronous generator, which are expressed as
ratings on the machine, the purpose is to protect the generators
from damage due to improper operation.
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The voltage, speed and frequency ratings
Frequency rating: Depends on the power system at which the

generator is connected (50Hz in Europe and Asia, 60Hz in USA
and 400Hz in special purpose and control applications).
Speed rating: Corresponds to the frequency rating for a given

number of poles and is related by:
Voltage rating:
 Generated voltage is dependent on the flux, the speed of

rotation and mechanical construction of the machine.
 For a given mechanical frame size and speed, the desired
voltage is proportional to the flux required.
 However, the flux level has a limit dependent on the
generator material.
Hence, voltage ratings may give a rough idea on its maximum flux
level possible and also maximum voltage to before the winding
insulation breaks down.
Apparent power and power factor ratings
Power limits of electrical machines depend on:
 Mechanical strength (mechanical torque on the shaft).

 Winding insulation limits (heating of its windings).
In all practical synchronous motors and generators, the shaft is

strong enough to handle much larger steady state power than the
machine is rated for.
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September 19
Hence, the practical steady state limits are set by heating in the
machine windings.
There are two windings in a synchronous generator that has to be

protected:
 Armature winding
 Field winding
For the armature winding: If the rated voltage is known, the

maximum apparent power rating (rated kilovoltamperes) for the
generator is determined by the maximum acceptable armature
current:
The heating effect of the stator copper losses are given by:
And this is independent of the power factor of the armature current

(i.e. the angle of IA with respect to VΦ).
This is why the machines are rated in kilovoltamperes and not

kilowatts.
For the field winding:

The field copper losses are given by:
So the maximum allowable heating sets a maximum field current

for the machine, which in turn sets the maximum acceptable size
for EA (since, EA = KΦω).
Having a maximum IF and maximum EA causes a restriction on the

lowest PF of the generator when operating at rated apparent power.
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From the phasor diagram above:


 I A can assume many different angles.
 The internal generated voltage
 For some current angles, EA>EA,max. If generator were

operated at rated I A and this power factor, field winding
would burn up.

Rated power factor – Angle of IA that requires maximum EA at

rated V .
It is possible to operate at a lower (more lagging) PF than rated

value, but only by cutting back on the kVA supplied by the
generator.
Synchronous generator capability curves
Graphical plot of stator and rotor heating limits together with any
other external limits on a synchronous generator.
The capability curve is a plot of S = P+ jQ.
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The powers in a synchronous generator are given by:

 Real power : P  3V I A cos 
 Reactive power : Q  3V I A sin 
 Apparent power : S  3V I A
These terms can’t be derived back from the phasor diagram of a

synchronous generator.
The capability curve must represent power limits of the generator.
Below is the phasor diagram of a synchronous generator operating

at a lagging power factor and its rated voltage.
To convert voltage phasors into power phasors:
1. Draw an orthogonal

set of axes on a diagram with its origin
at the top of V with unit volts.
 Length of vertical segment AB
 Length of horizontal segment OA
2. Hence the vertical and horizontal axes of the phasor diagram

can be recalibrated in terms of real and reactive power as
shown below.
 Conversion factor (from V to VA) = 3V / Xs
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3. Origin of phasor diagram on the voltage axes =  V

(horizontal)
Hence, the horizontal origin on the power diagram is at:
(5.29)
4. The field current is proportional to the machine’s flux and

flux is proportional to . Therefore, the length
corresponding to EA on the phasor diagram is:
5. The armature current IA is proportional to XSIA, and then

length corresponding to XSIA on the phasor diagram is 3VΦIA.
6. Next step is to reflect the recalibrated phasor diagram with

the kVAR axis as the reference and rotate this phasor 90 o
anti-clockwise, put the reactive and active power reference
axis to be horizontal and vertical.
38
September 19
Hence, the final capability curve is shown below:
 It is a plot of P vs Q.
 Stator (armature) current limit – Max IA – Corresponds to
rated IA and plotted as a concentric circle around origin with
radius of S  3V I A (i.e. rated kVA). It shows the armature
heating limit.
 Field current limit – corresponds to lines of rated IF or EA
shown as circle centered on the point, it shows the field
heating limit.
 Any point that lies within both circles is a safe operating
point for the generator.
39
September 19

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EME4363 Electrical Machines – Synchronous Generators

Chapter 5: Synchronous Generator

Generally, there are two windings on a machine:

Field Windings Armature Windings

Synchronous generators or alternators – synchronous machines

 A dc is applied to the rotor winding, which produces a rotor

5.1 Synchronous Generator Construction

The rotor of a synchronous:

 Essentially a large electromagnet

o Salient poles, i.e. poles that are “protruding” or

 Constructed of thin laminations to reduce eddy current losses.

There are two common approaches to supplying this DC current:

1. From an external DC source by means by slip rings and

a. Slip rings – metal rings encircling the shaft of machine but

b. Brush – a block of graphite-like carbon compound that

d. If positive end of a DC voltage source is connected to one

e. Problems with slip rings and brushes:

Slip rings and brushes are used on all small synchronous

2. From a special DC power source mounted directly on the

a. Used on larger generators.

i. The three-phase output of the exciter generator is

c. To makes the excitation generator completely independent

d. Pilot exciter 0 a small AC generator with permanent

i. Produces power for the field circuit of the exciter.

5.2 The Speed of Rotation of a Synchronous Generator

Synchronous generators are synchronous because the electrical

Hence, the rate of rotation of magnetic fields in the machine is

Where fe = electrical frequency, in Hz

Electric power is generated at 50 or 60 Hz, so the generator must

5.3 The Internal Generated Voltage of a Synchronous

The magnitude of the voltage induced in a given stator phase was

It is seen that the induced voltage depends on the flux and

For simplicity, it can be expressed in a simpler form:

Where ∅ is flux, K = constant representing machine construction.

If ω is expressed in electrical radians per second,

If ω is expressed in mechanical radians per second,

Hence, the internal generator voltage EA is related to the field

5.4 The Equivalent Circuit of a Synchronous Generator

When there is a load connected

Effect of the first three factors will be explored and a machine

However, the effects of a salient-pole shape on the synchronous

All machines in this chapter are assumed to have non-salient or

The output voltage of the phase is given by:

And the net magnetic field is:

How can the effects of armature reaction be modeled?

Hence, the armature reaction voltage can be expressed as,

Therefore, the voltage on a phase:

Thus, armature reaction voltage can be modeled as an inductor in

Self Inductance and Resistance of Armature Coils

In addition to the effects of armature reaction, the stator coils have

 Self-inductance is called L A (reactance X A )

Total difference between EA and 𝑉∅ given as

Both the armature reaction effects and the self-inductance can be

Therefore, the full equivalent circuit of 3-phase synchronous

The DC power source supplying the rotor field circuit is modeled

 The coil’s inductance LF and resistance RF in series.

The three phases can be either Y-connected or Δ-connected with

VT  3V (for Y-connected)

This leads to the use of a per-phase equivalent circuit:

Note: If the generator’s loads are not balanced, a more in-depth

5.5 The phasor diagram of a Synchronous Generator

The phasor diagram of a synchronous generator is a graphical

The reference phasor (assumed to be at angle 0 )