Mastering Chemistry

7 The Quantum-
Mechanical Model
of the Atom
Review Questions
7.1 When a particle is absolutely small it means that you cannot observe it without disturbing it.
When you observe the particle, it behaves differently than when you do not observe it.
Electrons fit this description.
7.2 You can measure the position of a baseball by observing the light that strikes the ball, bounces
off it, and enters your eye. The baseball is so large in comparison to the disturbance caused by
the light that it is virtually unaffected by your observation. By contrast, if you attempt
to measure the position of an electron using light, the light itself disturbs the electron. The
interaction of the light with the electron changes its position.
7.3 The quantum-mechanical model of the atom is important because it explains how electrons
exist in atoms and how those electrons determine the chemical and physical properties of
elements.
7.4 Light is electromagnetic radiation, a type of energy embodied in oscillating electric and
magnetic fields. Light in a vacuum travels at 3.00 × 108 m s−1.
7.5 The wavelength (λ) of the wave is the distance in space between adjacent crests and is
measured in units of distance. The amplitude of the wave is the vertical height of a crest. The
more closely spaced the waves, that is, the shorter the wavelength, the more energy there is.
The amplitude of the electric and magnetic field waves in light determines the intensity or
brightness of the light. The higher the amplitude, the greater the energy of the wave.
7.6 The frequency, (ν), is the number of cycles (or wave crests) that pass through a stationary point
in a given period of time. The units of frequency are cycles per second. The frequency is
inversely proportional to the wavelength (λ). Frequency and wavelength are related by the
c
equation ν = .
λ
7.7 For visible light, wavelength determines the colour. Red light has a wavelength of 750 nm,
the longest wavelength of visible light, and blue has a wavelength of 500 nm.
7.8 The presence of a variety of wavelengths in white light is responsible for the way we perceive
colours in objects. When a substance absorbs some colours while reflecting others, it appears
coloured. Grass appears green because it reflects primarily the wavelength associated with
green light and absorbs the others.
7.9 (a) Gamma rays ( γ) – the wavelength range is 10−11 to 10−15 m. Gamma rays are produced
by the sun, other stars, and certain unstable atomic nuclei on Earth. Human exposure
to gamma rays is dangerous because the high energy of gamma rays can damage
biological molecules.
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Copyright © 2020 Pearson Canada Inc.
278 Chapter 7 The Quantum-Mechanical Model of the Atom
(b) X-rays – the wavelength range is 10−8 to 10−11 m. X-rays are used in medicine. X-rays pass through
many substances that block visible light and are therefore used to image bones and internal
organs. X-rays are sufficiently energetic to damage biological molecules so, while several yearly
exposures to X-rays are harmless, excessive exposure increases cancer risk.
(c) Ultraviolet radiation (UV) – the wavelength range is 0.4 × 10−6 to 10−8 m. Ultraviolet radiation is most
familiar as the component of sunlight that produces a sunburn or suntan. While not as energetic as
gamma rays or X-rays, ultraviolet light still carries enough energy to damage biological molecules.
Excessive exposure to ultraviolet light increases the risk of skin cancer and cataracts and causes
premature wrinkling of the skin.
(d) Visible light – the wavelength range is 0.75 × 10−6 to 0.4 × 10−6 m (750 nm to 400 nm). Visible light, as
long as the intensity is not too high, does not carry enough energy to damage biological molecules.
It does, however, cause certain molecules in our eyes to change their shape, sending a signal to the
brain that results in vision.
(e) Infrared radiation (IR) – the wavelength range is 0.75 × 10−6 to 10−3 m. The heat you feel when you
place your hand near a hot object is infrared radiation. All warm objects, including human bodies,
emit infrared light. Although infrared light is invisible to our eyes, infrared sensors can detect it and
are often used in night vision technology to “see” in the dark.
(f) Microwave radiation – the wavelength range is 10−3 to 10−1 m. Microwave radiation is used in radar
and in microwave ovens. Microwave radiation is efficiently absorbed by water and can therefore
heat substances that contain water.
(g) Radio waves – the wavelength range is 10−1 to 105 m. Radio waves are used to transmit the signals
responsible for AM and FM radio, cellular telephones, television, and other forms of communication.
7.10 Waves interact with each other in a characteristic way called interference: They can cancel each other out
or build each other up, depending on their alignment upon interaction. Constructive interference occurs if
waves of equal amplitude from two sources are in phase (they align with overlapping crests) and a wave
with twice the amplitude results. Destructive interference occurs if the waves are completely out of
phase—they align so that the crest from one source overlaps the trough form the other source—and the
waves cancel each other.
7.11 Diffraction occurs when a wave encounters an obstacle or a slit that is comparable in size to its wave-
length. The wave bends around the slit. The diffraction of light through two slits separated by a distance
comparable to the wavelength of the light results in an interference pattern. Each slit acts as a new wave
source, and the two new waves interfere with each other. This results in a pattern of bright and dark
lines.

Chapter 7 The Quantum-Mechanical Model of the Atom 279
7.12 The photoelectric effect was the observation that many metals emit electrons when light shines on them.
Classical electromagnetic theory attributed this effect to the transfer of energy from the light to an electron
in the metal, dislodging the electron. In this description, changing either the wavelength (colour) or the
amplitude (intensity) of the light should affect the emission of electrons. So, the rate at which electrons
were emitted from a metal due to the photoelectric effect could be increased by using either light of shorter
wavelength or light of higher intensity. With dim light there should be a lag time between the initial
shining of the light and the emission of an electron. This time would be needed for the transfer of sufficient
energy to the electron to dislodge. However, experiments showed that the light used to dislodge electrons
had a threshold frequency below which no electrons were emitted from the metal, no matter how long the
light shone on the metal. Low-frequency light would not eject electrons from a metal regardless of intensity
or duration. But high-frequency light would eject electrons even at low intensity without any lag time.
7.13 Because of the results of the experiments with the photoelectric effect, Einstein proposed that light energy
must come in packets. The amount of energy in a light packet depends on its frequency (wavelength). The
emission of electrons depends on whether or not a single photon has sufficient energy to dislodge a single
electron.
7.14 A photon is a packet of electromagnetic radiation. The energy of the photon can be expressed in terms
hc
of wavelength as E = or in terms of frequency as E = hν .
λ
7.15 An emission spectrum occurs when an atom absorbs energy and re-emits that energy as electromagnetic
radiation. The EM radiation emitted contains distinct wavelengths for each element. The emission spectrum
of a particular element is always the same and can be used to identify the element. A white light spectrum is
continuous, meaning that there are no sudden interruptions in the intensity of the light as a function of
wavelengths. It consists of all wavelengths. Emission spectra are not continuous. They consist of bright lines
at specific wavelengths, with complete darkness in between.
7.16 In the Bohr model, electrons travel around the nucleus in circular orbits. Bohr’s orbits could exist only at
specific, fixed distances from the nucleus. The energy of each orbit was also fixed, or quantized. Bohr called
these orbits stationary states and suggested that, although they obeyed the laws of classical mechanics, they
also possessed “a peculiar, mechanically unexplainable, stability.” Bohr further proposed that, in contradic-
tion to classical electromagnetic theory, no radiation was emitted by an electron orbiting the nucleus in a
stationary state. It was only when an electron jumped, or made a transition, from one stationary state to
another that radiation was emitted or absorbed. The emission spectrum of an atom consisted of discrete
lines because the stationary states existed only at specific, fixed energies. The energy of the photon created
when an electron made a transition from one stationary state to another was simply the energy difference
between the two stationary states.
7.17 Electron diffraction occurs when an electron beam is aimed at two closely spaced slits, and a series of
detectors is arranged to detect the electrons after they pass through the slits. An interference pattern
similar to that observed for light is recorded behind the slits. Electron diffraction is evidence of the wave
nature of electrons.
7.18 The de Broglie wavelength is the wavelength associated with an electron travelling through space. It is
related to its kinetic energy. The wavelength, λ , associated with an electron of mass, m, moving at
h
velocity, v, is given by the de Broglie relation: λ = .
mv
7.19 Complementary properties are those that exclude one another. The more you know about one, the less you
know about the other. Which of two complementary properties you observe depends on the experiment
you perform. In electron diffraction, when you try to observe which hole the electron goes through (particle
nature) you lose the interference pattern (wave nature). When you try to observe the interference pattern,
you cannot determine which hole the electron goes through.

7.20 Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle states that the product of Δx and mΔv must be greater than or equal to a
finite number. In other words, the more accurately you know the position of an electron (the smaller Δx) the
less accurately you can know its velocity (the bigger Δv) and vice versa. The complementarity of the wave
nature and particle nature of the electron results in the complementarity of velocity and position. Heisenberg
solved the contradiction of an object as both a particle and a wave by introducing complementarity—an
electron is observed as either a particle or a wave, but never both at once.
7.21 A trajectory is a path that is determined by the particle’s velocity (the speed and direction of travel), its
position, and the forces acting on it. Both position and velocity are required to predict a trajectory.
7.22 Because the uncertainty principle says that you cannot know both the position and velocity of the electron
simultaneously, you cannot predict the trajectory.
7.23 Deterministic means that the present determines the future. That means that under the identical condition,
identical results will occur.
7.24 The indeterminate behaviour of an electron means that under identical conditions, the electron does not
have the same trajectory and does not “land” in the same spot each time.
7.25 A probability distribution map is a statistical map that shows where an electron is likely to be found
under a given set of conditions.
7.26 Using the Schrödinger equation we describe the probability distribution maps for electron states. In these
the electron has a well-defined energy, but not a well-defined position. In other words, for each state,
we can specify the energy of the electron precisely, but not its location at a given instant. The electron’s
position is described in terms of an orbital.
7.27 An orbital is a probability distribution map showing where the electron is likely to be found.
7.28 The mathematical derivation of energies and orbitals for electrons in atoms comes from solving the
Schrödinger equation. The general form of the Schrödinger equation is Hψ = Eψ . The symbol H stands
for the Hamiltionian operator, a set of mathematical operations that represent the total energy (kinetic
and potential) of the electron within the atom. The symbol E is the actual energy of the electron. The
symbol ψ is the wave function, a mathematical function that describes the wavelike nature of the elec-
tron. A plot of the wave function squared ( ψ 2 ) represents an orbital, a position probability distribution
map of the electron.
7.29 The principal quantum number (n) is an integer and has possible values of 1, 2, 3, etc. The principal
quantum number determines the overall size and energy of an orbital.
7.30 The angular momentum quantum number (l) is an integer and has possible values of 0, 1, 2, 3, etc. The
angular momentum quantum number determines the shape of the orbital and, for multielectron species,
the relative energies of the orbital with the same principal quantum number.
7.31 The magnetic quantum number (ml) is an integer ranging from −l to +l. For example, if l = 1, ml = −1, 0, +1.
The magnetic quantum number specifies the orientation of the orbital.
7.32 (a) n = 1, l = 0, ml = 0
(b) n = 2, l = 0, ml = 0; n = 2, l = 1, ml = −1; n = 2, l = 1, ml = 0; n = 2, l = 1, ml = +1
(c) n = 3, l = 0, ml = 0; n = 3, l = 1, ml = −1; n = 3, l = 1, ml = 0; n = 3, l = 1, ml = +1; n = 3, l = 2, ml = −2;
n = 3, l = 2, ml = −1; n = 3, l = 2, ml = 0; n = 3, l = 2, ml = +1; n = 3, l = 2, ml = +2
(d) n = 4, l = 0, ml = 0; n = 4, l = 1, ml = −1; n = 4, l = 1, ml = 0; n = 4, l = 1, ml = +1; n = 4, l = 2, ml = −2;
n = 4, l = 2, ml = −1; n = 4, l = 2, ml = 0; n = 4, l = 2, ml = +1; n = 4, l = 2, ml = +2;
n = 4, l = 3, ml = −3; n = 4, l = 3, ml = −2; n = 4, l = 3, ml = −1; n = 4, l = 3, ml = 0;
n = 4, l = 3, ml = +1; n = 4, l = 3, ml = +2; n = 4, l = 3, ml = 3

7.33 The probability density is the probability per unit volume of finding the electron at a point in space. The
radial distribution function represents the total probability of finding the electron within a thin spheri-
cal shell at a distance r from the nucleus. In contrast to probability density, which has a maximum at the
nucleus for an s orbital, the radial distribution function has a value of zero at the nucleus. It increases to
a maximum and then decreases again with increasing r.
7.34
7.35 The sublevels are s (l = 0), which can hold a maximum of two electrons; p (l = 1), which can hold a max-
imum of six electrons; d (l = 2), which can hold a maximum of 10 electrons; and f (l = 3), which can hold a
maximum of 14 electrons.
7.36 Atoms are usually drawn as spheres because most atoms contain many electrons occupying a number
of different orbitals. Therefore, the shape of an atom is obtained by superimposing all of its orbitals. If
the s, p, and d orbitals are superimposed, they have a spherical shape.
7.37 Electron spin is a fundamental property of electrons. It is more correctly expressed as saying the electron
has inherent angular momentum. The value ms is the spin quantum number. An electron with ms = +1/2
has a spin opposite of an electron with ms = −1/2.
7.38 In the Stern–Gerlach experiment a beam of silver atoms is split into two separate trajectories by a magnet.
The spin of the electrons within the atoms creates a tiny magnetic field that interacts with the external
field. One spin orientation causes the deflection of the beam in one direction, while the other orientation
causes a deflection in the opposite direction. Since there were only two trajectories, the spin of the electron
is quantized, that is, it can have one of two values and nothing in between.
7.39 An electron configuration shows the particular orbitals that are occupied by electrons in an atom. Some
examples are H = 1s1, He = 1s2, and Li = 1s22s1.
7.40 Coulomb’s law states that the potential energy (E) of two charged particles depends on their charges
1 q1q2
(q1 and q2) and on their separation, (r). E = . The potential energy is positive for charges of the
4π e o r
same sign and negative for charges of the opposite sign. The magnitude of the potential energy depends
inversely on the separation between the charged particles.

7.41 Shielding or screening occurs when one electron is blocked from the full effects of the nuclear charge so
that the electron experiences only a part of the nuclear charge. It is the inner (core) electrons that shield
the outer electrons from the full nuclear charge.
7.42 Penetration occurs when an electron penetrates the electron cloud of the 1s orbital and experiences the
charge of the nucleus more fully because it is less shielded by the intervening electrons. As the outer
electron undergoes penetration into the region occupied by the inner electrons, it experiences a greater
nuclear charge and therefore, according to Coulomb’s law, a lower energy.
7.43 The sublevels within a principal level split in multielectron atoms because of penetration of the outer
electrons into the region of the core electrons. The sublevels in hydrogen are not split because they are
empty in the ground state.
7.44 An orbital diagram is a different way to show the electron configuration of an atom. It symbolizes the
electron as an arrow in a box that represents the orbital.
The orbital diagram for a hydrogen atom:
7.45 The Pauli exclusion principle states the following: No two electrons in an atom can have the same four
quantum numbers.
Since two electrons occupying the same orbital have three identical quantum numbers (n, l, ml), they
must have different spin quantum numbers. The Pauli exclusion principle implies that each orbital can
have a maximum of only two electrons, with opposing spins.
7.46 An atom that has unpaired electrons in its electron configuration is said to be paramagnetic and would
be attracted to an external magnetic field (it would display paramagnetism). An atom that has no
unpaired electrons in its configuration is said to be diamagnetic and would be repelled by an external
magnetic field (it would display diamagnetism).
7.47 The radial probability diagram for a 2s orbital would consist of two peaks (at ~50 and 300 pm) with a
node between the peaks. The peaks would be of different heights, with the smaller peak being closer to
the nucleus. The radial probability diagram for a 3p orbital has similar features but the peaks occur at
distances further from the nucleus and are generally wider than the peaks in the 2s orbital.
7.48 A 4p radial probability diagram would have two radial nodes while a 3p diagram would only have one.
Alternatively, the 4p diagram would have three peaks as opposed to the two peaks in the 3p diagram.
The 4p radial probability diagram would have a maximum probability at a distance from the nucleus
greater than the maximum in the 3p diagram, indicating that the 4p orbital is larger than the 3p orbital.
Problems by Topic
Electromagnetic Radiation
7.49 Given: distance to sun = 1.496 × 108 km Find: time for light to travel from sun to Earth
Conceptual Plan: distance km → distance m → time
1000 m distance
time =
km 3.00 × 10 8 m s −1
1000 m s
Solution: 1.496 × 10 8 km × × = 499 s
km 3.00 × 10 8 m
Check: The units of the answer, seconds, are correct. The magnitude of the answer is reasonable, since it
corresponds to about 8 min.

7.50 Given: 4.3 light years to star Find: distance in km

Conceptual Plan: light years → days → hours → seconds → m → km
365 days 24 hr 3600 s 3.00 × 10 8 m km
yr day hr s 1000 m
365 days 24 hrs 3600 s 3.00 × 10 8 m km

Solution: 4.3 light yr × × × × × = 4.1 × 1013 km
yr day hr s 1000 m
Check: The units of the answer, km, are correct. The magnitude of the answer is reasonable since it
takes much longer for the light to reach Earth from Proxima Centauri than from the sun, so the distance
should be much greater.
7.51 (i) By increasing wavelength the order is d) ultraviolet < c) infrared < b) microwaves < a) radio waves.
(ii) By increasing energy the order is a) radio waves < b) microwaves < c) infrared < d) ultraviolet.
7.52 (i) By increasing frequency the order is b) radio waves < c) microwaves < d) visible light < a) gamma rays.
(ii) By decreasing energy the order is a) gamma rays > d) visible light > c) microwaves > b) radio waves.
7.53 (a) Given: λ = 632.8 nm Find: frequency (ν )

Conceptual Plan: nm → m → ν
m c
ν=
10 9 nm λ
m 3.00 × 108 m 1
Solution: 632.8 nm × = 6.328 × 10 −7 m ν= × = 4.74 × 1014 s −1
109 nm s 6.328 × 10 −7 m
Check: The units of the answer, s−1, are correct. The magnitude of the answer seems reasonable
since wavelength and frequency are inversely proportional.
(b) Given: λ = 503 nm Find: frequency (ν )

m c
ν=
10 9 nm λ
m 3.00 × 10 8 m 1
Solution: 503 nm × = 5.03 × 10 −7 m × ν= = 5.96 × 1014 s −1
10 nm 9
s 5.03 × 10 −7 m
(c) Given: λ = 0.052 nm Find: frequency (ν )

m c
ν=
10 9 nm λ
m 3.00 × 108 m 1
Solution: 0.052 nm × = 5.2 × 10 −11 m × ν== 5.8 × 1018 s −1
9
10 nm s 5.2 × 10 −11 m
7.54 (a) Given: ν = 100.2 MHz Find: wavelength (λ)

Conceptual Plan: MHz → Hz → s−1 → λ
10 6 Hz c
1 Hz = 1 s−1 λ =
MHz ν
10 6 Hz s −1 3.00 × 10 8 m s
Solution: 100.2 MHz × × = 1.002 × 10 8 s −1 λ= × = 2.99 m
MHz Hz s 1.002 × 10 8
Check: The units of the answer, m, are correct. The magnitude of the answer is reasonable
because FM wavelengths are generally in the 3–8 m range.

(b) Given: ν = 1070 kHz Find: wavelength (λ)

Conceptual Plan: kHz → Hz → s−1 → λ
10 3 Hz c
1 Hz = 1 s−1 λ =
kHz ν
10 3 Hz s −1 3.00 × 10 8 m s
Solution: 1070 kHz × × = 1.070 × 10 6 s −1 λ= × = 280. m
kHz Hz s 1.070 × 10 6
because AM wavelengths are generally in the 100–1000 m range.
(c) Given: ν = 835.6 MHz Find: wavelength (λ)

Conceptual Plan: MHz → Hz → s−1 → λ
10 6 Hz c
1 Hz = 1 s−1 λ=
MHz ν
10 6 Hz s −1 3.00 × 10 8 m s
Solution: 835.6 MHz × × = 8.356 × 10 8 s −1 λ= × = 3.59 × 10 −1 m
MHz Hz s 8.356 × 10 8
because cell phone wavelengths are generally in the 0.1–0.5 m range.
7.55 (a) Given: frequency (ν) from 5 a. = 4.74 × 1014 s−1 Find: energy
Conceptual Plan: ν → E
E = hν h = 6.626 × 10−34 J s
4.74 × 1014
Solution: 6.626 × 10 −34 J s × = 3.14 × 10 −19 J
s
Check: The units of the answer, J, are correct. The magnitude of the answer is reasonable since we
are talking about the energy of one photon.
(b) Given: frequency (ν ) from 5 b. = 5.96 × 1014 s−1 Find: energy

E = hν h = 6.626 × 10−34 J s
5.96 × 1014
Solution: 6.626 × 10 −34 J s × = 3.95 × 10 −19 J
s
(c) Given: frequency (ν ) from 5 c. = 5.8 × 1018 s−1 Find: energy

E = hν h = 6.626 × 10−34 J s
5.8 × 1018
Solution: 6.626 × 10 −34 J s × = 3.8 × 10 −15 J
s
7.56 (a) Given: frequency (ν ) from 6 a. = 100.2 MHz Find: energy

Conceptual Plan: MHz → Hz → s−1 → E
10 6 Hz
1 Hz = 1 s−1 E = hν h = 6.626 × 10−34 J s
MHz
10 6 Hz s −1 1.002 × 10 8
Solution: 100.2 MHz × × = 1.002 × 10 8 s −1 6.626 × 10 −34 J s × = 6.639 × 10 −26 J
MHz Hz s
are talking about the energy of one photon and have a relatively long wavelength.

(b) Given: ν = 1070 kHz Find: energy

Conceptual Plan: kHz → Hz → s−1 → E
10 3 Hz
1 Hz = 1 s−1 E = hν h = 6.626 × 10−34 J s
kHz
10 3 Hz s −1 1.070 × 10 6
Solution: 1070 kHz × × = 1.070 × 10 6 s −1 6.626 × 10 −34 J s × = 7.090 × 10 −28 J
kHz Hz s
(c) Given: ν = 835.6 MHz Find: energy

Conceptual Plan: MHz → Hz → s−1 → E
10 6 Hz
1 Hz = 1 s−1 E = hν h = 6.626 × 10−34 J s
MHz
10 6 Hz s −1 8.356 × 10 8
Solution: 835.6 MHz × × = 8.356 × 10 8 s −1 6.626 × 10 −34 J s × = 5.537 × 10 −25 J
MHz Hz s
7.57 Given: λ = 532 nm and Epulse = 3.85 mJ Find: number of photons

Conceptual Plan: nm → m → Ephoton → number of photons
m hc Epulse
E= ; h = 6.626 × 10−34 J s
10 9 nm λ Ephoton
3.00 × 10 8 m
6.626 × 10 −34 J s ×
m s
Solution: 532 nm × = 5.32 × 10 −7 m E = = 3.7364 × 10 −19 J photon −1
10 nm 9
5.32 × 10 −7 m
J 1 photon
3.85 mJ × × = 1.03 × 1016 photons
1000 mJ 3.7364 × 10 −19 J
Check: The units of the answer, number of photons, are correct. The magnitude of the answer is reason-
able for the amount of energy involved.
7.58 Given: λ = 6.5 μm; power = 32.8 watts Find: photons s−1
Conceptual Plan: μm → m → Ephoton and then watts → J s−1 → number of photons
m hc J s −1 J s −1
E = ; h = 6.626 × 10−34 J s
106 μm λ watt J photon −1
3.00 × 10 8 m
6.626 × 10 −34 J s ×
m s
Solution: 6.5 μm × = 6.5 × 10 −6 m E= −6
= 3.058 × 10 −20 J photon −1
10 μm 6
6.5 × 10 m
J s 1 photon
32.8 watts × × = 1.1 × 10 21 photons s −1
1 watt 3.058 × 10 −20 J
Check: The units of the answer, photons s−1, are correct. The magnitude of the answer is reasonable for
the amount of energy involved.
7.59 (a) Given: λ = 1500 nm Find: E for 1 mol photons

Conceptual Plan: nm → m → Ephoton → E(J)mol → E(kJ)mol
m hc mol kJ
E= ; h = 6.626 × 10−34 J s
10 9 nm λ 6.022 × 10 23 photons 1000 J

Solution:
3.00 × 108 m
6.626 × 10−34 J s ×
m s
1500 nm × = 1.500 × 10−6 m E= = 1.3252 × 10−19 J photon−1
10 nm 9
1.500 × 10−6 m
1.3252 × 10 −19 J 6.022 × 10 23 photons kJ
× × = 79.8 kJ mol −1
photon mol 1000 J
Check: The units of the answer, kJ mol−1, are correct. The magnitude of the answer is reasonable
for a wavelength in the infrared region.
(b) Given: λ = 500 nm Find: E for 1 mol photons

Conceptual Plan: nm → m → Ephoton → Emol → E(kJ)mol
m hc mol kJ
E = ; h = 6.626 × 10−34 J s
10 9 nm λ 6.022 × 10 23 photons 1000 J
Solution:
3.00 × 10 8 m
6.626 × 10 −34 J s ×
m s
500 nm × = 5.00 × 10 −7 m E= −7
= 3.9756 × 10 −19 J photon −1
9
10 nm 5.00 × 10 m
3.9756 × 10 −19 J 6.022 × 10 23 photons kJ
× × = 239 kJ mol −1
photon mol 1000 J
for a wavelength in the visible region.
(c) Given: λ = 150 nm Find: E for 1 mol photons

m hc mol kJ
E= ; h = 6.626 × 10−34 J s
10 9 nm λ 6.022 × 10 23 photons 1000 J
Solution:
3.00 × 10 8 m
6.626 × 10 −34 J s ×
m s
150 nm × = 1.50 × 10 −7 m E= −7
= 1.3252 × 10 −18 J photon −1
9
10 nm 1.50 × 10 m
1.3252 × 10 −18 J 6.022 × 10 23 photons kJ
× × = 798 kJ mol −1
photon mol 1000 J
for a wavelength in the ultraviolet region. Note: The energy increases from the IR to the VIS to the
UV as expected.
7.60 (a) Given: λ = 0.135 nm Find: E for 1 mol photons

m hc mol kJ
E= ; h = 6.626 × 10−34 J s
10 9 nm λ 6.022 × 10 23 photons 1000 J
Solution:
3.00 × 10 8 m
6.626 × 10 −34 J s ×
m s
0.135 nm × = 1.35 × 10 −10 m E= = 1.472 × 10 −15 J photon −1
10 nm 9
1.35 × 10 −10 m
1.472 × 10 −15 J 6.022 × 10 23 photons kJ
× × = 8.86 × 10 5 kJ mol −1
photon mol 1000 J
for a wavelength in the X-ray region.

(b) Given: λ = 2.15 × 10 −5 nm Find: E for 1 mol photons

m hc mol kJ
E = ; h = 6.626 × 10−34 J s
10 9 nm λ 6.022 × 10 23 photons 1000 J
Solution:
3.00 × 108 m
6.626 × 10 −34 J s ×
m s
2.15 × 10 −5 nm × = 2.15 × 10 −14 m E= = 9.246 × 10−12 J photon −1
109 nm 2.15 × 10 −14 m
9.246 × 10 −12 J 6.022 × 10 23 photons kJ
× × = 5.57 × 10 9 kJ mol −1
photon mol 1000 J
for a wavelength in the gamma ray region.
Photoelectric Effect
7.61 Given: for aluminum φ = 412 kJ mol −1 , Elight = 471 kJ mol−1, me = 9.11 × 10−31 kg Find: velocity of electrons
emitted
Conceptual Plan: Determine the energy of each photon and then calculate the difference between the
photon energy and the work function to find the kinetic energy of the electron.
6.022 × 10 23 photons 1000 J

KEelectron = Ephoton − φ
1 mol 1 kJ
Use the kinetic energy of the electron and the mass of the electron to find the velocity.
1
KE = mv 2
2
1 mol 471 kJ 1000 J

Solution: Ephoton = × × = 7.8213 × 10 −19 J
6.022 × 10 23 photons 1 mol 1 kJ
1 mol 412 kJ 1000 J
φ= × × = 6.8416 × 10 −19 J
6.022 × 10 electrons 1 mol 1 kJ
23
KEelectron = Ephoton − φ = 7.8213 × 10 −19 J − 6.8416 × 10 −19 J = 9.797 × 10 −20 J
1 KE 9.797 × 10 −20 J
KE = mv 2 v= = = 4.637697 × 10 5 m s −1 = 4.64 × 10 5 m s −1
2 (0.5)( m) (0.5)(9.11 × 10 −31 kg)
Check: The units (m s−1) are correct and the magnitude of the velocity (105) is reasonable for an electron.
7.62 Given: Elight = 471 kJ mol−1, velectron = 9.57 × 105 m s−1, me = 9.11 × 10−31 kg Find: work function of sodium
Conceptual Plan: Determine the energy of each photon and then calculate the kinetic energy of the
electrons.
6.022 × 10 23 photons 1000 J 1

KE = mv 2
1 mol 1 kJ 2
Calculate the difference between the photon energy and electron kinetic energy to determine the
work function.
φ = Ephoton − KEelectron

1 mol 471 kJ 1000 J

Solution: Ephoton = × × = 7.8213 × 10 −19 J
6.022 × 10 23 photons 1 mol 1 kJ
1
KEelectron = mv 2 = (0.5)(9.11 × 10 −31 kg)(9.57 × 10 5 m s −1 )2 = 4.1717 × 10 −19 J
2
φ = Ephoton − KEelectron = 7.8213 × 10−19 J − 4.1717 × 10−19 J = 3.6496 × 10 −19 J = 3.65 × 10−19 J
Check: The magnitude (10−19) is appropriate for a work function and the value agrees with the tabulated
work function for sodium.
Atomic Spectroscopy
7.63 When the atom emits the photon of energy that was needed to raise the electron to the n = 2 level, the
photon has the same energy as the energy absorbed to move the electron to the excited state. Therefore,
the electron has to be in n = 1 (the ground state) following the emission of the photon.
7.64 (a) From n = 3 → n = 1, the electron is moving to a lower energy, therefore, there is an emission of
energy.
(b) From n = 2 → n = 4, the electron is moving to a higher energy, therefore, there is an absorption of
energy.
(c) From n = 4 → n = 3, the electron is moving to a lower energy, therefore, there is an emission of
energy.
7.65 (a) Given: n = 2 → n = 1 Find: λ

Conceptual Plan: n = 1, n = 2 → ΔEatom → ΔEphoton → λ
hc
ΔEatom = E1 − E2 ΔEatom → −ΔEphoton E=
λ
Solution:
ΔE = E1 − E2
1   1   1   1  
= −2.18 × 10 −18 J  2  −  −2.18 × 10 −18  2   = −2.18 × 10 −18 J  2  −  2   = −1.635 × 10 −18 J
1    2   1   2  
hc (6.626 × 10−34 J ⋅ s)(3.00 × 108 m s −1 )
ΔEphoton = −ΔEatom = 1.635 × 10−18 J λ= = = 1.22 × 10−7 m or 122 nm
E 1.635 × 10−18 J
This transition would produce a wavelength in the UV region.
Check: The units of the answer, m, are correct. The magnitude of the answer is reasonable since it
is in the region of UV radiation.
(b) Given: n = 3 → n = 1 Find: λ

hc
λ
Solution:
ΔE = E1 − E3
1   1   1   1  
= −2.18 × 10 −18 J  2  −  −2.18 × 10 −18  2   = −2.18 × 10 −18 J  2  −  2   = −1.938 × 10 −18 J
  
1  
3  1   3  
hc (6.626 × 10 −34 J ⋅ s)(3.00 × 10 8 m s −1 )
ΔEphoton = −ΔEatom = 1.938 × 10−18 J λ= = = 1.03 × 10 −7 m or 103 nm
E 1.938 × 10 −18 J
This transition would produce a wavelength in the UV region.
is in the region of UV radiation.

(c) Given: n = 4 → n = 2 Find: λ

hc
λ
Solution:
ΔE = E2 − E4
 1   1   1   1  
= −2.18 × 10 −18 J  2  −  −2.18 × 10 −18  2   = −2.18 × 10 −18 J  2  −  2   = −4.087 × 10 −19 J
  
2  
4  2   4  
hc (6.626 × 10 −34 J ⋅ s)(3.00 × 10 8 m s −1 )
E 4.087 × 10 −19 J
This transition would produce a wavelength in the visible region.
is in the region of visible light.
(d) Given: n = 5 → n = 2 Find: λ
hc
λ
Solution:
ΔE = E2 − E5
 1    1   1   1  
= −2.18 × 10 −18 J  2  −  −2.18 × 10 −18  2   = −2.18 × 10 −18 J  2  −  2   = −4.578 × 10 −19 J
  
2  
5  2   5  
hc (6.626 × 10 −34 J ⋅ s)(3.00 × 10 8 m s −1 )
E 4.578 × 10 −19 J
This transition would produce a wavelength in the visible region.
is in the region of visible light.
7.66 (a) Given: n = 4 → n = 3 Find: ν

Conceptual Plan: n = 3, n = 4 → ΔEatom → ΔEphoton → ν
ΔEatom = E3 − E4 ΔEatom → −ΔEphoton E = hν
Solution:
ΔE = E3 − E4
 1   1   1   1  
= −2.18 × 10 −18 J  2  −  −2.18 × 10 −18  2   = −2.18 × 10 −18 J  2  −  2   = −1.060 × 10 −19 J
3    4   3   4  
E (1.060 × 10 −19 J)
ΔEphoton = −ΔEatom = 1.060 × 10−19 J ν= = = 1.60 × 1014 s −1
h 6.626 × 10 −34 J ⋅ s)
Check: The units of the answer, s−1, are correct. The magnitude of the answer is reasonable since it
is a transition between two close levels and the levels become closer as the n value increases.
Therefore, the energy difference is smaller and the frequency is smaller.
(b) Given: n = 5 → n = 1 Find: ν
Solution:
ΔE = E1 − E5
1   1   1   1  
= −2.18 × 10 −18 J  2  −  −2.18 × 10 −18  2   = −2.18 × 10 −18 J  2  −  2   = −2.093 × 10 −18 J
  
1  
5  1   5  
E 2.093 × 10 −18 J
h 6.626 × 10 −34 J ⋅ s

is a transition that will produce a wavelength in the UV region, and the frequency is correct for
the UV region.
(c) Given: n = 5 → n = 4 Find: ν
Solution:
ΔE = E4 − E5
 1   1   1   1  
= −2.18 × 10 −18 J  2  −  −2.18 × 10 −18  2   = −2.18 × 10 −18 J  2  −  2   = −4.905 × 10 −20 J
4    5   4   5  
E 4.905 × 10 −20 J
ΔEphoton = −ΔEatom = 4.905 × 10−20 J ν = = = 7.40 × 1013 s −1
h 6.626 × 10 −34 J ⋅ s
(d) Given: n = 6 → n = 5 Find: ν
Solution:
ΔE = E5 − E6
 1   1   1   1  
= −2.18 × 10 −18 J  2  −  −2.18 × 10 −18  2   = −2.18 × 10 −18 J  2  −  2   = −2.664 × 10 −20 J
5    6   5   6  
E 2.664 × 10 −20 J
h 6.626 × 10 −34 J ⋅ s
7.67 Given: n(initial) = 7 λ = 397 nm Find: n(final)

Conceptual Plan: λ → ΔEphoton → ΔEatom → n = x, n = 7
hc
E= ΔEphoton → −ΔEatom ΔEatom = Ex − E7
λ
hc (6.626 × 10 −34 J ⋅ s)(3.00 × 108 m s −1 )
Solution: E = = = 5.007 × 10 −19 J
λ  m 
(397 nm )  9 
 10 nm 
ΔEatom = −ΔEphoton = −5.007 × 10−19 J
 1    1   1   1  
ΔE = Ex − E7 = −5.007 × 10 −19 = −2.18 × 10 −18 J  2  −  −2.18 × 10 −18  2   = −2.18 × 10 −18 J  2  −  2  
x    7   x   7  
 1   1  1 
0.2297 =  2  −  2  0.25229 =  2  x 2 = 3.998 x=2
   
x 7  
x
Check: The answer is reasonable since it is an integer less than the initial value of 7.

7.68 Given: n(final) = 4, ν = 11.4 THz Find: n(initial)

Conceptual Plan: ν → ΔEphoton → ΔEatom → n = 4, n = x
E = hν ΔEphoton → −ΔEatom ΔEatom = E4 − Ex
 1012 Hz   s −1 
Solution: E = hν = (6.626 × 10 −34 J γ s)(114 THz )   
−20
 = 7.553 × 10 J
 T
   Hz 
−20
ΔEatom = −ΔEphoton = −7.553 × 10 J
 1    1   1   1  
ΔE = E4 − Ex = −7.553 × 10 −20 J = −2.18 × 10 −18 J  2  −  −2.18 × 10 −18  2   = −2.18 × 10 −18 J  2  −  2  
  
4  
x  4   x  
 1  1   1 
0.03465 =  2  −  2  0.02785 =  2  ; x 2 = 35.9 = 36 so x = 6
4  x  x 
Check: The answer is reasonable since it is an integer greater than the final value of 4.
7.69 (a) Given: electron in H atom; nf = 4, ni = 2 Find: ΔE in kJ mol−1
Conceptual Plan: nf , ni → ΔE and then J → kJ and ΔE, NA → ΔE in kJ mol−1
 1 1  1 kJ 6.022 × 10 23 electrons
ΔE = −2.18 × 10 −18 J  2 − 2 
 n f ni  1000 J 1 mol
 
 1 1   1 1
Solution: ΔE = −2.18 × 10 −18 J  2 − 2  = −2.18 × 10 −18 J  2 − 2  = −2.18 × 10 −18 J ( −0.1875 ) = 4.09 × 10 −19 J.
 n f ni   4 2 
 
1 kJ 6.022 × 10 23 electrons
For one mole of electrons: ΔE = 4.09 × 10−19 J × × = 246 kJ mol −1 of electrons.
1000 J 1 mol
Check: The units (kJ mol−1) are correct. The energy difference is positive since energy must be
absorbed in order to move the electron to a higher energy level.
(b) The energy change for the same transition in He+ would be greater because of the greater nuclear
charge (Z) on the nucleus of helium. For hydrogen-like atoms, the equation for the energy difference
 Z2 Z2 
between energy levels is ΔE = −2.18 × 10 −18 J  2 − 2  . The presence of the Z2 term leads to greater
 n f ni 
 
energy differences.
7.70 (a) Given: electron in He+ ion Find: ionization energy in kJ mol−1
Conceptual Plan: Z, nf, ni → ΔE and then J → kJ and ΔE, NA → ΔE in kJ mol−1
 Z2 Z2  1 kJ 6.022 × 10 23 electrons
ΔE = −2.18 × 10 −18 J  2 − 2 
 n f ni  1000 J 1 mol
 
Solution: An He+ ion (Z = 2) has one electron in the first energy level (ni = 1). To completely
remove the electron would be the same as exciting the electron to the nf = ∞ energy level.
 1 1   22 22 
ΔE = −2.18 × 10 −18 J  2 − 2  = −2.18 × 10 −18 J  2 − 2  = −2.18 × 10 −18 J(0 − 4) = −2.18 × 10 −18 J( −4)
 n f ni  ∞ 1 
 
1 kJ 6.022 × 10 23 electrons
= 8.72 × 10 −18 J. For one mole of electrons: ΔE = 8.72 × 10−18 J × ×
1000 J 1 mol
= 5.25 × 10 3 kJ mol −1 of electrons.
Check: The units (kJ mol−1) are correct. The energy difference is positive since energy must be
absorbed in order to completely remove the electron from the atom.
(b) The ionization energy for Li2+ (Z = 3) would be greater than that of He+ (Z = 2) because of
the greater nuclear charge (Z) on the nucleus of lithium. For hydrogen-like atoms, the equation
 Z2 Z2 
for the energy difference between energy levels is ΔE = −2.18 × 10 −18 J  2 − 2  . The presence of
 n f ni 
 
the Z term leads to greater energy differences.
2

The Wave Nature of Matter and the Uncertainty Principle

7.71 The interference pattern would be a series of light and dark lines.
7.72 Since the interference pattern is caused by single electrons interfering with themselves, the pattern
remains the same even when the rate of the electrons passing through the slits is one electron per hour.
It will simply take longer for the full pattern to develop. When a laser is placed behind the slits in order
to determine which hole the electron passes through, the laser flashes when a photon is scattered at the
point of crossing indicating the slit used, but the interference pattern is now absent. With the laser on,
the electrons hit positions directly behind each slit, as if they were ordinary particles.
7.73 Given: m = 9.109 × 10−31 kg, λ = 0.20 nm Find: v

Conceptual Plan: m, λ → v
h
v=
mλ
kg ⋅ m 2
6.626 × 10 −34 ⋅s
Solution: s2 = 3.6 × 10 6 m s −1
 1m 
(9.109 × 10 −31 kg )(0.20 nm )  
 1 × 10 nm 
9
Check: The units of the answer, m s−1, are correct. The magnitude of the answer is large, as would be
expected for the speed of the electron.
7.74 Given: m = 1.673 × 10−27 kg; v = 475 m s−1 Find: λ

Conceptual Plan: m, v → λ
λ = mhv
kg ⋅ m 2 1 × 1012 pm 
6.626 × 10 −34 ⋅s
2 
s  m  = 833 pm
Solution:
−27  475 m 
(1.673 × 10 kg )  
 s 
Check: The units of the answer, pm, are correct. The magnitude of the wavelength is small, as expected.
7.75 Given: m = 9.109 × 10−31 kg; v = 1.35 × 105 m s−1 Find: λ

Conceptual Plan: m,v → λ
h
λ=
mv

kg ⋅ m 2
6.626 × 10 −34 ⋅s
s2
Solution: = 5.39 × 10 −9 m = 5.39 nm
 1.35 × 10 5
m 
(9.109 × 10 −31 kg )  
 s 
Check: The units of the answer, m, are correct. The magnitude is reasonable since we are looking at an
electron.
7.76 Given: m = 1.673 × 10−27 kg; λ = 122 pm Find: v

Conceptual Plan: m, λ → v
h
v=
mλ
kg ⋅ m 2
6.626 × 10 −34 ⋅s
Solution: s2 = 3.25 × 10 3 m s −1
 m 
(1.673 × 10 −27 kg )(122 pm )  
 1 × 1012 pm 
 
Check: The units of the answer, m s−1, are correct. The magnitude is reasonable since it is smaller than
the speed of an electron.
7.77 Given: m = 143 g; v = 42 m s−1 Find: λ

h
λ=
mv
kg ⋅ m 2
6.626 × 10 −34 ⋅s
s2
Solution: = 1.1 × 10 −34 m
 kg   42 m 
(143 g)   
 1000 g   s 
 
The value of the wavelength, 1.1 × 10−34 m, is so small it will not have an effect on the trajectory of the
baseball.
Check: The units of the answer, m, are correct. The magnitude of the answer is very small, as would be
expected for the de Broglie wavelength of a baseball.
7.78 Given: m = 27 g; v = 765 m s−1 Find: λ

h
λ=
mv
kg ⋅ m 2
6.626 × 10 −34 ⋅s
s2
Solution: = 3.2 × 10 −35 m
 kg   765 m 
(27 g)   
 1000 g   s 
 
The value of the wavelength, 3.2 × 10−35 m, is so small it will not have an effect on the trajectory of the
bullet. The wave nature of matter is irrelevant to bullets.
Check: The units of the answer, m, are correct. The magnitude of the answer is very small, as would be
expected for the de Broglie wavelength of a bullet.

7.79 Given: Δx = 552 pm, m = 9.109 × 10−31 kg Find: Δv

Conceptual Plan: Δx, m → Δv
h
Δx × mΔv ≥
4π
kg ⋅ m 2
6.626 × 10 −34 ⋅s
Solution: s2
= 1.05 × 10 5 m s −1
 m 
4(3.141)(9.109 × 10 −31 kg )(552 pm )  
 1 × 1012 pm 
 
Check: The units of the answer, m s−1, are correct. The magnitude is reasonable for the uncertainty in the
speed of an electron.
7.80 Given: m = 9.109 × 10−31 kg, v = 3.7 × 105 m s−1, Δv = 1.88 × 105 m s−1 Find: Δx
Conceptual Plan Δv, m → Δx
h
Δx × mΔv ≥
4π
kg ⋅ m 2
 1 × 1012 pm 
6.626 × 10 −34
⋅ s  
s2  m  = 308 pm
Solution:
 1.88 × 10 m 
5
4(3.141)(9.109 × 10 −31 kg )  
 s
 
Check: The units of the answer, pm, are correct. The magnitude is reasonable when compared to the
speed of the electron.
Orbitals and Quantum Numbers

7.81 Given: proton in a one-dimensional box; a = 1.0 nm Find: ground state energy
Conceptual Plan: h, n, m, a → E
1 × 10 −9 m n2 h 2
h = 6.626 × 10−34 J s mproton = 1.673 × 10−27 kg E= 1 J = 1 kg m2 s−2
1 nm 8 ma 2
Solution: The ground state corresponds to n = 1. Substitute h, n, m, and a, with proper units, and solve
for energy.
( )
2
12 6.626 × 10 −34 J s
E=
( )( )
2
8 1.673 × 10 −27 kg 1.0 × 10 −9 m
( )
2
12 6.626 × 10 −34 kg m 2 s −1
=
( )( )
2
8 1.673 × 10 −27 kg 1.0 × 10 −9 m
kg 2 m 4 s −2
= 3.28 × 10 −23
kg m 2
= 3.3 × 10 −23 kg m 2 s −2 (or J)
Check: The units (kg m2 s−2) are correct, as they are equivalent to Joules.
7.82 Given: electron in a one-dimensional box; a = 7.5 Å Find: ΔE between ground and first excited state
(kJ mol−1) and corresponding wavelength of light (nm).
Conceptual Plan: h, n, m, a → E and ΔE = E(n = 2) − E(n = 1)
1 × 10 −10 m n2 h 2
h = 6.626 × 10−34 J s melectron = 9.109 × 10−31 kg E= 1 J = 1 kg m2 s−2
1Å 8 ma 2
Then J → kJ and ΔE, NA → ΔE in kJ mol−1

1 kJ 6.022 × 10 23 electrons
1000 J 1 mol

Finally, ΔE, h, c → λ and m → nm

hc 1 nm
h = 6.626 × 10−34 J s c = 2.998 × 108 m s−1 ΔE =
λ 1 × 10 −9 m
Solution:
2 2 h 2 12 h 2
ΔE = E( n = 2) − E( n = 1) = −
8 ma2 8 ma2
h2
= (2 2 − 12 )
8ma 2
(6.626 × 10 −34 kg m 2 s −1 s)2

= (2 2 − 12 )
8(9.109 × 10 −31 kg )(7.50 × 10 −10 m)2
kg 2 m 4 s −2
= 3.213 × 10 −19
kg m 2
= 3.213 × 10 −19 kg m 2 s −2 (or J)
1 kJ 6.022 × 10 23 electrons
Then ΔE = 3.213 × 10−19 J × × = 193 kJ mol−1 electrons
1000 J 1 mol
hc (6.626 × 10 −34 J s)(2.998 × 108 m s −1 )
Finally, λ = = = 6.18 × 10−7 m or 618 nm
ΔE 3.213 × 10 −19 J
Check: The units (kJ mol−1 and nm) are correct. A photon with a wavelength of 618 nm (orange) would
be able to excite an electron from the ground state to the first excited state.
7.83 Since the size of the orbital is determined by the n quantum, with the size increasing with increasing n,
an electron in a 2s orbital is closer, on average, to the nucleus than an electron in a 3s orbital.
7.84 Since the size of the orbital is determined by the n quantum, with the size increasing with increasing n,
an electron in a 4p orbital is further away, on average, from the nucleus than an electron in a 3p orbital.
7.85 The value of l is an integer that lies between 0 and n − 1.

(a) When n = 1, l can only be l = 0.
(b) When n = 2, l can be l = 0 or l = 1.
(c) When n = 3, l can be l = 0, l = 1, or l = 2.
(d) When n = 4, l can be l = 0, l = 1, l = 2, or l = 3.
7.86 The value of ml is an integer that lies between −l and +l.

(a) When l = 0, ml can only be ml = 0.
(b) When l = 1, ml can be ml = −1, ml = 0, or ml = +1.
(c) When l = 2, ml can be ml = −2, ml = −1, ml = 0, ml = +1, or ml = +2.
(d) When l = 3, ml can be ml = −3, ml = −2, ml = −1, ml = 0, ml = +1, ml = +2, or ml = +3.
7.87 Set c cannot occur together as a set of quantum numbers to specify an orbital. l must lie between 0 and
n − 1, so for n = 3, l can only be as high as 2.

7.88 (a) 1s is a real orbital, n = 1, l = 0.

(b) 2p is a real orbital, n = 2, l = 1.
(c) 4s is a real orbital, n = 4, l = 0.
(d) 2d is an impossible representation. n = 2, l = 2 is not allowed. l must lie between 0 and n − 1, so for
n = 2, l can only be as high as 1(p).
7.89 The 2s orbital would be the same shape as the 1s orbital but would be larger in size and the 3p orbitals
would have the same shape as the 2p orbitals but would be larger in size. Also, the 2s and 3p orbitals
would have more nodes.
7.90 The 4d orbitals would be the same shape as the 3d orbitals but would be larger in size and the 4d orbitals
would have more nodes.
7.91 (a) The quantum numbers n = 3, l = 1, ml = 1 correspond to a particular orbital in the 3p subshell of an
atom. A single orbital can hold a maximum of two electrons and so an atom could only have two
electrons with these quantum numbers.
(b) The quantum numbers n = 3, l = 1 correspond to the 3p subshell of an atom. The 3p subshell can hold
a maximum of six electrons and so an atom could have six electrons with these quantum numbers.
(c) The quantum number n = 3 corresponds to the third principal shell of an atom which has s, p, and
d subshells. The s subshell can hold two electrons, the p subshell can hold six electrons, and the
d subshell can hold 10 electrons, for a total of 18 electrons. Therefore, an atom could have 18 elec-
trons with n = 3.
7.92 (a) The quantum numbers n = 4, l = 2, ml = 2 correspond to a particular orbital in the 4d subshell of an
atom. A single orbital can hold a maximum of two electrons and so an atom could only have two
electrons with these quantum numbers.
(b) The quantum numbers n = 4, l = 2 correspond to the 4d subshell of an atom. The 4d subshell can hold
a maximum of 10 electrons and so an atom could have 10 electrons with these quantum numbers.

(c) The quantum number n = 4 corresponds to the fourth principal shell which has s, p, d, and f sub-
shells. The s subshell can hold two electrons, the p subshell can hold six electrons, the d subshell
can hold 10 electrons and the f subshell can hold 14 electrons, for a total of 32 electrons. Therefore,
an atom could have 32 electrons with n = 4.
7.93 (a) For a 3s orbital, n = 3 and l = 0. Total nodes = n − 1 = 3 − 1 = 2. Radial nodes = n − l − 1 = 3 − 0 − 1 = 2.

Angular nodes = total nodes − radial nodes = 2 − 2 = 0.
(b) For a 3p orbital, n = 3 and l = 1. Total nodes = n − 1 = 3 − 1 = 2. Radial nodes = n − l − 1 = 3 − 1 − 1 = 1.
(c) For a 3d orbital, n = 3 and l = 2. Total nodes = n − 1 = 3 − 1 = 2. Radial nodes = n − l − 1 = 3 − 2 − 1 = 0.
7.94 (a) n = 4 and l = 0 corresponds to a 4s orbital. Total nodes = n − 1 = 4 − 1 = 3. Radial nodes = n − l − 1 =

4 − 0 − 1 = 3. Angular nodes = total nodes − radial nodes = 3 − 3 = 0.
(b) n = 4 and l = 1 corresponds to a 4p orbital. Total nodes = n − 1 = 4 − 1 = 3. Radial nodes = n − l − 1 =
(c) n = 4 and l = 2 corresponds to a 4d orbital. Total nodes = n − 1 = 4 − 1 = 3. Radial nodes = n − l − 1 =
(d) n = 4 and l = 3 corresponds to a 4f orbital. Total nodes = n − 1 = 4 − 1 = 3. Radial nodes = n − l − 1 =
Electron Configurations of Atoms and Ions and Magnetic Properties

7.95 (a) Si Silicon has 14 electrons. Distribute two of these into the 1s orbital, two into the 2s orbital, six
into the 2p orbital, two into the 3s orbital, and two into the 3p orbital. 1s22s22p63s23p2
(b) O Oxygen has 8 electrons. Distribute two of these into the 1s orbital, two into the 2s orbital, and
four into the 2p orbital. 1s22s22p4
(c) K Potassium has 19 electrons. Distribute two of these into the 1s orbital, two into the 2s orbital,
six into the 2p orbital, two into the 3s orbital, six into the 3p orbital, and one into the 4s
orbital. 1s22s22p63s23p64s1
(d) Ne Neon has 10 electrons. Distribute two of these into the 1s orbital, two into the 2s orbital, and
six into the 2p orbital. 1s22s22p6
(e) F Fluorine has 9 electrons. Distribute two of these into the 1s orbital, two into the 2s orbital,
and 5 into the 2p orbital. 1s22s22p5

7.96 (a) C Carbon has 6 electrons. Distribute two of these into the 1s orbital, two into the 2s orbital,
and two into the 2p orbital. 1s22s22p2
(b) P Phosphorus has 15 electrons. Distribute two of these into the 1s orbital, two into the 2s
orbital, six into the 2p orbital, two into the 3s orbital, and three into the 3p orbital.
1s22s22p63s23p3
(c) Ar Argon has 18 electrons. Distribute two of these into the 1s orbital, two into the 2s orbital,
six into the 2p orbital, two into the 3s orbital, and six into the 3p orbital. 1s22s22p63s23p6
(d) Na Sodium has 11 electrons. Distribute two of these into the 1s orbital, two into the 2s orbital,
six into the 2p orbital, and one into the 3s orbital. 1s22s22p63s1
(e) Ca Calcium has 20 electrons. Distribute two of these into the 1s orbital, two into the 2s orbital, six
into the 2p orbital, two into the 3s orbital, six into the 3p orbital, and two into the 4s orbital.
1s22s22p63s23p64s2
7.97 (a) N Nitrogen has 7 electrons and has the electron configuration 1s22s22p3. Draw a box for each
orbital, putting the lowest energy orbital (1s) on the far left and proceeding to orbitals
of higher energy to the right. Distribute the 7 electrons into the boxes representing the
orbitals, allowing a maximum of two electrons per orbital and remembering Hund’s rule.
You can see from the diagram that nitrogen has 3 unpaired electrons.
(b) As Arsenic has 33 electrons and has the same electron configuration as argon plus two electrons
in the 4s orbital, ten electrons in the 3d orbitals, and three electrons in the 4p orbitals. The
condensed electron configuration is [Ar] 4s23d104p3.
[Ar]
(c) As3+ The As3+ ion has 30 electrons and has the same electron configuration as argon plus two
electrons in the 4s orbital, and ten electrons in the 3d orbitals. The condensed electron
configuration is [Ar] 4s23d10.
[Ar]
(d) Sn4+ The Sn4+ ion has 46 electrons and has the same electron configuration as krypton plus ten
electrons in the 4d orbitals. When removing electrons, the electrons in the highest energy
(highest n-value) orbitals are removed first. The configuration of Sn is [Kr] 5s24d105p2.
Electrons are removed from the 5p orbitals first and then the 5s orbital. The condensed
electron configuration of Sn4+ is [Kr] 4d10.
[Kr]

7.98 (a) S Sulfur has 16 electrons and has the same electron configuration as neon plus two electrons
in the 3s orbital and four electrons in the 3p orbitals. The condensed electron configuration
is [Ne] 3s23p4.
[Ne]
(b) Se Selenium has 34 electrons and has the same electron configuration as argon plus two elec-
trons in the 4s orbital, ten electrons in the 3d orbitals, and four electrons in the 4p orbitals.
The condensed electron configuration is [Ar] 4s23d104p4.
[Ar]
(c) Te4+ The Te4+ ion has 48 electrons and has the same electron configuration as krypton plus two
electrons in the 5s orbitals and ten electrons in the 4d orbitals. The condensed electron con-
figuration is [Kr] 5s24d10.
[Kr]
(d) Te2− The Te2− ion has 50 electrons and has the same electron configuration as krypton plus two
electrons in the 5s orbitals, ten electrons in the 4d orbitals, and six electrons in the 5p orbitals.
This makes it the same as the electron configuration for xenon. The condensed electron
configuration is [Kr] 5s24d105p6 or [Xe].
7.99 (a) O2− Begin by writing the electron configuration of the neutral atom.
O 1s22s22p4
Since this ion has a 2− charge, add two electrons to write the electron configuration of the ion.
O2− 1s22s22p6 This is isoelectronic with Ne.
(b) Br− Begin by writing the electron configuration of the neutral atom.
Br [Ar]4s23d104p5
Since this ion has a 1− charge, add one electron to write the electron configuration of the ion.
Br− [Ar]4s23d104p6 This is isoelectronic with Kr.
(c) Sr2+ Begin by writing the electron configuration of the neutral atom.
Sr [Kr]5s2
Since this ion has a 2+ charge, remove two electrons to write the electron configuration of
the ion.
Sr2+ [Kr]
(d) Co3+ Begin by writing the electron configuration of the neutral atom.
Co [Ar]4s23d7
Since this ion has a 3+ charge, remove three electrons to write the electron configuration of
the ion. Since it is a transition metal, remove the electrons from the 4s orbital before removing
electrons from the 3d orbitals.
Co3+ [Ar]4s03d6
(e) Cu2+ Begin by writing the electron configuration of the neutral atom. Remember, Cu is one of
our exceptions.
Cu [Ar]4s13d10
Since this ion has a 2+ charge, remove two electrons to write the electron configuration of the
ion. Since it is a transition metal, remove the electrons from the 4s orbital before removing
Cu2+ [Ar]4s03d9
7.100 (a) Cl− Begin by writing the electron configuration of the neutral atom.
Cl [Ne]3s23p5
Since this ion has a 1− charge, add one electron to write the electron configuration of the ion.
Cl− [Ne]3s23p6 This is isoelectronic with Ar.
(b) P3− Begin by writing the electron configuration of the neutral atom.
P [Ne]3s23p3
Since this ion has a 3− charge, add three electrons to write the electron configuration of the ion.
P3− [Ne]3s23p6 This is isoelectronic with Ar.
(c) K+ Begin by writing the electron configuration of the neutral atom.
K [Ar]4s1
Since this ion has a 1+ charge, remove one electron to write the electron configuration of
the ion.
K+ [Ar]
(d) Mo3+ Begin by writing the electron configuration of the neutral atom. Remember, Mo is one of
our exceptions.
Mo [Kr]5s14d5
the ion. Since it is a transition metal, remove the electrons from the 5s orbital before remov-
ing electrons from the 4d orbitals.
Mo3+ [Kr]5s04d3
(e) V3+ Begin by writing the electron configuration of the neutral atom.
V [Ar]4s23d3
V3+ [Ar]4s03d2
7.101 Identify the noble gas that precedes the element and put it in square brackets.
Determine the outer principal quantum level for the s orbital. Subtract one to obtain the quantum level
for the d orbital. If the element is in the third or fourth transition series, include (n − 2)f electrons in the
configuration. Count across the row to see how many electrons are in the neutral atom.
For an ion, remove the required number of electrons, first from the s and then from the d orbitals.
(a) Ni; Ni2+
The noble gas that precedes Ni is Ar. Ni is in the fourth period so the orbitals we use are 4s and
3d and Ni has ten more electrons than Ar.
Ni [Ar]4s23d8
Ni will lose electrons from the 4s and then from the 3d.
Ni2+ [Ar]4s03d8
(b) Mn; Mn4+
The noble gas that precedes Mn is Ar. Mn is in the fourth period so the orbitals we use are 4s and
3d and Mn has seven more electrons than Ar.
Mn [Ar]4s23d5
Mn will lose electrons from the 4s and then from the 3d.
Mn4+ [Ar]3d3
(c) Y; Y3+
The noble gas that precedes Y is Kr. Y is in the fifth period so the orbitals we use are 5s and 4d
and Y has three more electrons than Kr.
Y [Kr]5s24d1
Y will lose electrons from the 5s and then from the 4d.
Y3+ [Kr]

(d) Ta; Ta5+

The noble gas that precedes Ta is Xe. Ta is in the sixth period so the orbitals we use are 6s, 5d, and
4f and Ta has 19 more electrons than Xe.
Ta [Xe]6s24f14 5d3
Ta will lose electrons from the 6s and then from the 5d.
Ta5+ [Xe]4f 14
7.102 Identify the noble gas that precedes the element and put it in square brackets.
Determine the outer principal quantum level for the s orbital. Subtract one to obtain the quantum level
for the d orbital. If the element is in the third or fourth transition series, include (n − 2)f electrons in the
configuration. Count across the row to see how many electrons are in the neutral atom.
For an ion, remove the required number of electrons, first from the s and then from the d orbitals.
(a) Zr; Zr2+
The noble gas that precedes Zr is Kr. Zr is in the fifth period so the orbitals we use are 5s and 4d
and Zr has four more electrons than Kr.
Zr [Kr]5s24d2
Zr will lose electrons from the 5s and then from the 4d.
Zr2+ [Kr]5s04d2
(b) Co; Co2+
The noble gas that precedes Co is Ar. Co is in the fourth period so the orbitals we use are 4s and
3d and Co has nine more electrons than Ar.
Co [Ar]4s23d7
Co will lose electrons from the 5s and then from the 4d.
Co2+ [Ar]4s03d7
(c) Mo; Mo2+
The noble gas that precedes Mo is Kr. Mo is in the fifth period so the orbitals we use are 5s and 4d
and Mo has six more electrons than Kr. Molybdenum is one of the transition elements that has an
anomalous electron configuration.
Mo [Kr]5s14d5
Y will lose electrons from the 5s and then from the 4d.
Mo2+ [Kr]4d4
(d) Os; Os4+
The noble gas that precedes Os is Xe. Os is in the sixth period so the orbitals we use are 6s, 5d,
and 4f and Os has 22 more electrons than Xe.
Os [Xe]6s24f14 5d6
Os will lose electrons from the 6s and then from the 5d.
Os4+ [Xe]6s04f14 5d4
7.103 (a) V5+ Begin by writing the electron configuration of the neutral atom.
V [Ar]4s23d3
Since this ion has a 5+ charge, remove five electrons to write the electron configuration of the
V5+
V5+ is diamagnetic.
(b) Cr3+ Begin by writing the electron configuration of the neutral atom. Remember, Cr is one of
our exceptions.
Cr [Ar]4s13d5

Cr3+
Cr3+ is paramagnetic.
(c) Ni2+ Begin by writing the electron configuration of the neutral atom.
Ni [Ar]4s23d8
Ni2+
Ni2+ is paramagnetic.
(d) Fe3+ Begin by writing the electron configuration of the neutral atom.
Fe [Ar]4s23d6
Fe3+
Fe3+ is paramagnetic.
7.104 (a) Cd2+ Begin by writing the electron configuration of the neutral atom.
Cd [Kr]5s24d10
Cd2+
Cd2+ is diamagnetic.
(b) Au+ Begin by writing the electron configuration of the neutral atom. Remember, Au is one of
our exceptions.
Au [Xe]6s14f145d10
Since this ion has a 1+ charge, remove one electron to write the electron configuration of the
electrons from the 5d or 4f orbitals.
Au+
Au+ is diamagnetic.
(c) Mo6+ Begin by writing the electron configuration of the neutral atom. Remember, Mo is one of
our exceptions.
Mo [Kr]5s14d5

Since this ion has a 6+ charge, remove six electrons to write the electron configuration of the
Mo6+ [Kr] (which is the same as [Ar]4s23d104p6)
Mo6+ is diamagnetic.
(d) Zr4+ Begin by writing the electron configuration of the neutral atom.
Zr [Kr]5s24d2
Since this ion has a 4+ charge, remove four electrons to write the electron configuration of the
Zr4+ [Kr] (which is the same as [Ar]4s23d104p6)
Zr4+ is diamagnetic.
Cumulative Problems
7.105 Given: 348 kJ mol−1 Find: λ
Conceptual Plan: kJ mol−1 → kJ molec−1 → J molec−1 → λ
6.022 × 1023 C − C bonds 1000 J hc
E=
mol C − C bonds kJ λ
348 kJ mol C − C bonds 1000 J

Solution: × × = 5.779 × 10 −19 J
mol C − C bonds 6.022 × 10 23 C − C bonds kJ
(6.626 × 10 −34 J ⋅ s)(3.00 × 10 8 m s −1 )
λ= = 3.44 × 10 −7 m = 344 nm
5.779 × 10 −19 J
Check: The units of the answer, m or nm, are correct. The magnitude of the answer is reasonable since
this wavelength is in the UV region.
7.106 Given: 164 kJ mol−1 Find: λ

Conceptual Plan: kJ mol−1 → kJ molec−1 → J molec−1 → λ
6.022 × 1023 molec 1000 J hc
E=
mol kJ λ
164 kJ mol 1000 J

Solution: × × = 2.723 × 10 −19 J
mol 6.022 × 10 23 molecules kJ
(6.626 × 10 −34 J ⋅ s)(3.00 × 10 8 m s −1 )
λ= = 7.30 × 10 −7 m = 730 nm
2.723 × 10 −19 J
Check: The units of the answer, m or nm, are correct. The magnitude of the answer is reasonable since
this wavelength is in the red region of visible light.
7.107 Given: Epulse = 5.0 watts; d = 5.5 mm; hole = 1.2 mm; λ = 532 nm Find: photon s−1
Conceptual Plan: fraction of beam through hole → fraction of power and then Ephoton → number
photons s−1
area hole hc power s−1
fraction × power E=
area beam λ Ephotun−1

π (0.60 mm)2 J s −1
Solution: A = π r 2 = 0.0476 0.0476 × 5.0 watts × = 0.238 J s −1
π (2.75 mm)2 watt
(6.626 × 10 −34 J ⋅ s)(3.00 × 10 8 m s −1 )
Ephoton = = 3.736 × 10 −19 J photon −1
 m 
(532 nm )  9 
 10 nm 
0.238 J s −1
= 6.4 × 1017 photons s −1
3.736 × 10 −19 J photon −1
Check: The units of the answer, number of photons s−1, are correct. The magnitude of the answer is
reasonable.
7.108 Given: Aleaf = 2.50 cm2; Erad = 1000 W m−2; λ = 504 nm Find: photons s−1
Conceptual Plan: Erad s−1 → Eleaf s−1 and then Ephoton → number photons s−1
hc Eleaf s −1
Erad × A leaf E=
λ Ephoton−1
1000 W m2 J s −1
Solution: Erad = 2.50 cm 2 × × 2
× = 0.250 J s −1
m2 (100 cm ) W
hc (6.626 × 10 −34 J ⋅ s)(3.00 × 108 m s −1 )
Ephoton = = = 3.944 × 10 −19 J photon −1
λ  m 
(504 nm )  9 
 10 nm 
Erad 0.250 J s −1
= = 6.34 × 1017 photons s −1
Ephoton 3.944 × 10 −19 J photon −1
Check: The units of the answer, photons s−1, are correct. The magnitude of the answer is reasonable
compared to the radiation from the sun.
7.109 Given: KE = 506 eV Find: λ

Conceptual Plan: KEev → KEJ → v → λ
1.602 × 10−19 J h
KE = 1/2 mv 2 λ =
eV mv
Solution:
 kg ⋅ m 2 
 1.602 × 10 −19 J  s2
  1
506 eV     = (9.11 × 10 −31 kg) v 2
 eV  J  2
 
 
 kg ⋅ m 2 
 1.602 × 10  
−19
J  s2 
506 eV  
 eV  J 
  2
v2 =   = 1.7796 × 1014 m
1 s2
(9.11 × 10 −31 kg )
2
kg ⋅ m 2
6.626 × 10 −34 ⋅s
h s2
v = 1.334 × 107 m s −1 λ= = = 5.45 × 10 −11 m = 0.0545 nm
mv (9.11 × 10 −31 kg )(1.334 × 107 m s −1 )
Check: The units of the answer, m or nm, are correct. The magnitude of the answer is reasonable
because a de Broglie wavelength is usually a very small number.
7.110 Given: λ = 0.989 nm; KE = 969 eV Find: BE mol−1

Conceptual Plan: λ → Ephoton → BEphoton → BEmol
hc mol
E= BEphoton = Ephoton − KE
λ 6.022 × 10 23 photons

hc (6.626 × 10 −34 J ⋅ s)(3.00 × 10 8 m s −1 )

Solution: Ephoton = = = 2.010 × 10 −16 J photon −1
λ  m 
(0.989 nm )  9 
 10 nm 
  1.602 × 10 −19 J 
BEphoton = 2.010 × 10 −16 J photon −1 − (969 eV )  −17
  = 4.576 × 10 J photon
−1
  eV 
4.576 × 10 −17 J 6.022 × 10 23 photons kJ
× × = 2.76 × 10 4 kJ mol −1
photon mol 1000 J
Check: The units of the answer, kJ mol−1, are correct. The magnitude of the answer is reasonable since it
should require a large amount of energy to remove an electron from a metal surface.
7.111 Given: n = 1 → n = ∞ Find: E; λ
Conceptual Plan: n = ∞, n = 1 → ΔEatom → ΔEphoton → λ
hc
ΔEatom = E∞ − E1 ΔEatom → ΔEphoton E=
λ
  1 
Solution: ΔE = E∞ − E1 = 0 −  −2.18 × 10 −18  2   = +2.18 × 10 −18 J
  1 
ΔEphoton = −ΔEatom = +2.18 × 10−18 J
hc (6.626 × 10 −34 J ⋅ s)(3.00 × 10 8 m s −1 )
λ= = = 9.12 × 10 −8 m = 91.2 nm
E 2.18 × 10 −18 J
Check: The units of the answers, J for E and m or nm for part 1, are correct. The magnitude of the
answer is reasonable because it would require more energy to completely remove the electron than just
moving it to a higher n level. This results in a shorter wavelength.
7.112 Given: E = 496 kJ mol−1 Find: ν
Conceptual Plan: kJ mol−1 → kJ molecule−1 → J molecule−1 → ν
6.022 × 10 23 molecules 1000 J
E = hν
mol kJ
 496 kJ  mol   1000 J 

    
E  mol  6.022 × 10 atom   kJ
23 
Solution: ν = =    = 1.24 × 1015 s−1
h 6.626 × 10 −34 J
Check: The units of the answer, s−1, are correct. The magnitude of the answer is reasonable because
the frequency is slightly higher than the visible region of the spectrum and this is expected because the
excitation of sodium produces a line in the visible region.
7.113 (a) Given: n = 1 Find: number of orbitals if l = 0 → n
Conceptual Plan: value n → values l → values ml → number of orbitals
l=0→n ml = −l → + l total ml
Solution: n= 1
l= 0 1
ml = 0 −1, 0, +1
total 4 orbitals
Check: The total orbitals will be equal to the number of l sublevels2.
(b) Given: n = 2 Find: number of orbitals if l = 0 → n
l=0→n ml = −l → + l total ml
Solution: n= 2
l= 0 1 2
ml = 0 −1, 0, +1 −2, −1, 0, 1, 2
total 9 orbitals

(c) Given: n = 3 Find: number of orbitals if l = 0 → n

l=0→n ml = −l → +l total ml
Solution: n= 3
l= 0 1 2 3
ml = 0 −1, 0, +1 −2, −1, 0, 1, 2 −3, −2, −1, 0, 1, 2, 3
total 16 orbitals
7.114 (a) Given: s sublevel Find: number of orbitals if ml = −l − 1 → l + 1
Conceptual Plan: values l → values ml → number of orbitals
ml = −l − 1 → + l + 1 total ml
Solution: sublevel s → l = 0
ml = −1, 0, +1
total 3 orbitals
(b) Given: p sublevel Find: number of orbitals if ml = −l − 1 → l + 1
ml = −l − 1 → + l + 1 total ml
Solution: sublevel p → l = 1
ml = −2, − 1, 0, +1, + 2
total 5 orbitals
(c) Given: d sublevel Find: number of orbitals if ml = −l −1 → l + 1
ml = −l −1 → + l +1 total ml
Solution: sublevel d → l = 2
ml = −3, −2, −1, 0, +1, +2, +3
total 7 orbitals
7.115 Given: λ = 1875 nm; 1282 nm; 1093 nm Find: equivalent transitions
Conceptual Plan: λ → Ephoton → Eatom then Eatom, nf → ni
hc  1 1 
E= Ephoton = −Eatom E = −2.18 × 10 −18 J  2 − 2 
λ  nf ni 
Solution: Since the wavelength of the transitions are longer wavelengths than those obtained in the
visual region, the electron must relax to a higher n level. Therefore, we can assume that the electron
returns to the n = 3 level.
(6.626 × 10 −34 J ⋅ s)(3.00 × 108 m s −1 )
For λ = 1875 nm: Ephoton = = 1.060 × 10 −19 J; Eatom = − Ephoton = −1.060 × 10 −19 J
 m 
1875 nm  9 
 10 nm 
 1 1 
−1.060 × 10 −19 J = −2.18 × 10 −18  2 − 2  ; n = 4
 3 n 
(6.626 × 10 −34 J ⋅ s)(3.00 × 10 8 m s −1 )
 m 
1282 nm  9 
 10 nm 
 1 1 
−1.551 × 10 −19 = −2.18 × 10 −18  2 − 2  ; n = 5
3 n 
(6.626 × 10 −34 J ⋅ s)(3.00 × 108 m s −1 )
 m 
1093 nm  9 
 10 nm 
 1 1 
−1.819 × 10 −19 J = −2.18 × 10 −18  2 − 2  ; n = 6
3 n 

Check: The values obtained are all integers, which is correct. The values of n: 4,5,6, are reasonable. The
values of n increase as the wavelength decreases because the two n levels involved are further apart and
more energy is released as the electron relaxes to the n = 3 level.
7.116 Given: λ = 121.5 nm; 102.6 nm; 97.23 nm Find: equivalent transitions
Conceptual Plan: λ → Ephoton → Eatom then Eatom, nf → ni
hc  1 1 
E= Ephoton = −Eatom E = −2.18 × 10 −18 J  2 − 2 
λ  nf ni 
Solution: Since the wavelengths of the transitions are shorter wavelengths than those obtained in the
visual region, the electron must relax to a lower n level. Therefore, we can assume that the electron
returns to the n = 1 level.
(6.626 × 10 −34 J ⋅ s)(3.00 × 108 m s −1 )
For λ = 121.5 nm: Ephoton = = 1.636 × 10 −18 J; Eatom = − Ephoton = −1.636 × 10 −18 J
 m 
121.5 nm  9 
 10 nm 
1 1 
−1.636 × 10 −18 J = −2.18 × 10 −18  2 − 2  ; n = 2
1 n 
(6.626 × 10 −34 J ⋅ s)(3.00 × 10 8 m s −1 )
 m 
102.6 nm  9 
 10 nm 
1 1 
−1.937 × 10 −18 J = −2.18 × 10 −18  2 − 2  ; n = 3
1 n 
(6.626 × 10 −34 J ⋅ s)(3.00 × 108 m s −1 )
 m 
97.23 nm  9 
 10 nm 
1 1 
−2.044 × 10 −18 J = −2.18 × 10 −18  2 − 2  ; n = 4
1 n 
Check: The values obtained are all integers, which is correct. The values of n: 2,3,4, are reasonable. The
values of n increase as the wavelength decreases because the two n levels involved are further apart and
more energy is released as the electron relaxes to the n = 1 level.
7.117 Given: φ = 193 kJ mol−1 Find: threshold frequency (ν)

Conceptual Plan: φ kJ mol−1 → φ kJ atom−1 → φ J atom−1 → ν
6.022 × 1023 atoms 1000 J
φ = hν
mol kJ
 193 kJ  mol   1000 J 

    
φ  mol  6.022 × 10 23atoms   kJ 
Solution: ν = =    = 4.84 × 1014 s −1
h 6.626 × 10 −34 J ⋅ s
Check: The units of the answer, s−1, are correct. The magnitude of the answer puts the frequency in the
infrared range and is a reasonable answer.
7.118 Given: m = 2 u; v = 1 × 106 m s−1 Find: λ

Conceptual Plan: m(u) → m(g) → m(kg) and then m, v → λ
1.661 × 10 −24 g kg h
λ=
u 1000 g mv
kg ⋅ m 2
6.626 × 10 −34 ⋅s
Solution: s2 = 2 × 10 −13 m
 1.661 × 10 −24 g   kg 
(2 u)    (1 × 10 6 m s −1 )
 u   1000 g 
  

Check: The units of the answer, m, are correct. The magnitude of the answer is reasonable since it is a
smaller wavelength than for an electron, and a deuteron has a much larger mass than an electron.
7.119 Given: νlow = 30 s−1 νhi = 1.5 × 104 s−1; speed = 344 m s−1 Find: λlow − λhi
Conceptual Plan: νlow → λlow and νhi = λhi then λlow − λhi
λν = speed
speed 344 m s −1 344 m s −1
Solution: λ = λlow = = 11 m λhi = = 0.023 m 11 m − 0.023 m = 11 m
ν 30 s−1 1.5 × 10 4 s −1
Check: The units of the answer, m, are correct. The magnitude is reasonable since the value is only
determined by the low frequency value because of significant figures.
7.120 Given: d = 1.5 × 108 km, ν = 1.0 × 1014 s−1 Find: number of wave crests
Conceptual Plan: v → λ and then d(km) → d(m) → number of waves → number of crests
& &
c 1000 m d
ν=
λ km λ
1000 m
1.5 × 108 km ×
3.00 × 10 8 m s −1 −6 km
Solution: = 3.0 × 10 m = 5.0 × 1016 waves
1.0 × 1014 s −1 3.0 × 10 −6 m
Since wavelength is measured crest to crest, the number of wave crests would be 5.0 × 1016 + 1.
Check: The answer is reasonable since the wavelength is small and the distance travelled is large.
7.121 Given: λ = 792 nm, V = 100.0 mL, P = 55.7 mtorr, T = 25°C Find: E to dissociate 15.0%
Conceptual Plan: λ → E molecule−1 and then P.V.T → n → molecules
hc PV 6.022 × 1023 molecules
E= n=
λ RT mole
(6.626 × 10 −34 J ⋅ s)(3.00 × 10 8 m s −1 )

Solution: E = = 2.51 × 10 −19 J molecule −1
 m 
792 nm  9 
 10 nm 
 1 torr   1 bar   L   6.022 × 10 23 molecules 
(55.7 mtorr ) 
 1000 mtorr   750.1 torr   
(100.0 mL ) 
    1000 mL   mol 
= 1.80 × 1017 molecules
 0.08314 L bar 
  (298 K)
 mol K 
(1.80 × 1017 molecules)(0.15%) = 2.70 × 1016 molecules dissociated
−1
(2.51 × 10 −19 J molecule )(2.70 × 10 −16 molecules ) = 6.777 × 10−3 J = 6.78 × 10−3 J
Check: The units of the answer, J, are correct. The magnitude is reasonable since it is for a part of a mole of
molecules.
7.122 Given: 5.00 mL, 0.100 mol L−1, E = 15.5 J, λ = 349 nm Find: % molecules emitting a photon
Conceptual Plan: mL, mol L−1 → mol → molecules and then λ → E molecule−1 and then E → % molecules
6.022 × 10 23 molecules hc
VM E= (E given/(E × molecules)) × 100
mole λ
 1 L   0.100 mol   6.022 × 10 23 molecules 
Solution: (5.00 mL )       = 3.011 × 10 molecules
20
 1000 mL
  L  mol 
(6.626 × 10 −34 J ⋅ s)(3.00 × 108 m s −1 )
E= = 5.696 × 10 −19 J molecule −1
 m 
349 nm  9 
 10 nm 
(3.01 × 10 20 molecules )(5.70 × 10 −19 J molecule −1 ) = 171.57 J = 172 J
15.5 J
× 100 = 9.01%
172 J
Check: The units of the answer are correct; the magnitude is reasonable since it is less than 100%.

7.123 Given: 20.0 mW, 1.00 hr., 2.29 × 1020 photons Find: λ
Conceptual Plan: mW → W → J → J photon−1 → λ
W E hc
E = Wxs λ=
1000 mW number of photons E
 J 
 1W  s  3600 s 
  −19 −1
Solution: (20.0 mW )   = 3.14 × 10 J photon
 1000 mW  W  2.29 × 10 20
photons 
 
 
 109 nm 
(6.626 × 10 −34 J ⋅ s)(3.00 × 108 m s −1 )  
 m  = 632 nm
3.14 × 10 −19 J
Check: The units of the answer, nm, are correct. The magnitude is reasonable because it is in the red range.
7.124 Given: 150.0 W, 1.33 × 1019 photons s−1, λ = 1064 nm Find: % efficiency
Conceptual Plan: λ → E photon−1 → E → W → %
hc E
E= x Photons (W/Wtotal ) × 100
λ s
J  photon   W 
(6.626 × 10 −34 ⋅ s)(3.00 × 108 m s −1 )  1.33 × 1019  
photon  s   J s −1 
Solution: Power =   = 2.484 W
 m 
1064 nm  9 
 10 nm 
2.48 W
× 100 = 1.65%
150.0 W
Check: The units of the answer, %, are correct. The magnitude is reasonable since it is less than 100%.
7.125 Write the electron configuration of vanadium.

V: [Ar]4s23d3
Since this ion has a 3+ charge, remove three electrons to write the electron configuration of the ion. Since it is
a transition metal, remove the electrons from the 4s orbital before removing electrons from the 3d orbitals.
V3+: [Ar]4s03d2
Both vanadium and the V3+ ion have unpaired electrons and are paramagnetic.
7.126 Begin by writing the electron configuration of the neutral atom. Remember, Cu is one of our exceptions.
Cu: [Ar]4s13d10
Since this ion has a 1+ charge, remove one electron to write the electron configuration of the ion. Since it is
a transition metal, remove the electrons from the 4s orbital before removing electrons from the 3d orbitals.
Cu+: [Ar]4s03d10
Cu contains one unpaired electron in the 4s orbital and is paramagnetic; Cu+ has all paired electrons in
the 3d orbitals and is diamagnetic.
7.127 (a) Cr [Ar]4s13d5 (b) Cu [Ar]4s13d10

Cr+ [Ar]4s03d5 Cu+ [Ar]4s03d10
Cr2+ [Ar]4s03d4 Cu2+ [Ar]4s03d9
Cr3+ [Ar]4s03d3
7.128 (a) Mo [Kr]5s14d5 Ag [Ar]4s13d10

Mo+ [Kr]5s04d5 Ag+ [Ar]4s03d10
(b) Ru [Kr]5s14d7
Ru3+ [Kr]5s04d5

(c) Rh [Kr]5s14d8
Rh2+ [Kr]5s04d7
(d) Pd [Kr]4d10
Pd+ [Kr]4d9
Pd2+ [Kr]4d8
Challenge Problems
7.129 (a) Given: n = 1, n = 2, n = 3, L = 155 pm Find: E1, E2, E3
Conceptual Plan: n → E
n2 h2
En =
8 m L2
Solution:
12 (6.626 × 10 −34 J ⋅ s)2 1(6.626 × 10 −34 )2 J 2s 2
E1 = =
 
2
8(9.11 × 10 −31kg)(155 × 10 −12 )2 m 2
m
8(9.11 × 10 kg)(155 pm )  12
−31 2

 10 pm 
 
 kg ⋅ m 2 
1(6.626 × 10 −34 )2   J s2
 s2 
=   = 2.51 × 10 −18 J
−31 −12 2
8(9.11 × 10 kg )(155 × 10 ) m 2
2 2 (6.626 × 10 −34 J ⋅ s)2 4(6.626 × 10 −34 )2 J 2s 2
E2 = =
 
2
8(9.11 × 10 −31kg)(155 × 10 −12 )2 m 2
m
8(9.11 × 10 kg)(155 pm )  12
−31 2

 10 pm 
 
 kg ⋅ m 2 
4(6.626 × 10 −34 )2   J s2
 s2 
=   = 1.00 × 10 −17 J
8(9.11 × 10 −31 kg )(155 × 10 −12 )2 m 2
32 (6.626 × 10 −34 J ⋅ s)2 9(6.626 × 10 −34 )2 J 2s 2

E3 = =
 
2
8(9.11 × 10 −31kg)(155 × 10 −12 )2 m 2
m
8(9.11 × 10 −31
kg)(155 pm )  12 2

 10 pm 
 
 kg ⋅ m 2 
9(6.626 × 10 −34 )2   J s2
 s2 
=   = 2.26 × 10 −17 J
−31 −12 2
8(9.11 × 10 kg )(155 × 10 ) m 2
Check: The units of the answers, J, are correct. The answers seem reasonable since the energy is
increasing with increasing n level.
(b) Given: n = 1 → n = 2 and n = 2 → n = 3 Find: λ

hc
ΔEatom = E2 − E1 ΔEatom → − ΔEphoton E=
λ
Solution: Using the energies calculated in part a
E2 − E1 = (1.00 × 10−17 J − 2.51 × 10−18 J) = 7.49 × 10−18 J
(6.626 × 10 −34 J ⋅ s)(3.00 × 108 m s −1 )
λ= = 2.65 × 10 −8 m = 26.5 nm
7.49 × 10 −18 J
E3 − E2 = (2.26 × 10−17 J − 1.00 × 10−17 J) = 1.26 × 10−17 J
(6.626 × 10 −34 J ⋅ s)(3.00 × 108 m s −1 )
λ= = 1.58 × 10 −8 m = 15.8 nm
1.26 × 10 −17 J

These wavelengths would lie in the UV region.

Check: The units of the answers, m, are correct. The magnitude of the answers is reasonable based on
the energies obtained for the levels.
7.130 Given: x = 1, ν = 8.85 × 1013 s−1 Find: E, λ

Conceptual Plan: x, ν → E → λ
 1 hc
E =  x +  hν E=
 2 λ
Solution:
 1
E =  1 +  (6.626 × 10 −34 J ⋅ s)(8.85 × 1013 s −1 ) = 8.80 × 10 −20 J
 2
hc (6.626 × 10 −34 J ⋅ s)(3.00 × 108 m s −1 )
λ= = = 2.26 × 10 −6 m
E 8.80 × 10 −20 J
Check: The units of the answer, J and m, are correct. The magnitude of the answer puts the vibrational
frequency in the infrared region, which is reasonable.
7.131 For the 1s orbital in the Excel spreadsheet, call column A: r; and column B: ψ (1s). Make the values
for r column A: 0−200. In column B, put the equation for the wave function written as follows:
=(POWER(1/3.1415,1/2))*(1/POWER(53,3/2))*(EXP(-A2/53)). Go to make chart, choose xy scatter.
e.g., sample values
rψ (1s)
0 7.000146224
1 7.000143491
2 7.000140809
3 7.000138177
4 7.000135594
5 7.00013306
6 7.000130573
For the 2s orbital in the same Excel spreadsheet, call column A: r; and column C: ψ (2s). Use the same
values for r in column A: 0−200. In column C, put the equation for the wave function written as follows:
=(POWER(1/((32)*(3.1415)),1/2))*(1/POWER(53,3/2))*(2-(A2/53))*(EXP(-A2/53)). Go to make chart, choose
xy scatter.
e.g., sample values
rψ (2s)
0 7.0000516979
1 7.000050253
2 7.0000488441
3 7.0000474702
4 7.0000461307
5 7.0000448247
6 7.0000435513
Note: The plot for the 2s orbital extends below the x-axis. The x-intercept represents the radial node of
the orbital.

7.132 Given: ΔE = Em − En = −2.18 × 10−18(1/m2) − [−2.18 × 10−18(1/n2)]; E = hc/λ Find: 1/λ = R(1/m2 − 1/n2)
Conceptual Plan: ΔEatom → Ephoton → 1/λ
hc
ΔEatom = Em − En ΔEatom → −ΔEphoton E=
λ
Solution:
 1    1   1 1 
ΔE = Em − En = −2.18 × 10 −18  2  −  −2.18 × 10 −18  2   = −2.18 × 10 −18  2 − 2 
 m    
n  m n 
ΔEatom = −ΔEphoton
  1 1   hc 1 2.18 × 10 −18  1 1  7 1 1 
Ephoton = −  −2.18 × 10 −18  2 − 2   = =  2 − 2  = 1.1 × 10  2 − 2 
  m n  λ λ hc m n  m n 
1  1 1
= R 2 − 2 
λ  m n 
7.133 Given: threshold frequency = 2.25 × 1014 s−1; λ = 5.00 × 10−7 m Find: v of electron
Conceptual Plan: v → φ and then λ → E and then → KE → v
hc
φ = hν E= KE = E − φ KE = 1/2 mv2
λ
Solution:
(6.626 × 10 −34 J ⋅ s)(3.00 × 108 m s −1 )
φ = (6.626 × 10−34 J ⋅ s)(2.25 × 1014 s−1 ) = 1.491 × 10−19 J E = = 3.976 × 10 −19 J
5.00 × 10 −7 m
kg ⋅ m 2
2.485 × 10 −19
s2 m2
KE = 3.976 × 10 −19 J − 1.491 × 10 −19 J = 2.485 × 10−19 J v2 = = 5.455 × 1011
1 s2
(9.11 × 10 −31 kg )
2
v = 7.39 × 105 m s−1
Check: The units of the answer, m s−1, are correct. The magnitude of the answer is reasonable for the
speed of an electron.
7.134 Given: λ = 2.8 × 10−4 cm; m = 2.0 g; ΔT = 2.0 K Find: number of photons
Conceptual Plan: λ(cm) → λ(m) → Ephoton and m, ΔT → qwater and then → number photons
m hc qwater
E= q = mCs ΔT
100 cm λ Ephoton
(6.626 × 10 −34 J ⋅ s)(3.00 × 10 8 m s −1 )

Solution: Ephoton = = 7.1 × 10 −20 J photon −1
 m 
(2.8 × 10 −4 cm )  
 100 cm 
 J   °C  16.7 J
q = (2.0 g)  4.184    (2.0 K) = 16.7 J number of photons = = 2.4 × 10 20 photons
 g ⋅ °C  K 7.1 × 10 −20
J photon −1
   
Check: The units of the answer, photons, are correct. The magnitude of the answer seems reasonable
because a large amount of heat energy is needed to raise the temperature of the water.
7.135 Given: t = 5.0 fs, λlow = 722 nm Find: ΔE, and λhigh
Conceptual Plan: t → ΔE and then λlow → Ehigh → Elow → λhigh
h hc hc
Δt × ΔE ≥ E= E − ΔE λ=
4π λ E
6.626 × 10 −34 J ⋅ s
Solution: = 1.055 × 10 −20 J
 s 
4(3.141)(5.0 fs )  
 1 × 10 fs 
15

(6.626 × 10 −34 J ⋅ s)(3.00 × 108 m s −1 )

E= = 2.75 × 10 −19 J
 m 
722 nm  9 
 10 nm 
2.75 × 10−19 J − 1.06 × 10−20 J = 2.64 × 10−19 J
 109 nm 
(6.626 × 10 −34 J ⋅ s)(3.00 × 108 m s −1 )  
 m  = 752.9 nm = 7.5 × 102 nm
(2.64 × 10 −19 J)
Check: The units of the answer, nm, are correct. The magnitude of the answer is reasonable since it is a
longer wavelength but it is close to the original wavelength.
7.136 Given: threshold ν = 6.71 × 1014 s−1, v = 6.95 × 105 m s−1, ν = 1.01 × 1015 s−1 Find: mass of electron
Conceptual Plan: threshold ν → φ and then ν → E and then KE → m
2KE
φ = hν E = hν KE = E − φ m=
v2
Solution: φ = (6.626 × 10−34 J s)(6.71 × 1014 s−1) = 4.45 × 10−19 J
E = (6.626 × 10−34 J s)(1.01 × 1015 s−1) = 6.69 × 10−19 J
KE = E − φ = 2.24 × 10−19 J
 kg m 2 
2  2.24 × 10 −19 
s2 
m=  2
= 9.27 × 10 −31 kg
 5 m 
 6.95 × 10 s 
 
Check: The units of the answer, kg, are correct. The magnitude of the answer is reasonable since it is
very close to the accepted mass of an electron.
7.137 Given: r = 1.8 m Find: λ
Conceptual Plan: r → C
C = 2π r
Solution: (2)(3.141)(1.8 m) = 11.3 m = the circumference of the orbit. So the largest wavelength that
would fit the orbit would be 11 m.
Check: The units of the answer, m, are correct. The magnitude of the wave is about the circumference of
the orbit.
7.138 Given: ΔHfusion = 6.00 kJ mol−1, λ = 6.42 × 10−6 m, 1.00 g ice Find: number of photons
Conceptual Plan: ΔH kJ mol−1 → ΔH J mol−1 → ΔH J g−1 and then λ → E photon−1 → photons
1000 J 1 mol H 2 O hc
E=
kJ 18.0 g λ
 6.00 kJ   1000 J   1 mol 

Solution:  × ×  × (1.00 g) = 333 J
 mol   kJ   18.0 g 
     
(6.626 × 10 −34 J ⋅ s)(3.00 × 108 m s −1 )
E= = 3.10 × 10 −20 J photon −1
6.42 × 10 −6 m
333 J
= 1.08 × 10 22 photons
3.10 × 10 −20 J photon −1
Check: The units of the answer, number of photons, are correct. The magnitude is reasonable since you
will need a fairly large number of photons to melt 1 gram of ice.
7.139 Given: r = 100.00 pm, qproton = 1.60218 × 10−19 C, qelectron = −1.60218 × 10−19 C
Find: IE in kJ mol−1 and λ of ionization
Conceptual Plan: r, qproton, qelectron, → Eatom → Emol and then Eatom → λ
1 q p qe 1000 J 6.022 × 023 atom hc
E= λ=
4π e 0 r kJ mol E

1 (1.602 × 10 −19 C)( − 1.602 × 10 −19 C)

Solution: E = × = −2.308 × 10 −18 J atom −1
 C2
  1m 
(4)(3.141)  8.85 × 10 −12  (100.00 pm )  
 Jm   1 × 1012 pm 
 
6.022 × 10 atom kJ
−2.308 × 10 −18 J/ atom × × = −1.39 × 10 3 kJ mol −1
mol (1000 J)
IE = 0 − (−1.39 × 103 kJ mol−1) = 1.39 × 103 kJ mol−1
 1 × 109 nm 
(6.626 × 10 −34 J s)(3.00 × 108 m s −1 )  
 m  = 86.1 nm
λ=
(2.308 × 10 −18 J)
Check: The units of the answer (kJ mol−1) are correct. The magnitude of the answer is reasonable since
the value is positive and energy must be added to the atom to remove the electron. The units of the
wavelength (nm) are correct and the magnitude is reasonable based on the ionization energy.
π a
7.140 Given: particle in a box formula for n = 1; indefinite integral for
a
 sin
xdx Find: show that A =
2
2
Conceptual Plan: substitute indefinite integral into provided equation, expand and rearrange to
solve for A.
Solution:
a π
A 2  sin 2 xdx = 1
0 a
a 2π 
 a sin x 
x
A2  − a + C = 1
 2 4π 
 
 0 
 2π   2π 
 a sin a   a sin 0 
A2   −
a a 0
+ C −  − a + C   = 1
 2 4π  2 4π  
    
 
  a a sin 2 π   a sin 0 
A2   − + C − 0 − + C = 1
 2 4π 4π 
   
 a  
A2   − 0 + C  − ( 0 − 0 + C )  = 1
 2  
a 
A2  − 0 + C − C  = 1
 2 
a
A2   = 1
2
2
A2 =
a
2
A=
a
2 nπ
∴ψ n ( x) = sin x
a a
Check: The constant A in the particle in a one-dimensional box formula depends on the box length a.

n2 h 2
7.141 Given: Schrödinger equation for particle in one-dimensional box and ψn(x) Find: show that E =
8 ma 2
Conceptual Plan: Start with equation for particle in a one-dimensional box and then substitute
wavefunction.
h2 d2 2 nπ
− ψ = Eψ ψ n ( x) = sin x
8π 2 m dx2 a a
Use trigonometric derivatives and chain rule to take second derivative of wavefunction and then simplify.
d d
dx
( sin x ) = cos x dx
( cos x ) = −sin x
Solution:
h2  d2 
−  ψ  = Eψ
8π 2 m  dx 2 
h2  d2 2 nπ   2 nπ 
−  sin x  = E sin x
8π 2 m  dx 2 A a  
  A a 

h 2  nπ d 2 nπ   2 nπ 
−  cos x  = E sin x
8π 2 m  a dx A a  
 A a 
h 2  n2π 2 2 nπ   2 nπ 
− − sin x  = E sin x
8π 2 m  a 2 A a  
 A a 
n2 h 2  2 nπ   2 nπ 
 sin x  = E sin x
8ma 2  A a  
 A a 
2 2
nh
ψ = Eψ
8ma2
n2 h 2
∴ E=
8 ma 2
Conceptual Problems
7.142 In the Bohr model of the atom, the electron travels in a circular orbit around the nucleus. It is a two-
dimensional model. The electron is constrained to move only from one orbit to another orbit. But, the
electron is treated as a particle that follows the laws of classical physics. The quantum-mechanical model
of the atom is three-dimensional. In this model, we treat the electron, an absolutely small particle, differ-
ently than we treat particles with classical physics. The electron is in an orbital, which gives us the proba-
bility of finding the electron within a volume of space.
Because the electron in the Bohr model is constrained to a circular orbit, it would theoretically be possible
to know both the position and the velocity of the electron simultaneously. This contradicts the Heisenberg
uncertainty principle, which states that position and velocity are complementary terms that cannot both be
known with precision.
7.143 (a) Since the interference pattern is caused by single electrons interfering with themselves, the pattern
remains the same even when the rate of the electrons passing through the slits is one electron per
minute. It will simply take longer for the full pattern to develop.
(b) When a light is placed behind the slits, it flashes to indicate which hole the electron passed through,
but the interference pattern is now absent. With the laser on, the electrons hit positions directly
behind each slit, as if they were ordinary particles.
(c) Diffraction occurs when a wave encounters an obstacle of a slit that is comparable in size to its
wavelength. The wave bends around the slit. The diffraction of light through two slits separated
by a distance comparable to the wavelength of the light results in an interference pattern. Each
slit acts as a new wave source, and the two new waves interfere with each other, which results in
a pattern of bright and dark lines.
(d) Since the mass of the bullets and their particle size are not absolutely small, the bullets will not
produce an interference pattern when they pass through the slits. The de Broglie wavelength
produced by the bullets will not be large enough to interfere with the bullet trajectory and no
interference pattern will be observed.
7.144 The transition from n = 3 → n = 2 would cause the photoelectric effect, while the transition from n = 4 → n = 3
would not. Because the n levels get closer together as n increases, the energy difference between the 4 and
3 levels would be less than the energy difference between the 3 and 2 levels. Therefore, the energy of the
photon emitted when the electron moves from 4 to 3 would not be above the threshold energy for the metal.
The energy of the photon emitted when the electron makes the transition from n = 3 to n = 2 is larger and
surpasses the threshold energy, thus causing the photoelectric effect.
7.145 According to the quantum-mechanical model, the higher the n level the higher the energy. So, the tran-
sition from 3p → 1s would be a greater energy difference than a transition from 2p → 1s. The lower
energy transition would have the longer wavelength. Therefore, the 2p → 1s transition would produce a
longer wavelength.

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7 The Quantum-

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7.50 Given: 4.3 light years to star Find: distance in km

365 days 24 hrs 3600 s 3.00 × 10 8 m km

7.53 (a) Given: λ = 632.8 nm Find: frequency (ν )

(b) Given: λ = 503 nm Find: frequency (ν )

(c) Given: λ = 0.052 nm Find: frequency (ν )

7.54 (a) Given: ν = 100.2 MHz Find: wavelength (λ)

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(b) Given: ν = 1070 kHz Find: wavelength (λ)

(c) Given: ν = 835.6 MHz Find: wavelength (λ)

(b) Given: frequency (ν ) from 5 b. = 5.96 × 1014 s−1 Find: energy

(c) Given: frequency (ν ) from 5 c. = 5.8 × 1018 s−1 Find: energy

7.56 (a) Given: frequency (ν ) from 6 a. = 100.2 MHz Find: energy

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(b) Given: ν = 1070 kHz Find: energy

(c) Given: ν = 835.6 MHz Find: energy

7.57 Given: λ = 532 nm and Epulse = 3.85 mJ Find: number of photons

7.59 (a) Given: λ = 1500 nm Find: E for 1 mol photons

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(b) Given: λ = 500 nm Find: E for 1 mol photons

(c) Given: λ = 150 nm Find: E for 1 mol photons

7.60 (a) Given: λ = 0.135 nm Find: E for 1 mol photons

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(b) Given: λ = 2.15 × 10 −5 nm Find: E for 1 mol photons

6.022 × 10 23 photons 1000 J

1 mol 471 kJ 1000 J

KEelectron = Ephoton − φ = 7.8213 × 10 −19 J − 6.8416 × 10 −19 J = 9.797 × 10 −20 J

6.022 × 10 23 photons 1000 J 1

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1 mol 471 kJ 1000 J

7.65 (a) Given: n = 2 → n = 1 Find: λ

(b) Given: n = 3 → n = 1 Find: λ

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(c) Given: n = 4 → n = 2 Find: λ

7.66 (a) Given: n = 4 → n = 3 Find: ν

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7.67 Given: n(initial) = 7 λ = 397 nm Find: n(final)

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7.68 Given: n(final) = 4, ν = 11.4 THz Find: n(initial)

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The Wave Nature of Matter and the Uncertainty Principle

7.73 Given: m = 9.109 × 10−31 kg, λ = 0.20 nm Find: v

7.74 Given: m = 1.673 × 10−27 kg; v = 475 m s−1 Find: λ

7.75 Given: m = 9.109 × 10−31 kg; v = 1.35 × 105 m s−1 Find: λ

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7.76 Given: m = 1.673 × 10−27 kg; λ = 122 pm Find: v

7.77 Given: m = 143 g; v = 42 m s−1 Find: λ

7.78 Given: m = 27 g; v = 765 m s−1 Find: λ

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7.79 Given: Δx = 552 pm, m = 9.109 × 10−31 kg Find: Δv

Orbitals and Quantum Numbers

Then J → kJ and ΔE, NA → ΔE in kJ mol−1

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Finally, ΔE, h, c → λ and m → nm

(6.626 × 10 −34 kg m 2 s −1 s)2

= 3.213 × 10 −19 kg m 2 s −2 (or J)

7.85 The value of l is an integer that lies between 0 and n − 1.

7.86 The value of ml is an integer that lies between −l and +l.