UNIT 3: ENERGY TRANSFORMATION GENERAL BIOLOGY 1

2ND QUARTER

1. ATP-ADP Cycle

Energy Flow and Chemical Recycling in Ecosystems

 Energy flows into ecosystem as sunlight and ultimately leaves as heat, while the chemical elements essential
to life are recycled.
Forms of Energy
 Energy is the capacity to cause change. It is also the ability to rearrange a collection of matter. In the
environment different forms of energy exist: Kinetic, Light and Potential energy.
 Kinetic- energy associated with relative motion of objects.
 Thermal energy-type of kinetic energy associated with random movement of atoms. When thermal energy is
transferred in the form of heat.
 Light Energy- main energy source is the sun and powers photosynthesis (anabolic process).
 Potential Energy- possessed energy of a matter at rest (non- moving form).
 Chemical energy- potential energy released in a chemical reaction.
Laws of Energy Transformation
 Thermodynamics is the study of energy transformations that occurs in a system (collection of matter). Living
systems are considered as open systems because energy and matter are transferred between systems and
the surroundings.
 1st Law: The energy of the universe is constant: Energy can be transferred and transformed but it cannot be
created nor destroyed. Plants do not produce energy, but transforms energy from the sun. Some energy
becomes unavailable to do work because most is lost as heat. Transfer of energy and transformation makes
the matter more disordered. Disorder of matter is measured through entropy.
 2nd Law: Every energy transfer or transformation increases the energy of the universe.
 i.e In a room full of people, breathing increases entropy since all are exhaling carbon dioxide.
 Organisms as open system increase order as long as the order in their surroundings decreases. This shows
that as living organism transfers/transforms energy to its surroundings, the disorder increases, thus increases
entropy.
Free Energy
 Energy that can do work under cellular conditions
 Gibbs free energy is the energy in the system that can perform work when temperature and pressure are
uniform throughout the system: ∆G = ∆H – T∆S
 Also known as free energy change
 Measure of system’s instability (trend: tendency to change to a more stable state)
 Increase in G: UNSTABLE i.e. concentrated dye
 Decrease in G: STABLE i.e. dye dispersed in water
 In chemical reactions: as reaction precedes equilibrium, the free energy of reactants and products
decreases (decreases free energy). If products will be removed free energy will increase
 When systems reach maximum stability, the system reaches the state of equilibrium. If equilibrium is reached
there is NO WORK. In chemical reactions proceeding equilibrium NO NET CHANGE in the relative
concentration of reactants and products.
Free Energy and Metabolism
 Exergonic reactions - energy is released (energy outward), more decrease in free energy= more work done.
 Endergonic reactions - energy is absorbed (energy inward). Plants stores energy in the form of glucose (from
carbon dioxide and water.
Equilibrium and Metabolism
 Equilibrium = NO WORK. This usually happened in isolated systems that reach equilibrium.
 A cell that reaches the state of equilibrium is DEAD.
 A normal cell is not in equilibrium, because its products are not accumulated within its system, INSTEAD the
products becomes a reactant in the next step.
Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP)
 Structure composed of: sugar ribose, nitrogen base adenine and a chain of 3-phosphate groups
 Mediates most energy coupling in cells
 Powers cellular work
 3 main kinds of work of a cell: chemical work, transport work and mechanical work. These are possible
through energy coupling, where the cells use and exergonic process to drive an endergonic reactions.
 Chemical work: synthesis of polymers from monomers (pushing of endergonic reactions)
 Transport work: pumping of substances across membranes (against the direction of spontaneous movement)
 Mechanical work: beating of cilia, contraction of muscles also used to make RNA (since ATP is used as one of
the nucleoside triphosphate)
Hydrolysis of ATP
 Process of breaking down bonds between the phosphate groups
 This happens when a water molecule breaks the terminal phosphate bond
 HOPO32-, abbreviated Pi leaves ATP
 Forming Adenosine diphosphate (ADP)
 Energy is released. This comes from the chemical change of the system state of lower free energy and NOT
from the phosphate bonds.
 Hydrolysis releases so much energy because of the negative charges of the phosphate groups. These
charges are crowded together and their mutual repulsion contributes to the instability of that region of the
ATP. The energy equivalent of the triphosphate tail of ATP is compared to a compressed spring.

How the Hydrolysis of ATP Perform Work

 Proof that ATP releases heat: in a test set up, the hydrolysis of ATP releases energy in the form of heat in the
surrounding water.
 Most of the time when an animal is exposed in a cold environment, the reaction of the body is through
shivering. In this reaction of the organism, shivering uses ATP during muscle contraction to warm the body.
Since it will also be a disadvantage for organisms to generate heat during ATP hydrolysis, in order to maintain
the living conditions inside the cell, the energy released during ATP hydrolysis is used by proteins to perform
work: chemical, transport and mechanical.
 Hydrolysis of ATP leads to change in the shape of protein and in its ability to bind to another molecule.
Phosphorylation (ADP to ATP) and dephosphorylation (ATP to ADP) promote crucial protein shape changes
during important cellular process.
The Regeneration of ATP
 ATP is a renewable it can be regenerated by the addition of phosphate to ADP.
 Catabolism (exergonic) provides the free energy to phosphorylate ADP.
 ATP formation is not spontaneous, so there is a need to use free energy for the process to work.
 ATP cycle is the shuttling of inorganic phosphate and energy.
 It couples the cell’s energy yielding processes (exergonic) to energy consuming process (endergonic).
 ATP regeneration happens very fast (10M molecules of ATP used ad regenerated per second).
 If ATP could not be regenerated by phosphorylation of ADP, HUMANS would use nearly their body weight in
ATP each day.

2. Photosynthesis
Pigments
 Pigments are substances that absorb visible light. Different pigments absorb light of different wavelengths.
 Light, as it encounters an object, is either reflected, transmitted, or absorbed. Visible light, with a wavelength
of 380–750nm, is the segment in the entire range of electromagnetic spectrum that is most important to life on
earth. It is detected as various colors by the human eye. The color that is not absorbed by pigments of
objects is transmitted or reflected and that is the color of the object that we see.

The Electromagnetic Spectrum

 Pigments are the means by which plants capture sun’s energy to be used in photosynthesis. However, since
each pigment absorbs only a narrow range of wavelength, there is usually a need to produce several kinds
of pigments of different colors to capture more of sun’s energy.
Chlorophyll
 Chlorophyll is the greenish pigment found in the thylakoid membrane inside the chloroplast of a plant cell.
The figure below shows the location and structure of a chloroplast.
 Chlorophyll absorbs blue and red light while it transmits and reflects green light. This is why leaves appear
green.
 There are several kinds of chlorophyll. Among these, chlorophyll a plays the most important role in
photosynthesis. It directly participates in converting solar energy to chemical energy.
 Other pigments in the chloroplast play the part of accessory pigments. These pigments can absorb light and
transfer the energy to chlorophyll a. One of these accessory pigments is chlorophyll b. Some carotenoids also
contribute energy to chlorophyll a. Other carotenoids, however, serve as protection for chlorophyll by
dissipating excessive energy that will otherwise be destructive to chlorophyll.
Structure of chlorophyll
 Head - a flat hydrophilic head called porphyrin ring. It has a magnesium atom at its center. Different
chlorophylls differ on the side groups attached to the porphyrin.
 Tail - a lipid-soluble hydrocarbon tail.
How does photoexcitation of chlorophyll happen?
1. A chlorophyll molecule absorbs photon or light energy.
2. An electron of the molecule in its normal orbital, said to be in its ground state, will be elevated to an orbital of
a higher energy. The molecule is now in an excited state. The molecule only absorbs photon that has the
energy that is equal to the energy needed for it to be able to elevate from the ground state to the excited
state.
3. The excited state is unstable. Hence, excited electrons drop back down to the ground state immediately
after, releasing energy in the form of heat and photon. This happens in isolated chlorophyll molecules.
However, chlorophyll molecule that is found in its natural environment in the thylakoid membrane forms a
photosystem together with proteins and other organic molecules to prevent the loss of energy from the
electrons.

Photoexcitation of Chlorophyll
Photosystem
 A photosystem is an aggregate of pigments and proteins in the thylakoid membrane responsible for the
absorption of photons and the transfer of energy and electrons. It is composed of:
 Light-harvesting complex - is also called the ‘antenna’ complex and is consisted of several different pigments
(chlorophyll a, chlorophyll b, and carotenoids) bounded with proteins. When a pigment molecule absorbs a
photon, energy is passed on from one pigment molecule to another pigment molecule until the energy
reaches the reaction center.
 Reaction-center complex - is composed of a pair of chlorophyll a and a primary electron acceptor. The
primary electron acceptor is a specialized molecule that is able to accept electrons from the pair of
chlorophyll a. The pair of chlorophyll a in the reaction-center is also specialized because they are capable of
transferring an electron to the primary electron acceptor and not just boosting the electron to a higher
energy level.
There are two types of photosystem:
 Photosystem II - was discovered later after the discovery of Photosystem I, but functions first in the light
reaction of photosynthesis. The chlorophyll a in the reaction-center of Photosystem II effectively absorbs light
with a wavelength of 680nm and thus called P680.
 Photosystem I - was discovered first. Its reaction-center has a chlorophyll a called P700 because it is effective
in absorbing light with a wavelength of 700nm.
Two stages of photosynthesis:
 Light reactions - use sunlight to initiate electron transfer, thereby reducing NADP+ to NADPH and splitting
water to give off oxygen as a by-product.
 form ATP through phosphorylation
 take place in the thylakoids of the chloroplast
 Calvin Cycle - sometimes referred to as ‘dark reactions’ because it does not require light energy for its
processes to take place.
 incorporates CO2 into organic molecules through carbon fixation
 uses NADPH and ATP to produce carbohydrate from the fixed carbon
 takes place in the stroma of chloroplast
 returns ADP, inorganic phosphate, and NADP+ to the light reactions

The Light Reactions

Light Reactions Events
1. Light energy or photon is absorbed by a pigment molecule of the light-harvesting complex of Photosystem II
and is passed on to other pigment molecules nearby until the energy makes it to the reaction center. In the
reaction center, it is absorbed by the P680 pair of chlorophyll a.
2. The electron in this pair of chlorophyll a is raised to an excited state and is transferred to the primary electron
acceptor. P680 loses its electron and becomes positively charged (P680+).
3. The positively charged molecule attracts electrons from a water molecule, resulting to the splitting up of H20
into two electrons, two hydrogen ions (H+), and an oxygen atom with the provision of light energy. The oxygen
atom immediately combines with another oxygen atom to form an oxygen molecule (O2) which is then
released outside the leaf through the stomata.
4. The excited electrons are then passed on from the primary electron acceptor to the electron carrier
molecules through the electron transport chain until they reach Photosystem I. The electron carrier molecules
involved here are plastoquinone (Pq), a cytochrome complex, and plastocyanin (Pc).
5. At each transfer, the electrons release small amounts of energy. This energy is used to pump hydrogen ions
across the membrane. The splitting up of water molecules results to an uneven distribution of hydrogen ions in
the stroma and the lumen. The H+ ions tries to equalize their distribution by moving from the lumen to the stroma
through the aid of a membrane protein called ATP synthase. This is referred to as chemiosmosis. The movement
of hydrogen ions through the ATP synthase channel triggers the synthesis of ATP from ADP. The ATP contains
high-energy phosphate bonds.
6. Meanwhile, photon is also absorbed and energy is passed on from one pigment molecule to another until
the energy reaches the reaction center complex of Photosystem I. The energy excites the electron present in
the pair of P700 chlorophyll a located here. The excited electron is then transferred to a primary electron
acceptor, making the P700 positively charged and now seeking electrons to fill up the missing ones. This is filled
up by the electrons from Photosystem II that are passed on through the electron transport chain.
7. The photo-excited electron from the primary electron acceptor of Photosystem I enters another electron
transfer chain, passing the electron to an iron-containing protein called ferredoxin (Fd).
8. An enzyme, the NADP+ reductase, then transfers the electron to NADP+ and stabilizes it by adding a proton
(H+) to form NADPH. NADPH is then released to the stroma and becomes part of the Calvin Cycle.
Cyclic Electron Flow
 Aside from the usual route of electron flow as described in the events of the light reactions (i.e., noncyclic or
linear electron flow), photo-excited electrons may take a short-circuited route which utilizes Photosystem I but
not Photosystem II. The ferrodoxin goes back to the cycle and passes the electron to the cytochrome
complex and to the Pc until it reaches P700 chlorophyll instead of transferring the electron to
NADP+reductase. Due to this event, no NADPH is produced but ATP is still synthesized.

The Cyclic Electron Flow

The Calvin Cycle
1. Carbon Fixation
 Carbon fixation is a process of incorporating an inorganic carbon molecule, CO2, into an organic material.
 In this phase, the CO2 molecule is attached to a five-carbon sugar molecule named biphosphate (RuBP)
aided by an enzyme named rubisco or RuBP carboxylase. Rubisco is believed to be the most abundant
protein in the chloroplast and maybe on Earth.
 The resulting product, a six-carbon sugar, is extremely unstable and immediately splits in half. The split forms
two molecules of a 3-phosphoglycerate (3-carbon).
2. Reduction
 A phosphate group (from ATP) is then attached to each 3- forming 1, 3-phosphoglycerate.
 NADPH swoops in and reduces 1, 3-biphosphoglycerate to G3P.
 For every six G3Ps produced by the Calvin Cycle, five are recycled to regenerate three molecules of RuBP.
Only one G3P leaves the cycle to be packaged for use by the cell.
 It will take two molecules of G3P to make one molecule of glucose.
 The ADP and NADP+ that is formed during the Calvin Cycle will be transported back to the thylakoid
membrane and will enter the light reactions. Here, they will be ‘recharged’ with energy and become ATP
and NADPH.
3. Regeneration of RuBP
 Five molecules of G3P undergo a series of complex enzymatic reactions to form three molecules of RuBP. This
costs the cell another three molecules of AT, but also provides another set of RuBP to continue the cycle.
What happens to G3P after its release from the cycle?
 Two G3Ps can combine together to form either glucose or fructose which are both are six-carbon sugar.
 Glucose and fructose can be combined to form sucrose.
 Glucose can be connected in chains to form starch.
 G3Ps can also be used in lipid and protein synthesis.
The cost of making carbohydrate
To make one molecule of G3P, the chloroplast needs:
 3 molecules of CO2
 9 molecules of ATP
 6 molecules of NADPH

3. Cellular Respiration
Four Major Reaction Pathways:
1. Glycolysis
2. Conversion of Pyruvate to Acetyl CoA
3. Kreb’s Cycle (Citric Acid Cycle, Tricarboxylic Acid Cycle)
4. Electron Transport Chain (Chemiosmosis)

Stage Summary Starting Materials End Products

1. Glycolysis Series of reactions in which glucose is degraded to Glucose, ATP, Pyruvate, ATP,
(in cytosol) pyruvate; net profit of 2 ATPs; hydrogen atoms are NAD+ , Pi NADH
transferred to carriers; can proceed anaerobically
2. Formation Pyruvate is degraded and combined with Pyruvate, Acetyl CoA, CO2,
of acetyl CoA coenzyme A to form acetyl CoA; hydrogen atoms coenzyme A, NADH
(in are transferred to carriers; CO2 is released NAD+
mitochondria)
3. Citric acid Series of reactions in which the acetyl portion of Acetyl CoA, H2O, CO2, NADH,
cycle (in acetyl CoA is degraded to CO2; hydrogen atoms NAD , FAD, ADP, FADH2, ATP
mitochondria) are transferred to carriers; ATP is synthesized Pi
4. Electron Chain of several electron transport molecules; NADH, FADH2, O2, ATP, H2O, NAD+ ,
transport and electrons are passed along chain; released energy ADP, Pi FAD
chemiosmosis is used to form a proton gradient; ATP is synthesized
(in as protons diffuse down the gradient; oxygen is
mitochondria) final electron acceptor

What is the difference between substrate-level phosphorylation and oxidative phosphorylation?

 Substrate-level phosphorylation – is the formation of ATP by the direct transfer of a PO3 group to ADP.
 Oxidative phosphorylation – is the process that explains how molecules of FADH2 and NADH are used to
make ATP. The term “oxidative” is used because oxygen accepts an electron while the gradient made by the
movement of electrons powers the creation ATP.
 The amount of ATP produced is estimated from the number of protons than passes through the inner
mitochondrial membrane (via the electron acceptors of the electron transport chain (ETC) and the number
of ATP produced by ATP Synthase.
1. Assumption = Each NADH will generate 3 ATPs while FADHs will generate 2 ATPs.
2. The number of ATP produced depends on the acceptor that receives the hydrogen ions and electrons from
the NADH formed during glycolysis in the cytoplasm.
3. Glycolysis results in formation of 2 molecules of pyruvic acid/pyruvate thus values are multiplied by 2.
Applying Knowledge of Biochemical Pathways
As scientists have developed a better understanding of the processes of aerobic cellular respiration and
anaerobic cellular respiration, several practical applications of this knowledge have developed:
 Although for centuries people have fermented beverages such as beer and wine, they have often plagued
by sour products that were undrinkable. Once people understood that there were yeasts that produce
alcohol under anaerobic conditions and bacteria that converted alcohol to acetic acid under aerobic
conditions, it was a simple task to prevent acetic acid production by preventing oxygen from getting to the
fermenting mixture.
 When it was discovered that the bacterium that causes gas gangrene uses anaerobic respiration and is, in
fact, poisoned by the presence of oxygen, various oxygen therapies were developed to help cure patients
with gangrene. Some persons with gangrene are placed in hyperbaric chambers, with high oxygen levels
under high pressure. In other patients, only the affected part of the body is enclosed. Under such conditions,
the gangrene-causing bacteria die or are inhibited.
 Spoilage, or putrefaction, is the anaerobic respiration of proteins with the release of nitrogen and sulfur-
containing organic compounds as products. Protein fermentation by the bacterium Clostridium produces
foul-smelling chemicals such as putrescine, cadavarine, hydrogen sulfide, and methyl mercaptan. Clostridium
perfringens and C. sporogenes are the two anaerobic bacteria associated with the disease gas gangrene. A
gangrenous wound is a foul-smelling infection resulting from the fermentation activities of those two bacteria.
 Because many disease-causing organisms are prokaryotic and have somewhat different pathways and
enzymes than do eukaryotic organisms, it is possible to develop molecules, antibiotics that selectively interfere
with the enzymes of prokaryotes without affecting eukaryotes, such as us humans.
 When physicians recognized that the breakdown of fats releases ketone bodies, they were able to diagnose
diseases such as diabetes and anorexia more easily, because people with these illnesses have bad breath.
 In starvation and severe diabetes mellitus, the body does not metabolize sugars properly, and it shifts to using
fats as its main source of energy. When this occurs, the Krebs cycle is unable to perform as efficiently and the
acetyl CoA does not move into the mitochondria. It accumulates in the blood. To handle this problem, the
liver converts acetyl CoA to ketone bodies (e.g., acetoacetic acid). As ketone bodies accumulate in the
blood, the pH decreases and the person experiences ketosis, or ketoacidosis, with symptoms such as an
increased breathing rate; in untreated cases, it can lead to depression of the central nervous system, coma,
and death.
(Adapted from: Enger, Eldon D. et al., Concepts in Biology 14th edition. USA: McGraw-Hill)
4. Aerobic Respiration, Anaerobic Respiration and Fermentation
Comparison of Aerobic and Anaerobic Respiration
Aerobic Respiration Anaerobic Respiration
How alike?
 Both undergo glycolysis in the cytoplasm of the cell
 Both undergo substrate-level phosphorylation and oxidative phosphorylation and chemiosmosis in
producing ATP molecules
 Both split the 6-carbon glucose into two molecules of pyruvate, the three-carbon molecule
 Both involve a series of enzyme-controlled reactions that take place in the cytoplasm
 Both use NAD+ (nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide), a redox coenzyme that accepts two electrons plus a
hydrogen (H ) that becomes NADH
 Both performed by eukaryotic and prokaryotic cells
How different?
 Maximum yield of 36 to 38 ATP molecules per  Maximum yield of 2 ATP molecules per glucose for
glucose obligate anaerobes
 Complete breakdown of glucose to carbon dioxide  Partial degradation of glucose without the use of
and water with the use of oxygen oxygen (obligate anaerobes)
 Multiple metabolic pathways  Single metabolic pathway (in fermentation)
 Pyruvate proceeds to acetyl formation in the  Pyruvate is broken down to ethanol and carbon
mitochondrion dioxide or lactate (in fermentation)
 The presence of enough oxygen in the cell makes  Cause burning sensation in the muscle during
the cell perform its job smoothly without burning strenuous exercise (in fermentation)
sensation
 More efficient in harvesting energy from glucose  Less efficient in harvesting energy from glucose with
with estimated 39% energy efficiency (36-38 ATP) in 2% energy efficiency (for obligate anaerobes)
eukaryotic organisms but much higher ATP
production (38 to 40 ATP) in prokaryotic organisms
 Outputs are carbon dioxide, water and ATP  Outputs are lactate, alcohol and carbon dioxide (in
fermentation); but reduced inorganic compound in
anaerobic respiration
 Products produce are for biochemical cycling and  Produce numerous products with economic and
for the cellular processes that require energy industrial importance through fermentation.

 Slow glucose breakdown  Rapid breakdown of glucose

 Electrons in NADH are transferred to electron
transport chain
 Mechanism of ATP synthesis is by substrate-level and
oxidative phosphorylation/chemiosmosis
 Electrons in NADH are transferred to electron
transport chain; but in fermentation electrons in
NADH are transferred to organic molecule
 Mechanism of ATP synthesis is by substrate-level and
oxidative phosphorylation/chemiosmosis;
phosphorylation only during glycolysis

 O2 is the final electron acceptor of the electron  In anaerobic respiration, inorganic substances like
transport system NO3 or SO4 are the final acceptor of the electron
transport system; but in fermentation, there is no
electron acceptor because it has no electron
transport system.
 Brain cells in the human body can only live  Some organisms like yeasts (eukaryotic), many
aerobically. They die if molecular oxygen is absent. bacteria (prokaryotic) and the human muscle cells
(eukaryotic) can make enough ATP to survive in
facultative anaerobes (can live in the absence or
presence of oxygen). But under anaerobic
conditions lactic acid fermentation occurs. A
facultative anaerobe needs to consume the nutrient
at a much faster rate when doing the fermentation
or anaerobic process.
Summary/Conclusion
 Aerobic respiration requires molecular oxygen to happen in the cells of most eukaryotes and prokaryotes.
Here, nutrients are split into a series of enzyme-controlled reactions producing an estimated 36 to 38 ATP per
glucose complete breakdown. Molecular oxygen is the final acceptor of the low-energy level electron at
the end of the electron transport system that results in the production of water. In anaerobic respiration on
the other hand does not require oxygen in splitting nutrients. Some prokaryotes that live in oxygen-free
environments such as water logged soil, in ponds where water does not flow, and in the intestines of animals
transfer glucose to NADH and then pass the electrons down the electron transport chain that is joined to ATP
synthesis by chemiosmosis. Nitrate and sulfate are the final acceptors of electrons. The end products are
carbon dioxide, reduced inorganic substances and ATP. In fermentation (as type of anaerobic respiration)
there is no electron acceptor because it has no electron transport chain. Its products are either alcohol
(and carbon dioxide) or lactate.
 Factors Aerobic Respiration Anaerobic Respiration
Main function Production of ATP from food such as Production of ATP without the use of
carbohydrate, lipid and protein oxygen
Site of Reaction Cytoplasm and mitochondrion Cytoplasm
Production of ATP 36 to 38 ATP per glucose molecule 2 ATP per glucose molecule
Sustainability Long-term Short-term
Production of lactic Does not produce Produces
acid
Oxygen requirement Yes No
Recycling of NADH Through the electron transport system In lactic acid fermentation (i.e., muscle
cells; in alcohol fermentation (pyruvate is
converted to carbon dioxide and
ethanol
Participating cells Most cells Yeast, other fungi, prokaryotes, muscle
cells

Advantages and Disadvantages of Aerobic Respiration, Anaerobic Respiration and Fermentation

Aerobic Respiration
 All available energy extracted
from glucose is 36 to 38 ATP.
 39% energy transferred from
glucose to ATP.
 Slow breakdown of glucose into
ATP.
 Organisms can do more work for
a longer time with the slow and
efficient breakdown of ATP.
 Animals and the human muscle
cells can adapt and perform
lactic acid fermentation for a
rapid burst of energy.
 Can breathe heavily to refill the
cells with oxygen so that lactate is
removed from the muscle cells.
 Lactate is returned to the liver to
become pyruvate or glucose
again.
 Complete breakdown of glucose.
ADVANTAGES
Anaerobic Respiration
 All available energy extracted
from glucose is 40 ATP
(because prokaryotes have no
mitochondria).
 43% energy transferred from
glucose to ATP.
 Complete breakdown of
glucose.
Fermentation
 All available energy extracted
from glucose is 2 ATP.
 Certain bacteria produce
chemicals of industrial
importance such as isopropanol,
butyric acid, acetic acid when
bacteria ferment—breakdown
of sugars in the absence of
oxygen.
 Foods that are fermented last
longer because these
fermenting organisms have
removed many of the nutrients
that would attract other
microorganisms.
 Yeasts ferment fruits and wine is
produced. Grain is also
fermented to produce beer.
They also cause the bread to rise
due to CO2, a by-product, and
alcohol is lost in the bread.
 Yeasts and lactobacillus
together produce sour taste in
wheat beer.
 Yeasts and Acetobacter aceti
spoil wine to become vinegar.
 Bacterial fermentation produces
yogurt (due to Streptococcus
thermophilus and Lactobacillus
bulgaricus), sour cream, cheese,
brine cucumber pickles,
sauerkraut, and kimchi.
 Clostridium bacteria can
produce nail polish remover and
rubbing alcohol from the
acetone and isopropanol they
make
 Soy sauce is produced by
adding mold (Aspergillus), yeasts
and fermenting bacteria.

Aerobic Respiration
 61% of glucose metabolism
becomes heat and enters the
environment.
 Human brain cells cannot
perform lactic acid
fermentation.
 Human muscle cells feel the
burning sensations and pain
when lactate accumulates in
the cell and experience oxygen
debt.
DISADVANTAGES
Anaerobic Respiration
 57% of glucose metabolism
becomes heat and enters the
environment.
Fermentation
 Consumption of 2 ATP is fast.
 Ethanol and lactate, the by-
products of fermentation, have
a lot of energy reserves—
prokaryotes and eukaryotes
cannot extract the energy in
lactate and ethanol using
anaerobic method.
 Needs a large supply of glucose
to perform the same work as in
aerobic respiration.
 Glucose is partially oxidized.

Compare and Contrast Cellular Respiration and Photosynthesis

Cellular Respiration Photosynthesis
Production of ATP Yes; theoretical yield is 38 ATP molecules Yes
per glucose but actual yield is only about
30-32.
Reactants C6H12O6 and 6O2 6O2 and 12H2O and light energy
Requirement of Sunlight not required; cellular respiration Can occur only in presence of sunlight
sunlight occurs at all times
Chemical Equation 6O2+C6H12O6 → 6CO2 +6H2O + ATP (energy) 6CO2+12H2O+light → C6H12O6+6O2+6H2O
(formula)
Process Production of ATP via oxidation of organic The production of organic carbon (glucose
sugar compounds. [1] glycolysis: breaking and starch) from inorganic carbon (carbon
down of sugars; occurs in cytoplasm [2] dioxide) with the use of ATP and NADPH
Krebs Cycle: occurs in mitochondria; produced in the light dependent reaction
requires energy [3] Electron Transport
Chain-- in mitochondria; converts O2 to
water
Fate of oxygen and Oxygen is absorbed and carbon dioxide is Carbon dioxide is absorbed and oxygen is
carbon dioxide released. released.
Energy required or Releases energy in a step wise manner as Requires energy
released? ATP molecules
Main function Breakdown of food. Energy release. Production of food. Energy Capture.
Chemical reaction Glucose is broken down into water and Carbon dioxide and water combine in
carbon dioxide (and energy). presence of sunlight to produce glucose
and oxygen.
Stages 4 stages: Glycolysis, Linking Reaction 2 stages: The light dependent reaction,
(pyruvate oxidation), Krebs cycle, Electron light independent reaction. (AKA light
Transport Chain (oxidative cycle & Calvin cycle)
phosphorylation).
What powers ATP H+ proton gradient across the inner H+ gradient across thylakoid membrane
synthase mitochondria membrane into matrix. High into stroma. High H+ concentration in the
H+ concentration in the intermembrane thylakoid lumen
space.
Products 6CO2 and 6H2O and energy(ATP) C6H12O6 (or G3P) and 6O2 and 6H2O
What pumps protons Electron transport chain. Electrochemical Electron transport chain
across the membrane gradient creates energy that the protons
use to flow passively synthesizing ATP.
Occurs in which Mitochondria Glycolysis (cytoplasm) Chloroplasts
organelle?
Final electron receptor O2 (Oxygen gas) NADP+ (forms NADPH )
Occurs in which Occurs in all living organisms (plants and Occurs in plants, protista (algae), and
organisms? animals). some bacteria.
Electron source Glucose, NADH+ , FADH2 Oxidation H2O at PSII
Catalyst No catalyst is required for respiration Reaction takes places in presence of
reaction. chlorophyll.
High electron potential From breaking bonds From light photons.
energy