10/3/18

— –

˜ Kinematics - Describes motion while ignoring the external

agents that might have caused or modified the motion
˜ Motion represents a continual change in an object’s position.
˜ Objectives
o explain displacement, speed, velocity, and acceleration;
o use graphs to represent displacement, speed, velocity, and
acceleration in a single dimension;
o use the gradient of and area under motion graphs to solve
problems;
o derive equations representing uniformly accelerated motion
in a single dimension;
o use the equations of motion to solve problems, on uniformly
accelerated motion;

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˜ Displacement is defined to be the change in position or distance

that an object has moved and is given by the equation:

˜ Then it has traveled a distance of 258m in the direction of

increasing x in a time interval of 3 s

˜ Sign convention is often used to help distinguish between

direction for displacement.

˜ Difference between speed and velocity ?

˜ Speed is the change of distance per unit time. Unit?

˜ Velocity is the change of displacement per unit time.

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˜ Assume a player moves from

one end of the court to the other
and back.
˜ Distance is twice the length of
the court
o Distance is always positive
˜ Displacement is zero
o Δx = xf – xi = 0 since xf = xi

˜ Average velocity is a vector quantity, and is related to defined

the x component of this vector.
˜ In the preceding example

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˜ In some cases the average velocity can be negative.

˜ During a freestyle competition, a swimmer performs the

crawl stroke in a pool 50.0 m long. She swims a length at
racing speed, taking 24.0 s to cover the length of the pool.
She then takes twice that time to swim casually back to her
starting point. Find (a) her average velocity for each length
and (b) her average velocity for the entire swim.

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˜ SET UP: choose a coordinate system with the origin at the

starting point (often a convenient choice) and x increasing
to the right. We add the information given to the diagram we
sketch for the problem.

˜ (a) For the first length, we have x1=0, x2= 50m, t1=0 and t2=24s.

˜ For the return trip, we have x1=50, x2= 0m, t1=24 and t2=24s +
48s = 72s.

˜ (b) The starting and finishing points are the same: x1 = x2 = 0.

The average velocity for a round-trip is zero!

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˜ Displacement time (x vs t)
graphs are useful to represent
motion.
˜ The average velocity is just the
slope (gradient) of the x vs. t
graph.
˜ Example: Consider 1-
dimensional motion from point
A (with coordinates xi, ti) to
point B (at xf, tf). We can plot
Working with the only the final
the trajectory on a graph and initial point, the velocity is
just the slope of the line joining A
and B.

˜ The average velocity between two positions is the slope of a line

connecting the two corresponding points on a graph of position as a
function of time.

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˜ Average velocity doesn’t take into account the details of what

happens during an interval of time.
o On a car trip, for example, you may speed up or slow down a
number of times in response to the traffic and the condition of
the road, and on rare occasions even pull over to chat with a
police officer about your speed.
o What is most important to the police (and to your own safety) is
the speed of your car and the direction it was going at a
particular instant in time, which together determine the car’s
instantaneous velocity.
o So in driving a car between two points, the average velocity
must be computed over an interval of time, but the magnitude
of insta. velocity can be read on the car’s speedometer.

(a) Position vs. time graph for the motion of a car moving along the x-
axis at constant velocity.
(b) Position vs. time graph for the motion of a car with changing
velocity,

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˜ The limit of the average velocity as

the time interval becomes
infinitesimally short, or as the
time interval approaches zero.
˜ The instantaneous velocity
indicates what is happening at
every point of time
˜ The instantaneous velocity is the
slope of the line tangent to the x
vs. t curve.
o This would be the green line.

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The relation of the graph of x vs t to the average and

instantaneous velocities.

Finding average velocity Finding instantaneous velocity

On a graph of a coordinate x as a function of time t , the

instantaneous velocity at any point is equal to the slope of the
tangent line to the curve at that point.

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The Figure shows graphs of an object’s

position along the x axis vs. time for
four separate trials. Which of the
following statements is or are correct?
A. The velocity is greater in trial 2 than
in trial 3.
B. The velocity is not constant during
trial 1.
C. During trial 4, the object changes
direction as it passes through the point
D. The velocity is constant during trials
2, 3, and 4.

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You and a friend stand 10 m apart. Your dog, initially midway

between you, runs in a straight line toward your friend. Each
of you independently defines a coordinate system (position of
origin and positive direction for the coordinate x) and
calculates the dog’s average x component of velocity. What
can you say with certainty about the average velocity?

A. The average velocity you calculate is positive.

B. The average velocity your friend calculates is negative.
C. Neither of you can obtain a negative velocity.
D. Both of you can obtain a negative velocity.

A cheetah is crouched in ambush 20.0 m to the east of an

observer’s vehicle. At time t=0 the cheetah charges an antelope in
a clearing 50.0 m east of the observer. The cheetah runs along a
straight line; the observer estimates that, during the first 2.00 s of
the attack, the cheetah’s coordinate x varies with time t according
to the equation

x= 20.0 m + (5.00 m/s2) t2

(a) Find the displacement of the cheetah during the interval

between t1 = 1.00 s and t2 = 2.00s
(b) Find the average velocity during this time interval.
(c) Estimate the instantaneous velocity at time by taking Δt = 0.10
s.

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A train moves slowly along a straight

portion of track according to the
graph of position versus time in
Figure. Find
(a) the average velocity for the total
trip,
(b) the average velocity during the
first 4.00 s of motion,
(c) the average velocity during the
next 4.00 s of motion,
(d) the instantaneous velocity at t
= 2.00 s, and
(e) the instantaneous velocity at t
= 9.00 s.

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˜ When the velocity of a moving

object changes with time, we say
that the object has acceleration.
o Just as velocity is a
quantitative description of the
rate of change of position with
time, acceleration is a
quantitative description of the
rate of change of velocity with
time.
o Like velocity, acceleration is a
vector quantity.

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˜ What the sign of acceleration means and how it relates to

the signs of displacement and velocity.

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˜ The slope of the velocity-time

graph is the acceleration.
˜ The green line represents the
instantaneous acceleration.
o the slope of the tangent
to the curve of the
velocity-time graph
˜ The blue line is the average
acceleration.
o the slope of the line
connecting the initial and
final velocities on a
velocity-time graph

The average acceleration between any two points on a graph of

velocity versus time equals the slope of a line connecting those
points.
The instantaneous acceleration at any point on the graph equals
the slope of the line tangent to the curve at that point.

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˜ Velocity time graphs are useful for representing motion.

o Translating a graphical description to a verbal
description

˜ A baseball player moves in a

straight-line path in order to
catch a fly ball hit to the outfield.
His velocity as a function of time
is shown in the Figure. Find his
instantaneous acceleration at
points A, B, and C.

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˜ Accelerations require forces. An object subjected to

sufficiently large accelerations and the associated forces may
suffer damage.

The earth’s gravitational attraction causes objects to fall with a

downward acceleration with a magnitude of about 9.8 m/s2 (assuming
that effects such as air resistance can be neglected). Because earth’s
land life evolved in an environment characterized by this magnitude of
acceleration, it isn’t surprising that the human body can withstand
accelerations on the order of g without damage.

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˜ Accelerations require forces. An object subjected to

sufficiently large accelerations and the associated forces may
suffer damage.
Sport cars can accelerate at about 0.5g.

Accelerations on the order of 3g in a jet fighter cause serious

impairment of the pilot’s blood circulation, and above about 5g the pilot
loses consciousness.

The primary function of air bags in cars is to reduce the maximum

acceleration during a collision to a value that can be sustained by the
body without catastrophic damage. The human body can withstand
accelerations on the order of 50g for very short time intervals (about
0.05 s).

Fortunately for this test pilot, the extreme g

force he is experiencing will last only a second
or two. He is strapped into a human centrifuge,
an instrument designed to test the limits of
human endurance when exposed to extreme g
forces. The device consists of a simulated
cockpit at the end of an 8-meter-long
mechanical arm that can be rotated so rapidly
that it can produce temporary accelerations of
up to 15g in a period of 3 seconds. The
centrifuge is able to simulate the types of
extreme g forces a fighter jet pilot or astronaut
might experience during takeoff or a rapid turn

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˜ We always describe the position and velocity of an object

with reference to a particular coordinate system.
˜ When we speak of the velocity of a moving car, we usually
mean its velocity with respect to an observer who is
stationary on the earth.
˜ But when two observers measure the velocity of a moving
object, they get different results if one observer is moving
relative to the other. The velocity seen by a particular
observer is called the velocity relative to that observer, or
simply the relative velocity

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˜ A woman walks in a straight line with a velocity of 1 m/s along the

aisle of a train that is moving along the same line with a velocity of 3
m/s. What is the woman’s velocity?
o As seen by a passenger sitting in the train, she is moving at 1 m/s.
o A person on a bicycle standing beside the train sees the woman moving at
1+3 = 4 m/s.
o An observer in another train going in the opposite direction would give still
another answer.
˜ The velocity is different for different observers. We have to specify
which observer we mean, and we speak of the velocity relative to a
particular observer.
o The woman’s velocity relative to the train is 1 m/s, her velocity relative to
the cyclist is 4 m/s and so on.
˜ Each observer, equipped in principle with a meterstick and a
stopwatch, forms what we call a frame of reference

— –

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˜ Many applications of mechanics involve objects moving with

constant acceleration .
o This type of motion is important because it applies to numerous
objects in nature, such as an object in free fall near Earth’s
surface (assuming air resistance can be neglected).
o A graph of acceleration versus time for motion with constant
acceleration is shown in the Figure.

˜ When an object moves with

constant acceleration, the
instantaneous acceleration at any
point in a time interval is equal to
the value of the average
acceleration over the entire time
interval.
˜ Consequently, the velocity
increases or decreases at the
same rate throughout the motion,
and a plot of v versus t gives a
straight line with either positive,
zero, or negative slope.

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˜ The velocity changes at the same rate throughout the motion

˜ If we know any 3 of, then others can be found from the

equations by substitution.

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The graphical meaning of some of the equations of motion for an object

moving with positive velocity and positive constant acceleration.

˜ Be sure all the units are consistent

o Convert if necessary
˜ Choose a coordinate system
˜ Sketch the situation, labeling initial and final points,
indicating a positive direction
˜ Choose the appropriate kinematic equation
˜ Check your results

The best way to gain confidence in the use of these equations is to

work a number of problems. There is usually more than one way to
solve a given problem, depending on which equations are selected
and what quantities are given. The difference lies mainly in the
algebra

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˜ All objects moving under the influence

of only gravity are said to be in free fall
˜ All objects falling near the earth’s
surface fall with a constant
acceleration called the acceleration
due to gravity, g
˜ The acceleration of an object in free
fall is directed downward, regardless
of the initial motion.

˜ Generally, air resistance is negligible

o At a given location on the Earth &
in the absence of air resistance (in
a vaccum), all objects fall with the
same constant acceleration.

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An object dropped An object thrown downward

˜ Initial velocity is zero ˜ ay = -g = -9.80 m/s2

˜ Let up be positive ˜ Initial velocity ¹ 0
˜ Use the kinematic o With upward being positive,
v o= 0 initial velocity will be
equations
negative.
˜ Acceleration is a = -g
o ay = -g = -9.80 m/s2
v o≠ 0
a = -g

˜ Initial velocity is upward, so

v=0
positive
˜ The instantaneous velocity at
v o≠ 0
the maximum height is zero.
a = -g
˜ ay = -g = -9.80 m/s2
everywhere in the motion

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˜ Initial velocity at A is upward (+)

and acceleration is -g (-9.8 m/s2).
˜ At B, the velocity is 0 and the
acceleration is -g (-9.8 m/s2).
˜ At C, the velocity has the same
magnitude as at A, but is in the
opposite direction.
˜ The displacement is –50.0 m (it
ends up 50.0 m below its starting
point).

˜ Objects in free fall

ALWAYS have DOWNWARD acceleration.
˜ We still use the same equations for objects thrown
upward with some initial velocity v0
˜ An object goes up until it stops at some point & then
it falls back down. The acceleration vector is always g
in the downward direction. For the first half of flight, the
velocity is UPWARD.
Þ For the first part of the flight, velocity & acceleration
are in opposite directions!

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1. A car initially traveling along a straight stretch of highway

at accelerates with a constant acceleration of 2.0 m/s2 in
order to pass a truck. (a) What is the velocity of the car
after 5.0 s? (b) What distance does the car travel during its
5.0 seconds of acceleration?
2. (a) A race car starting from rest accelerates at a constant
rate of 5 m/s2. What is the velocity of the car after it has
traveled 100 ft? (b) How much time has elapsed?
3. A sports car is sitting at rest in a freeway entrance ramp.
The driver sees a break in the traffic and floors the car’s
accelerator, so that the car accelerates at a constant 4.9
m/s2 as it moves in a straight line onto the freeway. What
distance does the car travel in reaching a freeway speed of
30 m/s?

4. A motorcyclist heading east through a small Iowa town

accelerates after he passes a signpost at x=0 marking the city
limits. His acceleration is constant: ax=4 m/s2. At time t =0 he is
5.0 m east of the signpost and has a velocity of vx=15 m/s (a)
Find his position and velocity at time t = 2s (b) Where is the
motorcyclist when his velocity is 25 m/s?
5. Suppose you throw a ball vertically upward from the flat roof of a
tall building. The ball leaves your hand at a point even with the
roof railing, with an upward velocity of 15 m/s. On its way back
down, it just misses the railing. Find (a) the position and velocity
of the ball 1.00 s and 4.00 s after it leaves your hand; (b) the
velocity of the ball when it is 5.00 m above the railing; and (c)
the maximum height reached and the time at which it is
reached. Ignore the effects of the air.

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6. The sleek high-speed electric train known as the Acela is currently in

service on the Washington-New York-Boston run. The Acela consists of
two power cars and six coaches and can carry 304 passengers at
speeds up to 170 mi/h. In order to negotiate curves comfortably at
high speeds, the train carriages tilt as much as 6° from the vertical,
preventing passengers from being pushed to the side. A velocity vs.
time graph for the Acela is shown in the Figure.
(a) Describe the motion of the Acela.
(b) Find the peak acceleration of the Acela in miles per hour per second
((mi/h)/s) as the train speeds up from 45 mi/h to 170 mi/h.
(c) Find the train’s displacement in miles between t = 0 and t = 200 s.
(d) Find the average acceleration of the Acela and its displacement in
miles in the interval from 200 s to 300 s. (The train has regenerative
braking, which means that it feeds energy back into the utility lines each
time it stops!)
(e) Find the total displacement in the interval from 0 to 400 s.

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˜ (a) From about 50 s to 50 s, the Acela

cruises at a constant velocity in the x -
direction. Then the train accelerates in
the x -direction from 50 s to 200 s,
reaching a top speed of about 170
mi/h, whereupon it brakes to rest at
350 s and reverses, steadily gaining
speed in the x -direction.

˜ (b) Calculate the slope of the steepest

tangent line, which connects the points
(50 s, 50 mi/h) and (100 s, 150 mi/h)
(the light blue line in Figure b)

(c) Find the displacement

between 0 s and 200 s.
Using triangles and
rectangles, approximate
the area in Figure

Convert units to miles by

converting hours to seconds

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(d) Find the average acceleration from 200s to 300s, and find the
displacement.

The slope of the green line is

the average acceleration
from 200 s to 300 s

The displacement from 200

s to 300 s is equal to area6,

(e) Find the total displacement from 0 s to 400 s.

The total displacement is

the sum of all the
individual displacements.

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