Challenges, Opportunities and Solutions in Structural Engineering

and Construction – Ghafoori (ed.)

© 2010 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-56809-8

Building passive design and hotel energy efficiency

B. Su
School of Architecture, UNITEC Institute of Technology, Auckland New Zealand
School of Architecture, Shenyang Jianzhu University, Shenyang, China

Q. Wang
School of Architecture, Shenyang Jianzhu University, Shenyang, China

ABSTRACT: This pilot study seeks to identify the relationships between real energy consumption data and
building design data and introduces a method to use real energy consumption data of a large hotel to calculate the
extra energy use related to winter indoor thermal conditions, which roughly represents the space heating energy.
This study not only presents and identifies relationships between the increasing or decreasing trend in space
heating energy and the increase of building design data of the sample hotels, but also establishes the start point
and feasibility for further study with a large number of sample hotels to identify, in more detail, the quantitative
relationships between building design data and space heating energy data for further developing passive design
guides for hotel energy efficiency.

1 INTRODUCTION the hotel sector commonly use kWh/room/year as the

The first and best place to consider building energy
efficiency is during the design of the building, not
when the building has been completed and is in oper-
ation. Previous study suggests that the better design
of new buildings would result in a 40–75% reduction
in their energy consumption to compare with 2000
levels. Large hotels are big energy users in a city.
To minimize the influence of differences in hotels’
facilities, the study randomly collected the monthly
real energy consumption data, monthly occupancy and
units to present the energy used in the hotels.The mean
energy data use per room in the national energy sur-
vey can be used to show the general profile of energy
used in the hotel business. The mean energy used for
space heating and cooling per unit of the volume actu-
ally used in the hotel (not including the volume of
the vacant rooms) is more appropriately used for the
comparison of building design.
Max Tem. Mean Tem. Min Tem.
30
Temperature (deg.C)

building design data of a number of 4–5 stars large

25
hotel (over 100 guestrooms) in Auckland city of New
Zealand in a temperate climate with mild winter and in 20

Shenyang city of China with a cold climate. Figure 1 15

and Figure 2 show monthly minimum, maximum and 10
mean temperatures of Auckland and Shenyang. 5
Figure 3 shows monthly mean energy consumptions Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
per room per day of Auckland sample hotels. Figure 4
shows monthly mean energy consumptions per unit Figure 1. Monthly temperatures in Auckland.
volume (m3 ) of indoor space per day. To compare the
energy used in the seven large hotels the mean energy Max. tem. Mean tem. Min. tem.
used per room per day in Hotel 6 is lower than the other 30
hotels but the mean energy used per m3 per night could 25
Temperature (deg.C)

20
be higher than the other hotels. Using different units to 15
compare the energy used in different hotels may lead 10
5
to different results. The question is what energy unit 0
is appropriate to be used to present or compare energy -5 Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
consumptions or energy efficiency related to the dif- -10
-15
ferent hotel building designs, especially to compare -20
the energy used for internal space heating and cool-
ing. The national and international energy surveys for Figure 2. Monthly temperatures in Shenyang.

851
 Mean energy (kWh/room/day)
30%
200 Hotel 1
25%

Ratio of heaing energy

150 Hotel 2

to winter energy
20%
Hotel 3
100 15%
Hotel 4
10%
50 Hotel 5
5%
0 Hotel 6 0%
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Jan
Feb
Mar
Apr
May
Jun
Jul
Aug
Sep
Oct
Nov
Dec
Hotel 7
Hotels

Figure 3. Monthly mean energy consumptions per room per Figure 5. Ratio of heating energy to winter energy of
day of Auckland sample hotels. Auckland sample hotels.

Ratio of heating energy

80%
Mean energy (kWh/m3/day)

0.8 Hotel 1 70%

and winter energy

0.7 60%
Hotel 2
0.6 50%
0.5 Hotel 3 40%
0.4 30%
Hotel 4 20%
0.3
0.2 Hotel 5 10%
0%
0.1
Hotel 6 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
0 Hotels
Jan
Feb
Mar
Apr
May
Jun
Jul
Aug
Sep
Oct
Nov
Dec

Hotel 7

Figure 6. Ratio of heating energy to winter energy of

Figure 4. Monthly mean energy consumptions per m3 per Shenyang sample hotels.
day of Auckland sample hotels.

roughly represent the better indoor space thermal con-

During the winter, a hotel mainly uses its energy on ditions responded to the winter climate conditions.
water heating, space heating, refrigeration, cooking, Figure 3 and Figure 4 show ratios mean space heating
lighting and other building services. Comparatively, energy to winter energy of Auckland and Shenyang
the energy used for the indoor space heating is more sample hotels. The study uses the following main
closely related to the hotel building thermal perfor- architectural features as sample design data to inves-
mance and its indoor thermal conditions. For a hotel tigate the relationships to winter indoor space heating
with a central air conditioning system, the space heat- energy:
ing can be supplied by a boiler. The boiler also supplies – Ratio of building surface to volume
the hot water for the whole hotel. It is difficult to iden- – Ratio of total window to wall area
tify how much energy is only used for space heating – Ratio of north (south) wall area to building volume
according to energy consumption data from the meters – Ratio of total north (south), east, west wall area to
in the current central air conditioning system and it building volume
is time consuming and expensive to install meters on – Ratio of total wall area to building volume
the existing central air conditioning systems to only – Building volume
record the actual energy used for the space heating. – Building height
The study introduces a method to use real monthly
energy consumption data of a hotel to calculate the
extra energy consumption resulted from the impact of
2 DATA ANALYSIS
winter indoor thermal conditions of the sample hotel,
which can be used to roughly present space heat-
2.1 Ratio of building surface to volume
ing energy and compare different designs of hotels
for energy efficiency. The study uses the difference The ratios of building surface to volume of sample
between mean daily energy usages per unit volume hotels in Auckland and Shenyang are in the ranges
of occupied indoor space (kWh/m3 day) of a hotel in of 0.09 to 0.24 and 0.10 to 0.15 respectively. An
the winter months and the other months of the year as increasing trend in differences between mean daily
the basic and mean energy consumption unit, which energy usages per unit volume of occupied indoor
mainly comprises space heating energy and other extra space (kWh/m3 day, roughly present mean space heat-
energy for hot water heating and all appliances, which ing energy) of Auckland and Shenyang sample hotels
are impacted by the winter indoor thermal conditions in the winter months and the other months of the year
of a hotel. The smaller difference between mean daily are both associated with increasing in ratios of building
usage in winter months and the other months can surface to volume (see Figs 7–8). A building with a low

852
ratio of building surface to volume has a small exter-
nal surface area per unit of indoor space from which
to lose heat to the outdoors, and uses less energy for
space heating, hot water and other appliances, which
can be affected by indoor thermal conditions during
the winter. The ratio of building surface to volume
of the multi-storey residential building with the per-
manent heating should be 0.3 or less for saving the
energy for space heating (Liu 2000). Normally the
building with smaller ratio of building surface area to
building volume uses less energy for space heating.
Wall of a multi-storey hotel building is more important
than roof to impact building thermal performance and
indoor thermal conditions to compare with a house.
The ratios of total wall area to building volume of
sample hotels in Auckland and Shenyang are in the
ranges of 0.06 to 0.17 and 0.09 to 0.14 respectively.
An increasing trend in mean space heating energy of
Space heating energy
Auckland and Shenyang sample hotels are both asso-
ciated with increasing in ratios of total wall area to
building volume (see Figs. 9–10).
2.2 Ratio of total window area to wall area
The ratios of total building window area to wall area
of sample hotels in Auckland and Shenyang are in
the ranges of 0.15 to 0.31 and 0.14 to 0.38 respec-
tively. An increasing trend in mean space heating
energy of Auckland and Shenyang sample hotels are
both strongly associated with increasing in ratios of
total window area to wall area (see Figs 11–12).
The windows are commonly the weak elements for
building thermal performance. For a large hotel design
in Auckland and Shenyang to increase the ratio of total
window area to wall area will increase space heating
energy when the rest of the design data are unchanged.
Generally a small ratio of total window area to wall

0.2 1.6
Space heating energy

0.18 1.4
0.16
0.14 1.2
0.12 1
0.1 0.8
0.08
0.06 0.6
0.04 0.4
0.02 0.2
0 0
0.08 0.1 0.12 0.14 0.16 0.18 0.2 0.22 0.24
0.08 0.09 0.1 0.11 0.12 0.13 0.14
Ratio of building surface to volume Ratio of total wall area to building volume

Figure 7. Ratio of building surface to volume and space Figure 10. Ratio of total wall area to building volume and
heating energy of Auckland sample hotels. space heating energy of Shenyang sample hotels.
Space heating energy

1.6 0.2
Space heating energy

1.4 0.18
0.16
1.2 0.14
1 0.12
0.8 0.1
0.6 0.08
0.06 0.32
0.4 0.04
0.2 0.02
0 0
0.09 0.1 0.11 0.12 0.13 0.14 0.15 0.16 0.14 0.17 0.20 0.23 0.26 0.29 0.32
Ratio of building surface to volume Ratio of window area to wall area

Figure 8. Ratio of building surface to volume and space Figure 11. Ratio of window area to wall area and space
heating energy of Shenyang sample hotels. heating energy of Auckland sample hotels.

0.2
Space heating energy

1.6
Space heating energy

0.18 1.4
0.16
0.14 1.2
0.12 1
0.1 0.8
0.08 0.6
0.06
0.04 0.4
0.02 0.2
0 0
0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1 0.12 0.14 0.16 0.18 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35 0.4
Ratio of total wall area to building volume Ratio of window area to wall area

Figure 9. Ratio of total wall area to building volume and Figure 12. Ratio of window area to wall area and space
space heating energy of Auckland sample hotels. heating energy of Shenyang sample hotels.

853
area is good for saving the space heating energy in the
Auckland and Shenyang hotels.
2.3 Ratio of total north (or south), east, west wall
area to building volume
Ratios of total North (or south), West and East wall
areas to building volume of Auckland sample hotels
and ratios of total north (or south), west and east wall
areas, which can get direct solar radiation heat, to
building volume of Shenyang sample hotels are in the
ranges of 0.04 to 0.11 and 0.06 to 0.10 respectively.
A decreasing trend in mean space heating energy of
Auckland and Shenyang sample hotels are both associ-
ated with increasing in ratios (see Figs 13–14). During
winter, the hotel, with the orientation facing to the
equator and a bigger ratio, potentially receive more
direct sun. The more area of walls is exposed to the sun;
the less the energy is used for the space heating in the
Auckland and Shenyang hotels.
0.2
Space heating energy
2.4 Ratio of north (or south) wall area to building
volume
The ratios of north (or south) wall area to building
volume of sample hotels in Auckland and Shenyang
are in the ranges of 0.015 to 0.053 and 0.02 to 0.28
respectively. A hotel with good orientation usually has
a high ratio of north wall area to building volume.
Good orientation should improve indoor thermal con-
ditions and energy efficiency, but the increase of ratios
of north (south) wall area to building volume is not
associated with an decreasing trend of space heating
energy of Auckland (Shenyang) sample hotels (see
Figs 15–16). Windows of Auckland sample hotel are
single-glazed and the glazed window areas of hotels
are commonly low R-value area. The mean ratio of
north-facing window area to north wall area and the
mean ratio of south-facing window area to south wall
area for Auckland and Shenyang sample hotels are
higher than the ratios of east-facing and west-facing
windows. The negative effect of increasing the ratio
of north-facing window area (south-facing wall area)
to north wall area (south-facing wall area) could be
stronger than the positive effect of increasing the ratio

0.18
0.16 of north wall area (south wall area) to building vol-
0.14
0.12 ume on winter indoor thermal conditions of Auckland
0.1
0.08 (Shenyang) sample hotels.
0.06
0.04
0.02
0 2.5 Building volume
0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.08 0.09 0.10 0.11 0.12
Ratio of N, E, W wall area to building volume Building volume of sample hotels in Auckland and
Shenyang are in the ranges of 51290 to 130530 m3
Figure 13. Ratio of N, E, W wall area to building volume
of Auckland sample hotels.

1.6
Space heating energy

1.4
1.2
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
0.05 0.06 0.07 0.08 0.09 0.1 0.11
Ratio of S, E, W wall area to building volume
Figure 16. Ratio of south wall area to building volume of
Figure 14. Ratio of S, E, W wall area to building volume Shenyang sample hotels.
of Auckland sample hotels.

0.2
Space heating energy

0.2
Space heating energy

0.18
0.18 0.16
0.16 0.14
0.14 0.12
0.12 0.1
0.1 0.08
0.08
0.06 0.06
0.04 0.04
0.02 0.02
0 0
0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 40 60 80 100 120 140
Ratio of north wall area to building volume Building volume (1000m3)

Figure 15. Ratio of north wall area to building volume of Figure 17. Building volume and space heating energy of
Auckland sample hotels. Auckland sample hotels.

854
 1.6
Space heating energy
1.4
1.2
1 firms the feasibility for, a further study using a much
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0 buildings, the gradient of the trend line of the design
40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 220
Building volume (1000 m3)
Figure 18. Building volume and space heating energy of
Shenyang sample hotels.
and 45040 to 217800 m3 respectively. An decreas-
ing trend in mean space heating energy of Auckland
and Shenyang sample hotels are both associated with
increasing in the ratios of building surface to volume
(see Figs 17–18).
3 CONCLUSIONS
This study introduced a method to use actual 12-
months energy consumption, occupancy, building
design data to calculate their extra energy consump-
tions related to the winter indoor thermal conditions,
which can roughly represent space heating energy,
for comparing different hotel building designs. This
method could also be applied to other building types
and other climate conditions. For a climate with a hot
summer and comfortable winter such as a hot-humid
climate, the difference between mean daily electricity
usage in the summer months and the other months of
the year can be used to evaluate and compare differ-
ent building designs focusing on the summer thermal
performance. For a climate with both stressful sum-
mer and winter, the difference between mean daily
electricity usage in the summer months or the winter
months and the other months excluding the winter
months or the summer months of the year can be used
to evaluate and compare different building designs
focusing on both the summer and the winter thermal
performances.
Although different design data related to the main
architectural features can affect the extra energy con-
sumption related to winter indoor thermal condi-
tions differently and simultaneously, this study shows
that the relationship between the increasing trend or
decreasing trend in space heating energy and the
855
increase of the design datum can still be identified.
This preliminary study forms the basis of, and con-
larger sample, which can identify the quantitative
relationships between the space heating energy and
a design datum. With a sufficient number of sample
datum’s variation could be used to evaluate the strength
of impact on space heating energy, and estimate the
increase or decrease of space heating energy when
a design datum is changed within a range and the other
design data also impact the extra energy consump-
tion differently and simultaneously. If the building
code or design handbook can indicate the relation-
ship between the design datum and the space heating
energy, architects could make a significant difference
to building energy efficiency through building passive
design and take responsibility for it.
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