Physics 103: Lecture 16 Solids

Solids, Fluids

Have definite volume

Today’s lecture will cover
Have definite shape
 States of Matter
Molecules are held in
» Solids specific locations
» Fluids: Liquids, Gases  by electrical forces
 Density  vibrate about equilibrium
positions
 Pressure
 Can be modeled as
 Variation of pressure with depth in a fluid
springs connecting
 Pascal’s Principle molecules
 Archimedes’ Principle

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Liquid Gas

Has no definite volume

Has no definite shape

Has a definite volume

Molecules are in constant random motion

No definite shape

The molecules exert only weak forces on each other

Exist at a higher temperature
than solids
Average distance between molecules is large compared to the

The molecules “wander” size of the molecules
through the liquid in a
random fashion
 The intermolecular forces
are not strong enough to
keep the molecules in a
fixed position

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Question Deformation of Solids

Are atoms in a solid always arranged in an ordered structure?
All objects are deformable

Yes
It is possible to change the shape or size (or both) of an object

No through the application of external forces
Crystalline - Ordered Amorphous - Random
when the forces are removed, the object tends to its original shape
 This is a deformation that exhibits elastic behavior

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 Young’s Modulus:
Elastic Properties
Elasticity in Length

Stress is related to the force causing the deformation
Tensile stress is the ratio of the external
force to the cross-sectional area

Strain is a measure of the degree of deformation
 Tensile is because the bar is under

The elastic modulus is the constant of proportionality between stress
tension
and strain

The elastic modulus is called Young’s
 For sufficiently small stresses, the stress is directly proportional to
modulus
the strain

SI units of stress are Pascals, Pa
 The constant of proportionality depends on the material being
deformed and the nature of the deformation  1 Pa = 1 N/m2
 The elastic modulus can be thought of as the stiffness of the
The tensile strain is the ratio of the
material change in length to the original length
 Strain is dimensionless
» A material with a large elastic modulus is very stiff and
difficult to deform
F
stress tensile stress F Lo
Elastic mod ulus = Y= = A =
strain tensile strain
L A
L
Lo
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Shear Modulus: Bulk Modulus:

Elasticity of Shape Volume Elasticity

Forces may be parallel to one of the
Bulk modulus characterizes the response of an object to uniform squeezing
objects faces  Suppose the forces are perpendicular to, and acts on, all the surfaces

The stress is called a shear stress » Example: when an object is immersed in a fluid

The shear strain is the ratio of the
The object undergoes a change in volume without a change in shape
horizontal displacement and the
height of the object

The shear modulus is S
Volume stress,
P, is the ratio of
the force to the surface area

A material having a large shear
modulus is difficult to bend  This is also the Pressure

The volume strain is equal to the
ratio of the change in volume to
the original volume
F
shear stress
S= = A B=
volume stress
=

F
A = 
P
shear strain
x volume strain
V
V
h V V

A material with a large bulk modulus is difficult to compress

The negative sign is included since an increase in pressure will produce a decrease in volume
B is always positive

The compressibility is the reciprocal of the bulk modulus
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Notes on Moduli Arches

Which of the following two archways can you build bigger,

Solids have Young’s, Bulk, and Shear moduli assuming that the same type of stone is available in

Liquids have only bulk moduli, they will not undergo a shearing or whatever length you desire?
tensile stress
Post-and-beam (Greek) arch
 The liquid would flow instead
Semicircular (Roman) arch

You can build big in either type

Ultimate Strength of Materials

The ultimate strength of a material is the maximum force per unit area
the material can withstand before it breaks or factures

Some materials are stronger in compression than in tension
Low ultimate tensile strength of Stability depends upon the compression of
sagging stone beams the wedge-shaped stones
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 Gothic Arch Density

First used in Europe in
Density = Mass/Volume
the 12th century 
=M/V

Extremely high  units = kg/m3

Densities of common things (kg/m3)

The flying buttresses
 Water 1000
are needed to prevent
 ice 917 (floats on water)
the spreading of the
 blood 1060 (sinks in water)
arch supported by the
 lead 11,300
tall, narrow columns
 copper 8890
 mercury 13,600
 aluminum 2700
 wood 550
 air 1.29
 helium 0.18
 Iron or steel 7800 (but, a steel battle ship floats)
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Density of Saturn Lecture 16, Preflight Question 1

Average density of saturn is less than 1000 kg/m3 Density of substance in gaseous phase is always lower

If you put Saturn in your bath tub it will float! than that in its liquid phase.
 Bad, thing is that it will leave a ring behind!! 1. Yes 79%

2. No 21%

0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100%

The molecules that make up the substance are far apart in

gaseous phase when compared to the liquid phase. Since
the volume occupied is larger, its density, i.e., mass to
volume ratio is lower.

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Lecture 16, Preflight Question 2 Pressure = Force per Unit Area

Density of substance in liquid phase is always lower Which will hurt more?
than that in its solid phase.
If you are pricked by a nail
with a force equal to your weight
1. Yes 46%

If your entire weight is supported
2. No 54%
by a bed of similar nails

Both will hurt the same

0% 20% 40% 60%

The density of liquid water is greater than that of ice. This

is why fish survive at the bottom of the lake even when
its surface is frozen. However, this is not true for all
substances.

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 Pressure
Pressure in a fluid y

book

• Impulse to book: v

Fx
t =
px =
(Mvx) Fx

Fx =
(Mvx)/
t v

• Force is perpendicular to surface Air molecule

• Force proportional to area of surface
p y
 mv y 

 
average vertical force = f y = =
• pressure (p)
t
t
p = Force/area [N/m2]
Atmospheric Pressure
1 N/m2 = 1 Pascal (Pa) Even when there is no breeze air molecules are continuously

bombarding everything around - results in pressure

normal atmospheric pressure = 1.01 x 105 Pa (14.7 lb/in2)

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Lecture 16, Preflight Question 3 Pressure is equal on all sides

Net F = 0
Pressure on an object immersed in a liquid is felt only
by its top surface. Force same in all directions

1. Yes 20%

2. No 80%

0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100%

Pressure is caused by bombardment of the liquid molecules

on the surface of the immersed object. Since the liquid is
around all surfaces, they all experience the same
pressure. The amount of pressure is determined by the
weight of liquid above the surface.

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Variation of pressure with depth Forces on a Dam

Two dams A and B are of identical height and length. A holds
twice as much water behind it as B. How do the forces on the
dams compare
1. Both exert the same pressure
2. Dam A exerts twice the pressure as Dam B
3. Dam A exerts four times the pressure as Dam B

m =
V; V = Ah  m =
Ah

P=
F mg
= ; i.e., P =
(
Ah)g  P = h
g
A A A
True for all shapes of containers
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 Pressure and Depth
Forces on a Dam Barometer: a way to measure atmospheric
pressure
p2 = p1 +
gh
p1=0
patm =
gh

Measure h, determine patm h

p2=patm
example--Mercury

= 13,600 kg/m3
Average pressure on a dam : P = h
g
patm = 1.05 x 105 Pa
h is half height of the dam
 h = 0.757 m = 757 mm = 29.80” (for 1 atm)
Force on the dam, F = PA = ( h
g)(2hL) = 2h 2 Lg
It is independent of the surface area of the water
The area that matters here is that supported by the dam
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Pressure: Barometer Barometer

A static fluid in a container is subject to both atmospheric pressure
Suppose you have a barometer with mercury and a barometer with
at its surface and Earth’s gravitation. The pressure at the water. How does the height hwater compare with the height hmercury?
bottom of the container

1. Depends on the height of the fluid column above it 1. hwater is much larger than hmercury CORRECT
2. hwater is a little larger than hmercury
2. Depends on the shape of the container
3. hwater is a little smaller than hmercury
3. Is equal to the atmospheric pressure 4. hwater is much smaller than hmercury
P=0
p1=0
Pa
Pa h Pa =
gh h=
h

g
p2=patm

mercury = 13.6
water
h2
therefore, h water = 13.6 h mercury
p3=(h+h2)
g = patm+h2
g
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Lecture 16, Preflight 6 Atmospheric pressure and free fall

When a hole is made in the side of a container holding water,
Is it possible to stand on the roof of a five story (50 foot) tall house
and drink, using a straw, from a glass on the ground? water flows out and follows a parabolic trajectory. If the
container is dropped in free fall, the water flow
1. No CORRECT P=0
2. Yes 1. diminishes.

h 2. stops altogether.
Pa
The pressure that the air pushes down on the liquid in 3. goes out in a straight line.
the glass is not enough to push all of the liquid up the
50ft through the straw. 4. curves upward.

Evacuate the straw by sucking

When the container is at rest with respect to Earth, there is
65% How high will water rise? a pressure on the walls of the container due to the water.
The pressure depends on the depth, P =
gh. When the
no more than h = Pa/
g = 33.8”
container is in free fall, both the water and the container
35%

no matter how hard you suck! have an acceleration of zero, not g, in the container frame
0% 20% 40% 60% 80% of reference. In this frame, P = 0 - no outward flow.
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 Lecture 16, Preflight Question 4 Lecture 16, Preflight Question 5
You buy a bag of well sealed potato chips in Madison airport and Unfortunately, the unlikely event happens and the suddenly, the
get on a plane with it. You manage to not cause any damage to aircraft cabin 'looses its pressure', i.e., pressure drops by about
the bag despite all the security hassles. When you reach the 50%. The oxygen masks drop, but you continue to monitor the bag
cruising altitude in an aircraft that is pressurized to 80% of of chips! Which of the following statements is most likely true.
atmospheric pressure, which of the following statements is most 1. The bag of chips remains as it was on the ground
likely true. 2. The bag of chips remains as it was when cabin pressure was
1. The bag of chips is as it was
80% of atmospheric pressure.
2. The bag of chips is more round and bouncy (inflated)
3. The bag explodes spilling the chips.
PA PC
24%

17%
76%
18%

PU PU 65%

0% 20% 40% 60% 80%

In 80% pressurized cabin 0% 20% 40% 60% 80%

Remnants on the cabin floor

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Pascal’s Principle Measurement of Pressure

A change in pressure applied to an enclosed fluid is
transmitted undiminished to all portions of the fluid and to
Manometer
the walls of its container.  If both sides of an U-tube are open to atmosphere the levels

This principle is used in hydraulic system of the fluid are the same on both sides
 P1 = P2  If one side is connected to a “pressurized side” the level
 (F1 / A1) = (F2 / A2) difference between the two sides can be used to measure
pressure.
 Can be used to derive large gain by making A2 much
larger than A1
F1
» F2 = F1 (A2 / A1)
» Work done is the same: height by which the surface
A2 rises is smaller than the change in the height of
surface with area A1.
A1

F2
A2

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Measuring Blood Pressure

Blood pressure is quite high, 120/80 mm of Hg

Use higher density fluid in a manometer: Mercury

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