THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE 1 & 2

Theory of Architecture
TOA 1 & 2
MODULE COMPILATION

Prepared By:
BSAR 5D
AGBAYANI, Michael Angelo B.
CRISOSTOMO, John Paul Richard C.
ROQUE, Paul Justine
VILLAVERDE, Kev Nestie G.

AGBAYANI, CRISOSTOMO, ROQUE, VILLAVERDE PAGE 1

 THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE 1 & 2

MODULE 01
Introduction to Theory of Architecture
A. Terminology

Architecture
ARCHI - “first or original”
TEKNOS - “the ability to put things together”

Practice of architecture:

a. involves a process of creation; and

b. requires analytical procedures

Theory

• The word theory comes from the Latin theoria; Greek theoros (spectator) and means as
the mental scheme of doing something or method of doing.
• Theories are general statements dealing with what architecture is, what architecture should
accomplish and how to design it.1
• Theory, an assumption or system of assumptions, accepted principles, and rules of
procedure based on limited information or knowledge, devised to analyze, predict,
or otherwise explain the nature or behavior of a specified set of phenomena; abstract
reasoning.2
• Also serves as guiding principles. Principles serve as the basis for doing something.

B. ESSENTIALS IN ARCHITECTURE

Vitruvius3 wrote encyclopedically about architecture, and the English poet Sir Henry Wotton
was quoting him in his charmingly phrased dictum: “Well building hath three conditions:
Commoditie, Firmenes, and Delight.”
Firmitas – strength – sound construction
Utilitas – commodity - utility
Venustas – beauty – aesthetics

QUALITIES OF ARCHITECTURE

ARCHITECTURE is represented by a building which meets in a satisfactory manner the requirements of :

AGBAYANI, CRISOSTOMO, ROQUE, VILLAVERDE PAGE 2

 THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE 1 & 2

Logical function -
▪ The building should meet satisfactorily the requirements of the use for which it is
intended, its elements must be arranged so as to secure an efficient and workable
relationship between them. Related areas are adjacent to each other and there is ease of
circulation between different units.

Sound construction / strength -

▪ The building should be soundly constructed for permanence and security.

Beautiful composition / aesthetic -

▪ The visible elements of the building should be arranged in accordance with the principles
of design composition.

It is only when these qualities are present that good ARCHITECTURE can be said to exist

MODULE 02
Influences in Architecture
To understand the development of architecture, the factors that contributed to how it evolved must first be taken
into consideration.

A nomad in his primitive days, man set out on foot looking for food and anything which make him survive. Set out
to gain protection from the natural elements of his surroundings as well as from animal enemies.
The following takes into consideration the needs and activities of man as well as the conditions of nature which had
and continues to influence the development of architecture.
GENERAL INFLUENCES

A. Needs of Man
- people are manipulated through their needs. Man is concerned in varying degrees with
three types of interests

1. Physical Needs

Continuance of life requires the provision of sustenance for every individual in order to exist and
reproduce.

a. Self-preservation

For man to survive and be able to do his activities, he must provide himself with the
following:

Basic Needs:

Food

AGBAYANI, CRISOSTOMO, ROQUE, VILLAVERDE PAGE 3

 THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE 1 & 2

Shelter

Clothing

Shelter is something that covers, protects, or defends as a roof that shields one from the
elements and changes.

Shelter is a fundamental need of man, and the most basic form of shelter is the
dwelling house, which is the center of man’s activities, from the rude huts of the
primitive man to the amenities-filled dwellings of the civilized man, as a result of
man’s effort to satisfy not only his need for shelter but also his desire for comforts and
conveniences. Primitive man and civilized man are moved by the same physical forces
and it is only in the interpretation of essentials and non-essentials that they differ.

Utilities:

• Power
• Water
• Transportation
• Communication

2. Emotional Needs – stirred by the forces of art, religion and recreation

a. Aesthetics – to answer the desire to make something which is not strictly utilitarian; decorating or
ornamentation
b. Religion – architecture became a medium of expression of man’s spiritual existence
c. Recreation – art of architecture became possible when man found the opportunity for thought and
relaxation

3. Intellectual Needs

a. Education
b. Science
c. Government

B. Activities of Man

There are several impulses or desires which must be satisfied if life is to exist and civilization is to develop.

These forces of stimuli to action and their corresponding effect upon life and architecture are as follows:

1.Desire for Preservation

- This is the most fundamental and causes man to provide shelter and comfort and to
pass hunger and thirst. It also encourages the acquisition of security which may be
religious, governmental or economic. In obtaining these physical needs and

AGBAYANI, CRISOSTOMO, ROQUE, VILLAVERDE PAGE 4

 THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE 1 & 2

security, civilized man must have commerce, government, and religion, which
activities call for their accompanying structures or architecture

2.Desire for Recognition

- This is the desire for prestige. Pride and ambition, personal or civic, result in the struggle for position – for social
status, physical supremacy, and intellectual attainment. For this reason, individuals may build palaces, skyscrapers, or
communities may erect cathedrals or public buildings or monuments. This may also recognize man’s ingenuity or
stupidity.

3.Desire for Response

- This arises from gregarious nature of man, from his wish for love, friendship and sociability. In seeking
the companionship of his fellow creatures, man congregates. His social instincts call for fraternal
buildings and city clubs. His semi-public buildings must contain banqueting halls and ball rooms, his
home must have living room to make human association possible.
-Man cannot live alone
- Need for interaction or human association

- Need for companionship

- Need for social activities

4.Desire for Self Expression

- This is the urge of man to assert himself as an individual, to do things in his particular way. In being
individualistic, man has developed creative endeavor. This is responsible for the aesthetic expression;
for architecture in its highest form. The desire to play, to seek recreation, has encouraged the building
of theaters and stadia. It has promoted travel, with its accompanying stimulating effect upon either
the appreciation or production of arts in general and architecture in particular.

Self - expression
the urge to do things in a particular way
responsible for artistic expression

B. Influences of Nature

1. Climate has been an important factor in determining not only the physiognomies but also the habits and
temperaments of the different races.
1. warm climate – colorful
2. cool – severe, subdued, dull
2. Topography

- site condition may lead to formal, usually in plain or flat area, or informal planning, in terrain site.

- Topographical barriers retarded the intermingling of cultures in the past such that the art and architecture of
different countries assumed definite national patterns.

AGBAYANI, CRISOSTOMO, ROQUE, VILLAVERDE PAGE 5

 THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE 1 & 2

Ex. Small countries have architectural traits common to the entire area while large
countries with varying topography produced different architecture in different regions.

3. Construction Materials

advancement in construction technology provided new ways and innovations in systems of

construction
transportation allowed distribution and use of building materials (import and export; globalization)

C. Influences of Man

1. Social Conditions
- aspects of society which may be reflected through architecture.

- The work of architecture reflects the social structure of the period it was developed. The interests of the people
dictate the type and appearance of its buildings.

2. Economic Conditions
- economic conditions affect the standard of living which in turn influences the types of
buildings constructed and the materials used.

- The nature of trade , commerce and industry, and agriculture determine to a large extent the occupation and
standards of living within a particular country. These factors influence the type of buildings erected materials
used. As nations modify their basic economic institutions through changes in manufacture, transportation, and
communication, new modes of living come into existence, and new architecture must be developed to
conform to these customs.

3. Technological Development

The course of modern architecture has been greatly influenced by the rapid development of modern technology:

a. Development of new building materials and innovation of previously existing materials (steel, glass,
aluminum, plastic, etc.) have resulted in new methods of construction;

b. Invention of the elevator allowed high-rise buildings suitable for occupancy;

c. Development of heating, ventilating and air-conditioning equipment made thick walls variable
according to how thin/thick the material will allow. It has also made contemporary buildings
comfortable to live in year round.

d. Better methods of plumbing and sanitation have made contemporary buildings healthier to live in.

e. Improvement in transportation means either by land, water or air.

AGBAYANI, CRISOSTOMO, ROQUE, VILLAVERDE PAGE 6

 THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE 1 & 2

f. Faster and readily available ways of communication.

g. Development of computers aid in operation of testing machines, various equipment and

construction methods as well as production processes.

MODULE 03
The Principles of Design

THE ESSENTIALS OF THE STRUCTURE

Man began to create shelter by surrounding space with the materials provided by nature and made usable by the
ingenuity of man. Space, in itself, is indefinite and intangible and has no limits. But when it is enclosed by walls and a
roof, a useful volume is created. A structure, therefore, may be said to be composed of two essentials: the apparent
volume which is more readily seen and understood by the observer and hence called the VISIBLE STRUCTURE, and
the plan or horizontal disposition of the units which is called the INVISIBLE STRUCTURE.

A. THE INVISIBLE STRUCTURE

The plan is the beginning of the building. It is the foundation upon which the scheme of the structure
rests. It relates the various units to each other. It is most important element of volume and should receive
the earliest consideration in the solution of the problem . The design process should be from within to
without, that is, from a satisfactory arrangement of the plan units to the enclosing of these units by the
exterior elements.

ELEMENTS OF DESIGN:

1. LINES
2. SHAPES
3. FORMS
4. COLOR
5. TEXTURE
1. LINES

LINES according to geometry are sets of points

LINES are representation or abstraction of the boundaries or edges found in nature. Actually, there is no such
thing as line but artists. Four architects said so to represent a certain creation. The major dimension of line is
length and the probable dimension is width which is only

possible on how thick the line is.

AGBAYANI, CRISOSTOMO, ROQUE, VILLAVERDE PAGE 7

 THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE 1 & 2

CATEGORIES OF LINE

1. straight – has strength in character

2. curved – gives an idea of grace
3. combination

DIRECTION OF LINE

1. horizontal – the tendency is to make wider or stouter, shows peace

2. vertical – the tendency is to make slimmer and shows dignity
3. diagonal
4. combination

EMOTIONAL QUALITY OF LINE

1. exciting – combination of straight and curve, broken line

2. quiet, calm – horizontal
3. dignified – fine and vertical
4. Anger, collapse – broken lines
5. happiness, contentment – horizontal, curved fine and very regular lines that
vanish
6. power – bold lines
Example: Gothic Churches – upward lines, pointed and combination, high ceiling

PRIMARY SHAPE

1. CIRCLE – a centralized, introverted figure that is normally stable and self-centering in its environment.
Placing a circle in the center of a field will reinforce its natural centrality. Placing an element along its
circumference, can induce in it an apparent rotary motion.

2. TRIANGLE – signifies stability when resting on one of its sides. The triangle is an extremely stable figure.
When tipped to stand on one of its vertices, however, it can either be balanced in a precarious state of
equilibrium or be unstable and tend to fall over onto one of its sides.

3. SQUARE – represents the pure and the rational. It is static and neutral figure having no preferred direction.
All other rectangles can be considered variations of the square, deviation from the norms by the addition of
height or width. It is stable when resting on one of its sides, and dynamic when standing on one of its corners.

AGBAYANI, CRISOSTOMO, ROQUE, VILLAVERDE PAGE 8

 THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE 1 & 2

3. FORM

In architectural discussion, the accepted definition of form deals with shape. It is

two-dimension, the figure is called an area or surface. But, if it is three-dimensional,
it becomes mass. In architecture, mass are usually volume and the surfaces which
enclose space have areas. In architectural composition, mass is more important than
surface. In the design of building, we should proceed from general to particular, from
mass to detail. The approach to design should not be through the details of a style but
through a consideration of the mass of the building which grows out of the function
for which the building is planned. The proper sequence, therefore, in design should
be a study of the mass first before the details of the building.

VISUAL PROPERTIES OF FORM

1. SHAPE – results from the specific configuration of form’s surface and edges.

2. SIZE – the real dimension of form, its length, width, and depth; while these dimensions determine the
proportions of a form. Its scale is determined by its size relative to other form in its context.

3. COLOR – the hue, the intensity, and the total value of a form’s surface; color is the attribute that most clearly
distinguishes a form from its environment. It also affects the visual weight of a form.

4. TEXTURE – the surface characteristic of a form; texture affects both tactile and light reflective qualities of a
form’s surfaces.

5. POSITION – a form’s location relative to its environment or visual field - front, right, left, back
left side of the heart center right side of the heart

6. ORIENTATION – a form’s position relative to the ground plane, the compass points or to the person
viewing the form.

SOUTH

7. VISUAL INERTIA – the degree of concentration and stability of a form, the visual inertia of a form
depends on its geometry as well as its orientation relative to the ground plane and our line of sight

of all the design elements, color is perhaps the most appealing called the music of the visual arts when used, it
elicits an emotional response although not necessary for the creation of a great work of art, it suggests mood and

AGBAYANI, CRISOSTOMO, ROQUE, VILLAVERDE PAGE 9

 THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE 1 & 2

depth of experience beyond those possible with the other design elements
combinations can manipulate emotions most powerful tool of a designer sensation when
our optic nerves react to the given ray of light.

COLOR HARMONIES

Results from combining colors into an aesthetically pleasing composition

I. RELATED COLOR HARMONY

a. MONOCHROMATIC – single color in varying subdued color produces very pleasant subdued color

- one hue with varied values, tints, shades and tones, full range of intensities with modulation through slight
additions of its analogous neighbors

b. ANALOGOUS – relate to color wheel (three colors side by side with one dominant color) use of several hues
with several variation of color which could be found adjacent to each other on the color wheel.

c.ACCENTED NEUTRAL – accent and dominant color. Technically, a neutral is defined as a color that has no
color quality but that simply reflects light. White is the ultimate neutral since color reflects all the color waves in
light. Black reflects none so it also has no color quality. A mixture of black and white will produce modified
neutrals or achromatic neutrals

The mixture of any two complements which when combined in equal parts also produce gray. CHROMATIC
NEUTRALS bordering in gray and beige

II. CONTRASTED COLOR HARMONIES

a. COMPLEMENTARY – compliments but when combined produces neutral color wheel

1. Simple Complementary – colors opposite to each other on the color wheel. (dull)
2. Split Complementary – split right to the opposite, (variation) use one color and two color located on
each side of its compliment
3. Double Complimentary – refers to the use of two adjacent colors with their respective compliments.
Two colors against the opposite. Ex. Red orange, orange with green. Blue-green

b. TRIAD – made by using 3 colors that are equidistant from each other in the color wheel.

PSYCHOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF COLOR

Various colors have a strongly emotional effect on people. It reflects the spirit of the people who create it. Color is
definitely related to the lives of the individuals and the material things with which they are associated. Spanish art
which is gay and sparkling for example are produces by a dashing, vibrant people.

RED – tends to produce rage or passion; it is exciting and stimulates the brain. It has an aggressive quality and is
frequently associated with violence and excitement.

MEDIUM RED – suggests health and vitality.

AGBAYANI, CRISOSTOMO, ROQUE, VILLAVERDE PAGE 10

 THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE 1 & 2

BRIGHT RED – often has amorous connotations.

YELLOW – denotes gaiety, stimulating cheering – to the lazy, upsetting to the nervous. It is the most luminous
color. It demands attention and so it is used in dangerous locations, such as edge of a subway, platform to
mark the hazard, while red is used to be the color of firetrucks, yellow is now preferred.

ORANGE – has a stimulating effect and should usually be used in relatively small amount. The occupants of an
orange office, for instance will become ill at after a short time and will leave at every opportunity.

BROWN – is restful and warming but should be combined with orange, yellow or gold because it could be depressing
if used alone.

GRAY – suggests cold and is also depressing unless combined with at least one livelier color.

WHITE – is cheerful, particularly when used with warm colors.

PURPLE – is sedative and soothing. It suggests a stately or melancholy atmosphere. Cheerfulness and cowardice,
cheapness.

BLUE – is peaceful and tranquil. It reduces excitability and therefore helps one to concentrate.

GREEN – has a cooling quality and it acts as a sedative.

5. TEXTURE

-refers to the surface treatment.

-Texture is usually associated with materials.

All materials have a texture. Surface characteristics can be felt or that affect the way a thing looks when light hits it.
Things have a unique texture that contributes something to their identity.

COMBINATION OF TEXTURES

There are no rigid rules or laws concerning the combination of correct textures. One needs to develop sensitivity to
those textures which seem to have a natural affinity for each other. Texture should have something in
common or be a pleasant contrast. They may have air of informality or express formality.

In each instance the texture must show the same character. Texture should be selected for harmony of idea or for the
use that is to be made of them rather than for their similarity or contrast.

PATTERN AND TEXTURE

The effects of colors are radically changed by difference in texture and pattern, so that a nearly or totally
monochromatic room can be as lively and memorable through its subtleties of texture as a room with vividly
contrasting colors. The thicker or stronger the texture, the softer and more diminished the color seems. Flat,
smooth, glossy surfaces project a much brighter image the soft ones. A painted surface in a particular color
will be very much sharper than the same color in carpet or felt or velvet.

AGBAYANI, CRISOSTOMO, ROQUE, VILLAVERDE PAGE 11

 THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE 1 & 2

EFFECTS OF SOFT AND HARD SURFACES

Gaining the knowledge of what contrasting textures go best together is really a matter of experience. It helps to make
lists of all kinds of different surfaces and materials and to conjure them up in your mind’s eye, appropriately
distributing them around walls, floors, ceilings, windows, and furniture

MODULE 04 4.fan
Elements of Architecture
5.pendant

STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS 4. Ceiling

Walls- simplest of the structural elements e.g curtain a. plain
wall.
Columns- vertical structural element that carries the b. beamed
load of horizontal structures and transmit it to the c. coffered
foundation system.
CIRCULATORY ELEMENTS
PROTECTIVE ELEMENTS
1. Openings
1. Roofs
2. Corridors
a. flat
3. Stairways, Ramps, Elevators
b. pitched or lean-to
Types of Stairways
c. gable
a._.straight flight or direct
d. hip
b. two-way
e. gambrel
c. three-way
f. mansard
d. curved
g. truncated
DECORATIVE ELEMENTS
h. conical
1. Mouldings- are architectural elements which are
2. Domes- are usually reserved for buildings which tend composed of narrow, curved and flat projecting or
to be monumental or decoratively ornate in character. receding members arranged in such a manner as to give
a play of light and shade and to furnish emphasis to
a. hemispherical
certain parts of the building.
b. segmental
a. Terminating
c. saucer
1. Cyma recta
d. pointed
2. Cavetto
3. Vaults
3. Corona
A. Vaults without ribs
b. Supporting
1. barrel or wagon vaults
1. Ovolo
2. cross vaults
2. Cyma Reversa
B. Vaults with ribs
c. Separating
1.quadripartite
1. Torus
2.sexpartite
2. Astragal
3.stellar

AGBAYANI, CRISOSTOMO, ROQUE, VILLAVERDE PAGE 12

 THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE 1 & 2

3. Scotia DESIGN to the end that out of this collaboration may

grow a building which not only function well but, in
Fillet addition, also presents to the viewer an appearance
d. Translating that is based on an intelligent consideration of
function, strength, and appearance.
1. Cyma recta or reversa
THE PRINCIPLES BY WHICH MODERN
2. Corona ARCHITECTURE SHOULD BE DEVELOP ARE
AS FOLLOWS:
2. Ornaments
A. Function of the structure
a. Abstract- Abstract Ornament is that which has no
reference to any particular subject, or at least to any 1. Relationship of units
familiar, easily recognized object.
2. Physical qualities of Units
b. Pictorial – Pictorial Ornament has less connection
with architecture than with some other form of B. Strenght of the structure
expression. It may either be naturalistic or
conventional. 1. Correct use of materials and construction

c. Non-pictorial – Non-pictorial Ornament does not tell 2. Relation to function

a story that is; there should be no pictorial meaning to
3. Economy of materials
the design. Much of the carvings of the various
historical periods belong to this non-pictorial type, e.g., 4. Adequacy of structure
the egg and dart, anthemion, and acanthus motifs of
Classical Architecture, the crockets, cresting, and 5. Honesty of expression
capitals of the Gothic, and the garlands and ribbons of
the Renaissance. C. Appearance of the structure

MATERIALS AND DESIGN 1. Composition of mass, volume, areas, details

Materials of Architecture
a. Materials of Nature
1. Stone (lime stone, marbles, granite, etc)
2. Wood
b. Materials of Man
1. Ceramics – brick, terracotta, tile, glass
2. Concrete
3. Metal – steel, iron, aluminum, alloys
4. Plastics
MODULE 05
The Creative Principles
DESIGN must concern itself with both the practical
and the beautiful. The more satisfaction of the
requirements of purpose or function, with respect to
comfort, utility and strength, produced only an
engineering structure without the spirit of architecture
which is called logical beauty. AESTHETIC DESIGN
should work hand in hand with PRACTICAL
organized according to contrast, proportion, scale,
balance, rhythm, unity and character.
FUNCTION OF THE STRUCTURE
1. Relationship of the function or use
2. Proper circulation between rooms.
3. Privacy of units
4. Location (orientation) of units considered with
respect to:
a. position of the sun
b. prevailing winds
c. external vistas or view
5. Physical qualities of units should be adjusted to the
activities which are to be housed. Size and shape of
various units should be related to the function,
equipment, and furniture which they are to contain.
STEPS IN ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN
A. Horizontal Disposition (Plan)
B. Arrangement of units according to function

AGBAYANI, CRISOSTOMO, ROQUE, VILLAVERDE PAGE 13


C. Arrangement of units according to plan composition
D. Vertical Growth
1. Creation of Volume and space relationships
2. Development of mass and its composition
3. Selection of type of construction
E. Conditioning Process
a. Space organized for convenience
Selection of materials
Introduction of circulatory elements: doors, windows,
stairs, corridors
b. Space organized for comfort
Introduction of mechanical equipment for light, heat,
and sanitation
c. Space organized for appearance
Interior and exterior surface, and volumes conditioned
according to principles of composition
MODULE 06
Principles of Plan Composition
PRINCIPLES OF PLAN COMPOSITION
A good plan should be ORGANIC, that is it should be
arranged that the composition will be disturbed if one
element is moved. It should have a PARTI or scheme
behind its composition.
PRIMARY COMPOSITION
1. Contrast – is used to give emphasis or interest by
producing:
a. difference in sizes of areas
b. variation in shape
c. contrast in character, e.g. , contrast between open
and closed spaces d. contrast in direction.
2. Balance
a. Symmetrical balance about a central axis. This type
of balance gives a feeling of repose and order
b. Unsymmetrical balance This results from an
informal arrangement.
AGBAYANI, CRISOSTOMO, ROQUE, VILLAVERDE
THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE 1 & 2
3. Emphasis- This is to have one unit of the plan give
emphasis to one particular phase of the activity which is
to be carried on within.
SECONDARY PRINCIPLES
1.Repitition -Ex. When a number of rooms of equal
size and shape occur side by side, or when windows,
columns, arches are spaced in a regular manner to give
an unaccented rhythm.
2. Alternation- Altering sizes, shapes and elements.
This gives contrast.
3. Transition– Ex. Small vestibules protect and act as
buffers for the lobbies which follow and the lobbies in
turn, allows the visitors to become adjusted to the
situation which confronts him upon entering the
building. These minor elements give the observer some
preparatory indication of the general character and use
of the interior before introducing him to the more
important units. In the complex plan, it is often
desirable not to tell the whole story at once, but to allow
the beauty and interest of the interior gradually to unfold
itself, reserving for the climax some predetermined
accent.
MODULE 07
Principles of Composition in Volume
1. Contrast – association of unlike qualities transition
is one important rule in using principle of contrast
2. Proportion – harmonious relation of one part to
another with respect to magnitude and quantity, refers
to size of human beings.
3. Scale – deals with the relation of architectural motifs
such as windows, doors, mouldings, to each other and
to the human figure.
4. Balance – means equality, satisfying to the eye with
reference to the relative importance of the various parts
of the design.
5. Rhythm – organized movement of line which carries
the eye from one element to another Organized spacing
Repetition Alternation
6. Unity – relating to all unrelated parts of an
architectural arrangement in order to obtain a
satisfactory composition. Unity is lost when there’s
competition among motifs and there’s duality or
presence of two strong conflicting elements.
7. Character – expressiveness.
PAGE 14

EMPHASIS
center of interest, dominant area that catches the eye or
arrest attention which leads the eye from the most
important part of design to other subordinating areas in
the order of their importance.
a. contrast of color
b. value, intensity and axis of the plan
c. lines
d. unusual detail and by grouping or placing of
objects.
CONTRAST
CONTRAST is one of the most important qualities or
conditions of nature and man-made things with which
we have our physical perception of things.
CONTRAST, therefore, results from the dissimilarity or
association of unlike qualities.
There are several types of contrast:
1. Contrast of FORM
a. with respect to shape
b. with respect to mass
2. Contrast of LINE
a. with respect to direction
b. with respect to type
3. Contrast of SIZE
If the change in size is gradual and uniform, it is called
gradation
4. Contrast of TONE
This maybe obtained by contrast of textures, openings,
or planes, e.g., contrast between dark roofs and light
walls, between the darks of openings and the light of
walls.
5. Contrast of TREATMENT
This is based upon handling of the various surfaces, or
by the character of the treatment of the different areas
of the façade of a building, rustication of the lower part
of a wall in contrast to a more refined treatment of the
upper areas.
6. Contrast of TEXTURE
whether rough or smooth
AGBAYANI, CRISOSTOMO, ROQUE, VILLAVERDE
THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE 1 & 2
7. Contrast of CHARACTER
as involved in the design of a church and parish house.
Although the two parts must be similar in general
feeling, the various architectural details must express
the different functions of each structure.
A combination of some of the various types of contrast
makes an architectural composition interesting, but
excess of contrast will also create confusion.
PROPORTION
is largely a matter of relationships. It refers to the
pleasing relationships between parts of the design in
relation to each other and the whole.
Certain basic geometrical forms which have very
definite proportions are circle, triangle, and square.
The eye identifies them quickly and for this reason they
are dominant shapes in any composition. They are
usually used for accents or emphasis.
PROPORTIONS MAY BE BASED ON THE
FOLLOWING FACTORS:
A. Material Proportion- All materials have rational
proportions that at dictated by their inherent strengths
and weaknesses.
1. Masonry Units- like bricks are strong in
compression and depend on their mass for strength and
are therefore volumetric in form.
2. Steel – are strong both in compression and tension,
and can therefore be formed into linear columns and
beams and planar sheet material,
3. Woods – are flexible and fairly elastic, can be used
as linear posts and beams, planar boards, and as
volumetric element in log cabin construction.
B. Structural proportions – Beams and columns forms
skeletal structural framework that defines modules of
spaces. By their size and proportion, columns and
beams articulate space, and give it scale and a
hierarchical structure.
C. Manufactured Proportions – many architectural
elements are sized and proportioned not only according
to their structural properties and function, but also by
the process through which they are manufactured.
Hollow blocks are standard in sizes of 4” x 8” x 16” or
6” x 8” x 16 and plywood is common in 4’ x 8’ so that
the spacing of wood nailers are fitted into this size.
REQUIREMENTS OF THE PROGRAM, FUNCTION
OR GOVERNMENT ORDINANCES
PAGE 15

1. At the exterior, the height of an edifice should be in
proportion to the character that the edifice demands;
2. churches and temples usually have traditional
proportions
3. Classical buildings usually have proportions based
upon traditional proportions based on traditional rules.
TRADITIONS AND GENERALLY ACCEPTED
TASTE:
1. At the exterior, the height of an edifice should be in
proportion to the character that the edifice demands;
2. Buildings of worship such as churches and temples
usually have traditional proportions;
3. Classical buildings usually have proportions based
upon traditional proportions based upon traditional
rules.
DISTINCTIONS BETWEEN RELATIVE AND
ABSOLUTE PROPORTION:
1. Relative Proportion – deals with the relationship
between the parts of the object and the whole. For
example, the ratio between the diameter of a classical
column and its height or the relation of the panels of the
door and the whole door.
2. Absolute – deals with the relationship between the
different parts of an object or the whole to the various
parts.
SCALE
SCALE has reference to proportions which are based on
the human figure and deals with the relation of elements
to each other and the human figure.
Architecture must be adapted to human needs
BALANCE
is equality. Proper balance in composition satisfied the
eye with reference to the relative importance of the
various parts of the design.
A. Symmetrical Balance
1. Pure or Absolute Symmetry. This is the simplest
and easiest kind of balance, in which the elements are
so arranged in precisely the same manner on either side
of its central axis or line. Not only is the arrangement
AGBAYANI, CRISOSTOMO, ROQUE, VILLAVERDE
THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE 1 & 2
similar but each object is exactly the one occupying the
corresponding position on the opposite side
2. Formal Balance. This is a type of symmetrical
balance, but one which lacks some of the essentials of
this kind of composition. The general mass and
grouping of parts may be similar but there are
dissimilarities in plan, elevation and details.
B. Unsymmetrical Balance
This is occult balance, obtained by the grouping, in an
informal manner, of elements of varying sizes and
shapes. In an informal arrangement, the larger and
heavier masses should be nearer the center of the
grouping, while the lighter and lower and more
horizontal elements may constitute the long arm as in a
steelyard.
RHYTHM
is organized movement. In architecture, it is the
organized movement of line which carries the eye from
one element to another.
Rhythm must be directed and controlled for without
organization there is not rhythm.
UNITY
is the culmination of all the elements of design. It
suggests harmony. It seems that all the unrelated parts
of an architectural arrangement are brought into proper
relation to each other so that a satisfactory composition
is obtained. Unity may be easily seen in the simple
geometric forms, such as the circle, square and triangle.
They are elementary in their shapes and no portion of
the whole tends to detach itself and to create new form.
The simplest kind of unity is similarity of motifs or
members.
CHARACTER
is the external manifestation or expression of internal
qualities. It grows out of the function of the building
and the consideration of all the creative principles of
composition.
There are three types of character in architecture
which arises from:
A. Function or use of the building. This type of
character is the most important and results from the
purpose of the building or the reason for which it is
erected. The use of a structure naturally calls for a
PAGE 16

particular disposition of parts, and this arrangement
affects the appearance of the exterior by which we
largely judge its character. The appearance of a
structure is, therefore, an outgrowth of the plan which,
in turn, is determined by the use of the building.
B. Association, or the influence of traditional types.
Associated character comes from the influence of ideas
and impressions related to or growing out of past
experiences. Thus a spire atop a building with stained
glass windows tells us that the edifice is a church.
Certain traditional forms have long been associated with
specific types of buildings. The use of Classical Orders
have often indicated the presence of a bank, while
Gothic, at least in the U.S. has always been associated
with educational institutions.
C. Personality, or emotional appeal. Personal
character in architecture bears a certain relation to the
same attribute in an individual. Buildings have qualities
which are directly related to their functions, but in
addition, they may posses characteristics which have to
do rather with emotional reaction set up in the mind of
the observer. Like individuals, buildings may be stem
and forbidding, light or playful, sedate and dignified,
etc. It is necessary that this intangible quality of
personal character should agree with the function of the
building.
THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE 2
MODULE 01
Stages in Designing
DESIGN ANALYSIS
-The stage in which we identify the PROBLEM in
order to come up with ideas to solve it.
-Creativity needs a positive attitude. Ideas should
not be dismissed too quickly.
TENTATIVE SOLUTIONS
CREATIVE PROBLEM‐SOLVING TECHNIQUES
ALPHABETICAL LISTING‐ begins with listing all
the letters of the alphabet. Then for each letter, list a
word or phrase that begins with that letter and pertains
to the problem you are attempting to solve or a
potential solution to it.
AGBAYANI, CRISOSTOMO, ROQUE, VILLAVERDE
THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE 1 & 2
FUNCTIONAL VISUALIZATION‐ thinking about
what function the object will perform instead of
thinking how it will look like.
MORPHOLOGICAL SYNTHESIS‐ making a list in a
more direct manner to seek alternatives.
INVERSION‐ instead of thinking of how to improve
the situation, think of how to make it worse so that you
are given a new set of perspective or concepts.
BIONICS‐ “back‐to‐nature” solutions.
DESCRIPTION BY ASSOCIATION‐ offering a
description of the object by associating it with
something else.
BRAINSTORMING – a group process in which
several people, for a given amount of time, gathers
together and discusses a particular problem, and
everyone contributes positive thoughts to the
discussion.
CRITICISM
-Design may be criticized by others who want to apply
further objectives or prioritize other aspects of the
problem. During this stage, the problem may change
and the information and objectives may increase.
OPERATIONAL PROCESS
CONCEPTUAL DESIGN – sketches which make up a
statement to intent for the guidance of structural
and service engineering consultants and for
information of suppliers and manufacturers who will
be involved in the work.
OPERATIONAL DESIGN – detailed working
drawings and specifications which may be constantly
modified during the process but always within the
framework of the basic concept.
FIVE‐STEP DESIGN PROCESS
1. INITIATION
-involves the recognition and definition of the
problem to be solved
2. PREPARATION
- the systematic collection and analysis of
information about the problem to be solved the
activity is called “programming” and the product is a
building program.
PAGE 17
 THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE 1 & 2

-generally includes a written report 3. CIRCULATION AND BUILDING FORM

summarizing the needs of a project and can include
– Circulation may be conceived as the
extensive analysis that identifies the important
perceptual thread that links the spaces of a building or
issues to be solved.
any series of interior or exterior spaces together.
3. PROPOSAL MAKING OR SYNTHESIS
4. RESPONSE TO CONTEXT
- Physical demonstrations of the integration of
– depending on the environment and the
very large number of issues.
meaning of the structure in that environment.
-Drawings and notes form a tool for successive
5. BUILDING ENVELOPE
explorations and iterations that converge on a solution.
-the imaginary shape of a building indicating
Translation – refers to the preparation of sketches,
its maximum volume.
drawings and models.
- used to check the plan and setback
with respect to zoning regulations.
CREATIVITY
-The process of generating new ideas
4. EVALUATION
-An essential tool in design
- Evaluation of alternative proposals by the
THREE ESSENTIAL ELEMENTS IN
designer
DEVELOPING CREATIVITY
5. ACTION
1. IDEATION – the mental process which gives the
- Stage in the design process that include ability to think or ideate.
activities associated with preparations and
2. IDEA QUANTITY – the capacity to produce the
implementation of a project.
largest number of ideas per unit of time
- Preparation of construction documents
3. IMAGINEERING – the process of letting
(working drawings and written specifications for the
imagination soar and then engineering it back to reality
building).
MODULE 03
MODULE 02
Stages in Designing Planning Basics
PLAN COMPOSITION SCHEME
DESIGN
-Design is simply the activity of generating proposals Exterior with symmetry or monumentality = plan
that change something that already exists into balanced about a central axis.
something that is better.
Informal massing = more free flowing
-Two types of environment: natural environment and
built environment - Regardless of the complexity of plans, they may be
reduced to simple geometrical shapes (circles, squares,
GENERAL CATEGORIES BY WHICH etc.)
CONCERNS AND ISSUES MAY BE
AXIAL ARRANGEMENTS
ADDRESSED IN ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN:
MAJOR AXIS – carried through the mass as one enters
1. FUNCTIONAL ZONING
the building; perpendicular to the main elevation and to
– the need for adjacency
the directional quality of the area – location of entrance
2. ARCHITECTURAL SPACE
is more important than shape
- a concretization of man’s existential space.

AGBAYANI, CRISOSTOMO, ROQUE, VILLAVERDE PAGE 18

 THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE 1 & 2

• Transverse major axis – cuts through the shorter • One of the two forms can receive the other
direction totally within its volume
• Longitudinal major axis – cuts through the • The two forms can retain their individual
longer direction identities and share the interlocking portion
of their volumes
PRINCIPAL MINOR AXIS – extends at right angle
from the major axis; parallel to the main elevation THE ARTICULATION OF FORMS
PRINCIPLES Articulation refers to the manner by which the surfaces
of a form come together to define its shape and volume.
ORGANIC PLANS – all parts must fit together in such
a way that the composition will be disturbed if one Ways by which forms and Its Surface Planes May Be
element is moved. Articulated
EMPHASIS – created by contrast in size, shape, 1. Edges
character, etc. 2. Corners
3. Surfaces
• Emphasized activity = emphasized area in the
plan (ex. Elements imparting rhythm and point How Corners Define the Meeting of Two Planes
to a monument in the center)
1. By introducing another element
SECONDARY PRINCIPLES 2. By introducing an opening
3. By cutting the planes that define the corner
1. REPETITION 4. By rounding off the corners
– when a number of room, window, arches, etc. of equal MODULE 04
size and shape occur side by side to create unaccented
rhythm Architectural Theories and Theorists

2. ALTERNATION ESSENTIAL BASES FOR THE STUDY AND

– alternating varying sizes or contrasting shapes
3. TRANSITION
– a satisfactory progression from one unit to another
such as vestibules, lobbies; gives preparator indication
of the character and use of the interior
4. TRANSFORMATION
-a prototypical architectural model whose formal
structure and ordering are appropriate is transformed
through a series of discreet manipulations to respond to
specific conditions and context.
FORMAL COLLISIONS OF GEOMETRY
Situation: Two forms with different orientation and
geometry collide and penetrate each other’s boundaries
(also: border, limitation, edges etc.)
PRACTICE OF ARCHITECTURE
Theory-in architecture deals with what architecture is,
what architecture should accomplish, and how best to
design it.
History-deals with theories, events, design methods,
and buildings.
Criticism-is the process and record of response to the
built environment; it relates to both theory and history;
history can be considered as a form of criticism.
THEORIES ABOUT WHAT ARCHITECTURE IS
1. MATHEMATICAL ANALOGY
-Geometry and numbers as a basis for Architecture, in
tune with a Universal order
2. BIOLOGICAL ANALOGY

Resultant forms: a. Organic – Focuses on the relationships between

parts of the building or between the building and its site.
• Two forms can subvert their individual
identities and merge to create a new composite b. Biomorphic – Focuses on growth processes and
form movement capabilities associated with organisms

AGBAYANI, CRISOSTOMO, ROQUE, VILLAVERDE PAGE 19

 THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE 1 & 2

3. ROMANTIC ANALOGY THEORIES ABOUT HOW TO DESIGN

a. Evocative – uses associations or exaggeration to These design theories are concerned with identifying
elicit an emotional response. appropriate methods of operation.
b. Associations can refer to nature, the past, exotic
places, primitive things, the future, childhood, etc.
1. CLASSICAL THEORIES
c. Exaggeration or excess can intimidate, frighten, or
MARCUS VITRUVIUS POLIO
awe through the use of contrast, excessive stimulation,
unfamiliar scale or forms. -Author of the oldest research on architecture.
-Wrote an extensive summary of all the theories
4. LINGUISTIC ANALOGY
on construction.
a. Grammatical model – Architecture is composed of
2. MEDIEVAL THEORIES
elements (words) that are ordered by rules (grammar
and syntax) that allow people to understand what a most documents dealt with monastery institutions
building is trying to communicate.
3. RENAISSANCE THEORIES
b. Expressionist model – Building as a vehicle for
expression of the Architects attitude towards the brought a new interest in the feats of antiquity
building. (especially in Italy)

5. MECHANICAL ANALOGY 4. CONSTRUCTION THEORIES

Building are like machines. They should express only Before Written Construction Theory
what they are and what they do. ‐ Architecture created without the help of architects or
Ex. “A house is a machine for living” –Le Corbusier theory

6. PROBLEM‐SOLVING ANALOGY ‐ Semi‐Circular Vault: Theory by Virtue

It includes 3 Stages: During Middle Ages

a. Analysis ‐ No written documents survived about theories or

b. Synthesis models to describe the magnificent vaults of medieval
c. Evaluation cathedrals

7. ADHOCIST ANALOGY During Renaissance

Building should respond to the immediate need, using
materials readily available without making reference to
an ideal.
8. PATTERN LANGUAGE ANALOGY
Human activities are often characterized as theatre
characterized as theatre and so the built environment
may be seen as a stage in which people play roles and
buildings become settings and props.
9. DRAMATURGICAL ANALOGY
THEORIES ABOUT WHAT ARCHITECTURE
SHOULD DO
-From Alberti onwards, architects began specializing
5. PERSONAL STYLE
Copying from Antiquity
• ART NOUVEAU
‐ The first architectural style independent of the
tradition of antiquity after the Gothic style
-The example set by Art Nouveau encourage
some of the most skillful architects of the 20th
century to create their private form language
6. THEORETICAL TREATISES

Theories about what architecture should accomplish are ‐ Five points of Architecture (1926, Le Corbusier)
concerned with identifying the goals that the designer
a. pilotis
and buildings should satisfy.

AGBAYANI, CRISOSTOMO, ROQUE, VILLAVERDE PAGE 20

 THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE 1 & 2

b. free plan ‐ chief architect: Daniel Burnham and Frederick

c. free façade LawOlmsted
d. the long horizontal sliding window e. the roof
1900’s
garden
‐ European architecture was notified
‐Architecture as Space (Bruno Zevi)
‐ Person to notify:
- The “personal style” of architects are not necessarily
based on laws of nature or on logical reasoning. a. Otto Wagner
b. Adolf Loops “ornament is a crime”
MODERN ARCHITECTURE
c. H.P. Berlage
Industrial Revolution (1768) d. Frank Lloyd Wright
‐ Arts and Crafts Movement 1910’s
‐ Eclecticism ‐ Office of Peter Behrens
a. architecture of borrowing a. Ludwig Mies Van Der Rohe
“less in more”
Fruits of Industrial Revolution
b. Walter Gropius
Joseph Paxton – Crystal Palace, 1851
c. Le Corbusier
Elisha Graves Otis – Elevator, 1857
TWO (2) ART MOVEMENTS THAT
Manufacturing of “Rolled Steel” INFLUENCED

1870’s 1. Futurism – simultaneity of movement

2. Cubism – interpretation of space
The Great Fire of Chicago, 1871
1920’s
‐ downtown in Chicago was burned and was in need of
construction of new buildings The Bauhaus

‐ place where first tallest building was constructed ‐ “Art and Technology, the new unity”

William Le Baron Jenney Established architects

-made the first skyscraper a. Frank Lloyd Wright “organic architecture”

b. Le Corbusier
Daniel Burnham c. Mies Van Der Rohe / Gropius
“make no little plans, they have no magic to stir man’s 1930’s
blood
International Style
Louis Sullivan
1950’s
‐ “form follows function”
The period of Reassessment
1880’s
-Universalism
‐Chicago School became the concentration of
architectural development ‐ Personalism

‐ introduce Chicago Window POSTMODERNISM

1890’s The center of Postmodernism:

The World Columbian Exposition • Robert Venturi “less is bore”

‐ built in 1863 Philip Johnson

AGBAYANI, CRISOSTOMO, ROQUE, VILLAVERDE PAGE 21


‐ say that a portion of Chippendale building in New
York has no function
Mies van der Rohe- Less is more.
Louis Sullivan- Form follows function
Eero Saarinen- The purpose of architecture is to shelter
and enhance man’s life on earth and to fulfil his belief
in nobility of his existence.
Le Corbusier- A house is a machine for living in.
Philip Johnson- Architecture is the art of how to waste
space.
Frank Lloyd Wright- All fine architectural values are
human values, else not valuable.
Le Corbusier- Architecture is a learned game, correct,
magnificent, of forms assembled in the light.
Mies van der Rohe- Architecture is the will of the
epoch translated into space.
Frank Lloyd Wright- An idea is salvation by
imagination.
Alvar Aalto- Nothing is dangerous in architecture
dealing with separated problems. If we split life into
separated problem we split the possibilities to make
good art.
Tadao Ando- I would like my architecture to inspire
people to use their own resources, to move into the
future.
Tadao Ando- I believe that the way people live can be
directed a little by architecture.
Philip Johnson- All architects want to live beyond their
death.
Michael Graves- I don’t believe in morality in
architecture.
MODULE 5
Architectural Perception
PERCEPTION
– the process by which we organize and interpret the
patterns of stimuli in the environment (via the senses)
Principles of perception:
• Strength or intensity of Movement
• Size
AGBAYANI, CRISOSTOMO, ROQUE, VILLAVERDE
THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE 1 & 2
• Repetition
VISUAL ACUITY
– sharpness of vision; the visual ability to resolve fine
details
(usually measured by Snellen Chart – normal visual
acuity is 20/20)
Vision, in general, depends on a variety of factors ‐ one
of which is the visual acuity. These other factors can be:
• The peripheral vision, which is the ability to
see the objects that surround you.
• The coordination between your two eyes
• The sense of depth in the space
• The ability to focus on objects that are near to
you
• The ability to distinguish colors
Two Types of Vision
1. STEROESCOPIC VISION
‐ is vision that involves perception of distance and depth
as well as the height and width of objects. Such vision
is largely due to the amount of distance between the
pupils of the eyes.
2. KINESTHETIC VISION
‐ the perception of body position and movements,
muscular tensions, etc.
STEREOACUITY
-is the cumulative result of all dimensional depth cues.
SPATIAL PERCEPTION
All spatial implications are mentally conditioned by the
environment, experienced through the eyes and
interpreted with the mind.
The Perception of Objects
Objects can be identified not just visually but also
through the senses of sound, touch, etc.
The Perception of Shapes
The most important feature of a shape or object is its
general outline or contour.
PAGE 22
 THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE 1 & 2

FIGUREGROUND HORIZONTAL DISPOSITION – the arrangement

of the various units of the plan in a horizontal manner
–drawings consisting of black lines are recognized as
in order to secure a workable relationship between the
representing an object is quickly recognized by the
different areas. This pattern is dictated by the function
observer. It stands out of the background in an obvious
of the building and the size and shape of the units
manner.
themselves with consideration for direct circulation.
REVERSE FIGURE
THE PRINCIPLES RELATED TO FUNCTION
– drawing wherein the figure and ground are equally
1. Adjacency – adjacency of spaces with related or
meaningful.
similar functions Similarity in general rule – similarity
VISUAL OR OPTICAL ILLUSION in activities and function

The observer’s perception is influenced by the illusion
the parts create in the whole pattern.
Visual Depth
Despite the fact that the observer “sees” and “knows” in
reality and feels with his feet that the floor is composed
of plain mosaic stones, it is impossible to avoid the
perception of depth.
2. Relatedness of departments, goals and systems –
grouping of spaces with similar goals, related
departments and interconnected systems
3. Sequence in time – based on the sequence of
activities
4. Required environments – planning as dictated by
the following: a. Furniture types

Four Types of Cues Used in Depth Perception b. Need for view

1. Superposition c. Need for ceiling height or shape

d. Access to ground or roof
– if one object appears to cut the view of another, we
usually perceive that object as nearer. e. Need for vents and exhausts
2. Apparent magnitude and relative size f. Relative security

– in an array of objects of different sizes, the smaller g. Need for visual and sound privacy
ones are perceived to be farther away.
h. Need for acoustic control
3. Height in place
i. Need for noise control
– as we look along a flat plane, objects farther away
j. Relative maintenance
appear to be higher. The impression of depth can be
created by placing objects of the same size at different k. Plumbing involvement
heights.
l. Relative visual access
4. Texture
5. Types of effects produced
For irregular surface such as rock or the wavy surface
of the ocean, there is a gradient of texture that varies a. Relative weight
with the distance. b. Noise produced
MODULE 06 c. Vibration
Architectural Concerns d. Wet and dry areas
CATEGORIES OF CONCERN THE DESIGNER e. Trash
MAY USE AS A CHECKLIST
f. Relative visual clutter
A. FUNCTIONAL GROUPING AND ZONING
g. Odor produced
h. Radiation produced

AGBAYANI, CRISOSTOMO, ROQUE, VILLAVERDE PAGE 23


i. Chemicals
j. Smokes and fumes
k. Relative heat (kiln, welding, kitchen)
l. Observation intensity
m. Potential for contamination
n. Asset to public image
o. Revenue produced
6. Relative proximity to buildings
7. Relatedness to core activities
8. Characteristics of people involved
9. Volume of people involved
10. Extent of involvement of man and machine
B. SPACE
Space is one of the most influential aspects of the
ANALYSIS STAGE in solving a design problem.
Before an architect designs a space to behave in, he
must first determine how the users behave (activities,
conditions, user characteristics).
THE SYSTEM OF SPACES
Most of man’s actions comprise of a SPATIAL aspect,
in the sense that the objects of orientation are
distributed according to how they are placed in space
(inside/outside; far/close; separated/united, etc.).
EXPRESSSIVE or ARTISTIC SPACE ‐ created by
man to express the structure of his world. This is the
concern of the builders, architects and planners.
AESTHETIC SPACE‐ concept which systematizes
the space’s possible properties. This is the concern of
architectural theorists and philosophers.
THE CONCEPT OF SPACE IN
ARCHITECTURAL THEORY
2 DIVISIONS OF ARCHITECTURAL SPACE
1. Based on Euclidean space
2. Based on perception psychology
THE PROCESS OF SPACE ORGANIZATION
Architectural design today is no longer confined by
traditions that give little room for innovation except
AGBAYANI, CRISOSTOMO, ROQUE, VILLAVERDE
THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE 1 & 2
for superficial details. Instead of being concerned with
the external elements, the architect now begins with a
study of the fundamental principles of planning based
upon the needs of the people and the resultant
architectural forms.
The principles of space organization are concerned
with:
1. The use of space – utility to the occupants
(service)
2. The collaboration of materials – permanence and
security (strength)
3. The contributions of aesthetics – architecture as
distinguished from mere buildings (beauty)
Spatial organization depends upon:
1. The demand of the building program – functional
proximities, hierarchies, requirements for access, light
or view
2. Site conditions
SPACE TO SPACE RELATIONSHIPS
1. SPACE WITHIN A SPACE – consists of a
larger space enveloping a smaller space within its
volume; the contained space depends on the larger
space for its relationship to exterior spaces.
Focus may be directed to the contained space if:
- It takes the form of the enveloping space but is
oriented in a different manner. This creates a
secondary grid and a set of dynamic residual spaces
within the larger space.
- It differs in form from the enveloping space, and
strengthens its image as a free‐standing object. This
may indicate a functional difference between the two
spaces or a symbolic importance for the contained
space.
2. INTERLOCKING SPACES – consist of two
spaces whose fields overlap to form a zone of shared
space. The interlocking spaces retain their identity and
definition as a space
3. ADJACENT SPACES – consist of two spaces
that are clearly defined and responsive to functional or
symbolic requirements in their own
PAGE 24

4. SPACES LINKED BY A COMMON SPACE –
consist of two spaces that are separated by distance
and a third intermediate space that interlocks them and
defines their relationship
FIVE WAYS TO ARRANGE AND ORGANIZE
SPACE
1. CENTRALIZED – consists of a central dominant
space around which a number of secondary spaces are
grouped
2. LINEAR – consists of a linear sequence of
repetitive spaces that are generally alike in size, form
and function
3. RADIAL ‐ consists of a central space from which
linear organizations extend in a radial manner
4. CLUSTERED – consists of repetitive cellular
spaces grouped by proximity or by the sharing of a
common trait or relationship
5. GRID – consists of spaces whose positions in
space and relationships with one another are regulated
by a three‐ dimensional grid pattern or field
SPACE ARTICULATION
Space articulation is often used in architecture to
define a zone of space within a larger spatial context. It
may be achieved through:
1. Elevating a portion of the base plane
- With a different surface, it will create a new field of
space, define its boundary and interrupts the flow of
space. With the same surface, the elevated plane will
appear to be very much the same as the surrounding
space.
- Within a building, an elevated space can provide a
retreat from the activity around it or an area from
which the surrounding spaces may be viewed.
2. A change in form, color or texture of the edges
of the space
3. Depressing the portion to be articulated
- Articulation may be reinforced visually by changing
the formal and surface quality of the area.
- The ground plane may be depressed to define
sheltered areas or to make more extensive use of the
areas on the “normal” level.
AGBAYANI, CRISOSTOMO, ROQUE, VILLAVERDE
THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE 1 & 2
- Sunken areas reduce the scale of the room and define
a more intimate space within it.
- Sunken areas may also serve as transitional space for
the buildings around it.
4. Changing the formal and surface qualities of the
ceiling
- The ceiling can be lowered or elevated to alter the
scale of a space, define a path of movement. The
form, color, texture and pattern of the ceiling may be
manipulated to give it a directional quality or
orientation.
5. Placing a vertical linear element establishes a
point in the ground plane and creates imaginary
paths that lead the viewer to it.
6. Articulating the base plane and establishing the
upper limits to emphasize the overhead plane.
7. A row of column (colonnade) that defines the
edges of the volume while permitting visual and
spatial continuity.
8. A vertical plane will articulate the space that it
fronts. If it has two fronts or “faces”, the plane
establishes the edges of the two separate volumes of
space.
- A vertical plane that is two feet high can define the
edge of a field but provides little or no sense of
enclosure.
- At waist‐level, it begins to give a sense of enclosure
while allowing visual access.
- At eye‐level, it begins to separate one space from
another
C. GEOMETRY
THE APPEARANCE OF THE STRUCTURE
It is necessary that a building be organized for
appearance. The plan and the resultant masses,
volume, surfaces and details should be developed
according to the rules of composition and the
principles of design. These principles may be applied
to:
1. line generated circulation
2. forms and images
3. space‐circulation relationships
PAGE 25

4. space to circulation linkages
5. building image
D. RESPONSE TO CONTEXT (site and climate)
- Before determining the best way to maintain
conditions of comfort within the building, it is
important to understand first the type of climate
concerned.
Considerations shall include regarding:
- The particular climatic zone
- Changes in temperature
- Changes in humidity
- Effect of temperature and humidity on the human
body
ENERGY AND ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN
- The energy consumed by a building is the result of its
energy needs/demands and the efficiency with which
those needs are satisfied.
The energy demands of a building are a function of:
1. its design
2. the environment in which it is located
3. the way in which it is operated or used This makes
it more difficult for a designer to come up with
structures that will consume energy more efficiently
and, therefore, conserve it.
Successful conservation techniques must fulfill the
following goals:
1. To make the client aware of energy conservation as
one of the needs in the building process, and be willing
to provide the money to satisfy this need. 2. To create
a similar awareness in the designer as to the
importance of including conservation among the
design considerations.
3. To ensure that the builder capably incorporates
these techniques into the actual structure.
THE DESIGN TEAM
1. Architect – chief of the design team; his/her
design concepts have basic energy consequences and
establishes the limits within which all subsequent
energy decisions are made
AGBAYANI, CRISOSTOMO, ROQUE, VILLAVERDE
THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE 1 & 2
2. Mechanical Engineer – has responsibility for
plumbing, HVAC, electrical and other mechanical
systems required by the building or its occupants.
3. Energy Consultant‐ has responsibility for
programming, planning, technology, construction
supervision, financing and operations of all energy‐
related considerations
THE DESIGN SEQUENCE
1. Schematic Design
The following information should be gathered and
discussed in this phase:
- Current and projected availability of energy fuels
with respect to prices and rate schedules
- Current energy consumption by buildings similar in
scope
- Current energy conservation techniques being
employed in similar structures
- Recent changes in the design criteria as referred to in
codes and prevailing standards Implications of
alternate energy sources or design solutions
2. Design Development
- Energy options are explored and assessed
- The architect must work closely with the mechanical
engineer and the energy consultant so that no element
would be fixed without studying its implication on
energy efficiency.
3. Construction Documents – preparation of
pertinent drawings
4. Bidding and Negotiations - contactors call to
clarify certain aspects of the construction documents
5. Construction Administration – during
installation of energy‐related equipment
6. Occupancy and Operations – post‐occupancy
evaluations for comparison with initial projections and
improvement of performance
ENVIRONMENTAL PLANNING
SITE SELECTION
Usually, the site has already been selected by the
client. It has to be developed in harmony with the
PAGE 26

building with primary consideration for ultimate
energy conservation.
ELEMENTS OF SITE CONTROL
The purpose of site control is to modify the adverse
climatic sources at a distance from the building.
1. Solar shading in summer
- Shading by structural elements (overhangs, walls,
baffles, etc.) – designed to intercept the sun’s rays at
the building exterior; affects the façade of the
building Powered louvers to diminish heat gain –
exterior, power‐ operated sun louvers that
automatically turn to exclude the sun’s rays as its
relative position changes throughout the day; open
fully when the wall is not exposed to the sun or
during cloudy sky conditions
2. White roofs and desert cooling
a. evaporative cooling– as water evaporates heat is
drawn from the air, reducing the water’s
temperature. A blower may draw outdoor air into the
building, passing it through pads kept moist by
circulated water.
b. white roofs- in reflecting away instead of
absorbing it, which increases the temperature of
rooms below, white roofs are effective.
3. Passive Solar Planning – employs no
sophisticated technology to harness the sun’s energy. It
is achieved by:
a. Orientation – carefully considering how the
building will relate to sun and breezes for natural
lighting and ventilation
b. Materials – should not absorb heat
c. Features – building should be so designed as to
allow the free flow of breeze in all spaces
d. Orientation to the wind
4. Natural Heating and Daylighting - if the sun's
energy is to be used directly for heating in the cold
season, it can also contribute to the illumination of
the heated space.
5. Windowless Buildings - department store are
often best designed this way.
AGBAYANI, CRISOSTOMO, ROQUE, VILLAVERDE
THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE 1 & 2
6. Utilization of natural growth
- Shade trees. Deciduous trees provide shade in the
summer and admit light in the winter. Evergreens
provide shade in the summer and reduce window heat
loss in winter. Trees also lower the ground surface
temperature.
- Deciduous ivy can shade a building façade in the
summer
7. Equipment on the roof
- services that connect to an active large building are
numerous
8. Building configuration – buildings should be
constructed with minimum exposed surface area
except when the skin facilitates heat dissipation
9. Ground surfaces
- Light colored ground surfaces reflect sunlight onto a
building. Dark colored surfaces absorb sunlight and
lower outdoor temperature.
- Plant covers absorb sunlight and have lower
temperature than paving because of evaporative
cooling. Very little heat is stored in vegetation because
of its minimal mass.
- Lower day and night temperatures of planted surfaces
result in less window heat gain and a reduced air‐
conditioning burden
DESIGN FEATURES TO OFFSET THE
EFFECTS OF SUN, RAIN, WIND AND
TEMPERATURE
1. Orientation to the wind
2. Orientation to the sun
3. Offsetting rainfall
4. Offsetting temperature
E. BUILDING ENCLOSURE and BUILDING
ENVELOPE
BASIC COMPONENTS OF THE ENVELOPE
The basic components of the envelope are windows,
walls and roofs. Each component may be classified
according to its function in the exchange of energies:
1. Filter – a means to make the connection indirect
(screens, walls); selects outside conditions that will be
PAGE 27

allowed into the building; sometimes may be in the
position of a switch
2. Connector – a means to establish direct
connection (doorways, openings); characteristic of
architecture in mild climates
3. Switch – regulating connector (operable doors and
windows)
4. Barrier – separating element (roof, wall);
completely severs the relationship between the indoor
and the outdoor; characteristic of architecture in harsh
climates
TWO DIFFERENT CONCEPTS OF ENVELOPE
DESIGN
1. The Closed Shell – establishes limited contacts
with the outdoors; usually found in harsh climates
(pueblo architecture, desert structures)
2. The Open Frame – begins as a structural frame,
with the building skin selectively added to modify only
a few outside forces; usually found in hot, humid
climate
PROPERTIES OF ENCLOSURE
1. Dimension (proportion, scale)
2. Shape (definition)
3. Configuration (form)
4. Surface (color, texture, pattern)
5. Edges
6. Openings (enclosure, light, view)
OPENINGS IN SPACE
1. Degree of enclosure.
The degree of enclosure, as determined by the
configuration and the patterns of the openings, has a
significant impact on our perception of the orientation
and overall form of the space
2. Light.
Natural light coming from windows illuminates the
space’s surfaces and forms, enlivens its colors and
influences its mood (festive, somber)
3. View.
AGBAYANI, CRISOSTOMO, ROQUE, VILLAVERDE
THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE 1 & 2
Windows and skylights provide view and establish a
visual relationship between the room and its
surroundings. The size and location of the openings
determines the characteristic of the view seen through
them
4. Openings within planes
An opening wholly within a wall or ceiling plane will
appear as a bright figure on a contrasting plane. An
opening on the center will appear stable and will
visually organize thespace around it
F. SYSTEMS
- PLUMBING AND SANITARY
- MECHANICAL
- ELECTRICAL
- LIGHTING
- ACOUSTICS
G. ECONOMICS
THE COST OF THE BUILDING STRUCTURE
1. Structural cost – cost related to structural strength
and physical integrity (25%)
2. Architectural cost – (45 60%) 3. Essential
services – provisions for mechanical and electrical
equipment and other servicesystems (15 20%
depending on type of building)
APPROACHES FOR COST EFFICIENCY
1. Integrating architectural and structural solutions
2. Integrating service and structural subsystems
BREAKDOWN OF BUILDING COST
1. Cost of materials brought to the site
2. Cost of labor involved in every phase of the
construction phase
3. Cost of equipment purchased or rented for the
project
4. Cost of management and overhead expenses
5. Profit
MAINTENANCE NEEDS (as related to initial
building cost)
PAGE 28
 THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE 1 & 2

1. Daily housekeeping and cleaning 6. MOTOR SKILLS – skills as dictated by training

2. Periodic inspection and repair
3. Periodic refurbishment (repainting, replacement)
4. Landscaping maintenance
or innate capacity to perform certain tasks
7. COGNITIVE SKILLS – understanding of the
operational aspects according to age difference,
educational/technological capacity

ECONOMY OF MATERIALS CONSIDERATIONS FOR THE HANDICAPPED

AND THE ELDERLY
Materials enclose the architectural space for the
protection of man’s interests and activities. They 1. CONSIDERATIONS FOR THE BLIND
should be chosen so as to be used in a truthful manner,
Sound signals and tactile cues must be provided for the
and not to hide or imitate. Materials and construction
blind and partially‐sighted users
should express the function of the building.
a. Well‐defined, rectilinear walkways which can be
H. HUMAN FACTORS / USER
perceived using a cane b. Pathway obstructions that
REQUIREMENTS / HUMAN NEEDS SOCIO‐
go all the way to the floor so that the cane will not pass
CULTURAL VARIABLES
through the space
TERRITORIAL CATEGORIES
c. Architectural and utility elements above head
1. Public – areas where individuals have freedom of height
access but not of action
d. Special Braille signs for key public locations
2. Home – areas where individuals have regular
e. Sound signals at crossings, elevators
freedom of behavior and sense of control over the area
f. Guardrails, special tactile identification of edges
3. Interactional – areas where social gatherings
occur; boundaries and territorial claims are implicit
and unofficial
2. CONSIDERATIONS FOR THE DEAF
4. Body – area immediately surrounding the
Visual or tactile (vibrations) signals to draw attention
individual’s body; most private and inviolate to the
especially when there is a hazard
individual
3. CONSIDERATIONS FOR THE
USER POPULATION CHARACTERISTICS
ORTHOPEDICALLY HANDICAPPED
1. CULTURAL FACTORS – social rules and
a. Adequate clearance, smooth surfaces, reachable
attitudes, religious attitudes, intellectual/skill
heights
development, where and how people live (spatial
features), technological amenities, language b. Limited force application for opening doors
2. BODY SIZE – its impact on architectural space, c. Door and cabinet handles must be pushed rather
including clearances and reach distances than grasped or twisted d. Stairs and guardrails with
convenient dimensions
3. MOBILITY – agility as dictated by age, size,
garments MODULE 07
4. STRENGTH – tailor‐fitting architectural features Conceptualization Techniques in Architectural
that need to be lifted, pushed, pulled or twisted to the Design
weakest member of the population
ARCHITECTURAL CONCEPTS
5. SENSORY FACTORS – factors related to
vision, hearing and touch which have to be considered - the designer’s way of responding to the design
according to the limited capacities of elderly and situation presented in the program
handicapped individuals

AGBAYANI, CRISOSTOMO, ROQUE, VILLAVERDE PAGE 29

 THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE 1 & 2

- a means of translating non‐physical problem 4. DIRECT RESPONSES AND PROBLEM

statements into the physical building product SOLVING
SYNONYMS FOR CONCEPTS – using pragmatic issues to identify the building
program
1. ARCHITECTURAL IDEAS - Concepts reduced
to a formal architectonic concern 5. IDEALS
2. THEMES -A specific pattern or idea recurring – applying the right concept to certain design
throughout the design of the project. problems; present the highest aspirations and goals of
the structure
3. SUPERORGANIZING IDEAS -The general
configuration or hierarchies that the parts of the project
should respect.

4. PARTI (scheme) AND ESQUISSE (sketch)

- Conceptual and graphic products of a particular
method of instruction developed in the Beaux Arts
School of France during the nineteenth century
- The methods are used to develop the conceptual
skill of the students to high level. Students are
expected to develop a concept (parti) and preliminary
sketch of building configuration (sketch) in the first
few hours of work and hold on to the parti throughout
the project.
5. LITERAL TRANSLATIONS
-A phrase used by Edward Larrabee Barnes to
describe the goal of developing a concept and diagram
that can evolve into a simplified plan for the project.
The concept must be expressed in the kind of sketch
one might do on paper. According to Barnes, a
building must give a strong idea that it is a work of
architecture rather than a sculpture or painting.
FIVE TYPES OF CONCEPTS
1. ANALOGIES
– identifies possible relationships between things
2. METAPHORS AND SIMILES
– identifies abstract relationships or patterns of
possible relationships
3. ESSENCES
– connotes insights into most critical and intrinsic
aspects of the thing being analyzed; changes into
concept statements called philosophy

AGBAYANI, CRISOSTOMO, ROQUE, VILLAVERDE PAGE 30

 THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE 1 & 2

AGBAYANI, CRISOSTOMO, ROQUE, VILLAVERDE PAGE 31