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The stepping off point comes from the The needed critical partnership for
inspiring efforts of a low income community community development involves
in Boston called the Dudley Street convergence of the work of many,
Neighborhood. Their story is in a book titled coming together from neighborhood
Streets of Hope. After many years of work, homes, businesses and churches; local
Dudley Street residents said their strongest school rooms and offices, government
tools were: “the concept of the master plan agencies; banks and developers’ offices;
and the action of aggressive community and many others. This coming together
organizing.” (Medoff & Sklar, p.265) requires an unwavering dedication to
neighborhood improvement, social capital,
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and empowerment. It also requires acre, about 30% greater than in Bombay,
an understanding and sympathy for India at the time. Tenements often were
the bureaucratic requirements of job poorly built and dangerous. By 1900, more
descriptions, demands, and hierarchies. It than two-thirds of New Yorkers (2.4 million
means creatively engaging the programs of individuals) were living in tenements as
large organizations like local governments defined by law. (Ford, pp. 84, 187, 202)
and school systems that reach out to
communities, such as Community Oriented
Policing and Community Schools.
2
Their goals and circumstances in these but had little impact on over-all conditions
neighborhoods drew them into a wide range because a handful of good dwelling were
of community improvement efforts. (Lurie, built while tens of thousands of slum units
Encyclopedia of Social Work, p. 690) These were raised. (Ford, p. 202) Some of the
included: commentaries seemed to place blame on
• availability of regular education, immigrants for their condition: “congregated
kindergarten, pre-school, and after- armies of foreigners .... They bring with
school programs; them destitution, misery, and too often
• recreation, parks and playgrounds; disease.” (DeForest & Veiller, The Tenement
• sanitation, potable water, and garbage Housing Problem, p. 72)
collection;
• libraries; It was not until an effective political
• public safety; force coalesced between 1884 and 1901,
• legal aid; uniting the housing reformers, Settlement
• social services for the elderly, homeless, House workers, social service groups,
and the disabled; community and religious leaders, that
• health care; progress was made. Jacob Riis had written
• job training; and, above all, local newspaper articles about the plight
• housing reform. of tenement residents for 20 years,
culminating in the book How the Other
The settlement house workers focused on Half Lives (1890). A series of widely
the neighborhood as a whole, attempting publicized public meetings were organized
to create a “harmonious whole” by by the Tenement Housing Committee
strengthening the family and residents in 1900 attended by more than 10,000
working cooperatively to eliminate local people. After 15 years of effort to educate
problems. In the course of their work, many the public, the housing reform movement
Settlement workers recruited and trained in New York gathered enough strength
local leaders. (Alden in Pacey, p. 56) to break through the obstructions of
politicians, bureaucrats, and tenement
Tammany Hall politicians had their hands owners and enact the first truly effective
in the profits of the tenements. They set of regulations, the Housing Reform Act
controlled the Department of Buildings, of 1901. (DeForest & Veiller, pp. 110-115,
appointment of judges, real estate Ford, pp. 123-124)
transactions, and public works projects.
While they garnered the political support of The description of inhumane conditions
tenement residents through small favors, and a sound program for improvement
the reformers of the era knew that these were finally joined with a moral and ethical
politicians “sell out their own people” and position and effective political organizing
“cause the troubles they relieve.” (Steffens, to overcome economically and politically
Shame of the Cities, pp. 211-212) entrenched interests. Nearly 100 years of
facts and moral suasion had been ineffective
Housing reformers focused on the obvious absent an organized political force.
need for effective, government regulations. Virtually all the leaders in the housing
Scores of studies between 1800 and 1900 reform movement had Settlement House
by State legislative committees, mayor’s backgrounds. These workers understood
committees, charitable and religious that it was not “contrivances [schemes,
organizations, professional associations, and technological or otherwise] but persons”
other governmental agencies underscored who will save society. (MacMahon in Pacey,
the abhorrent tenement conditions. p. 108)
Tenement Housing laws were drafted in
1867, 1879, 1887, and 1895, but even The preceding section described the
when adopted they did little more than broad scope of the Settlement House
prevent conditions from worsening. “Model workers’ activity. Their methodology very
tenements” projects were built by reformers nearly defines neighborhood planning
3
for community development today. The primarily by leaders of the Settlement
approach “looks for results . . . to the House movement. At its modern
neighborhood as a whole. Its first business emergence in the U.S., planning was
is to survey its field, to find out what equated with neighborhood planning and
needs to be done. Then it seeks to make addressed a wide range of issues including
contacts—to get in touch with all the schools, housing reform, public health,
elements that go to make up the social transportation, expansion of parks and
life of the neighborhood, to organize and recreation, and more effective public
correlate the neighborhood forces for good, services. (Proceedings of the First National
that conditions may be improved for all.” Conference on City Planning, 1909) Over
(White in Pacey, p. 92) time, this comprehensive approach
became more and more fragmented into
In 1909, Benjamin Marsh, the former hundreds of specialties in land use planning,
leader of the Committee on Congestion of architecture, social services, housing,
Population in New York, published one of economic development, and so on. The
the first planning texts, An Introduction approach here of neighborhood planning
to City Planning. The book strongly for community development strategically
emphasized the need for a community plan pulls together these threads within the
and government regulation to achieve the boundaries of the neighborhood and
plan’s objectives. (Marsh, An Introduction reclaims what was lost nearly 100 years
to City Planning, New York: Committee on ago.
Congestion, 1909)
There is a strong line of connection
between the Settlement workers active
toward the end of the 19th century and
the Dudley Street activists in Boston nearly
100 years later. It always has been “the
concept of the master plan and the action
of aggressive community organizing” that
made the difference.
4
Social capital is: Public Safety
• Located in neighborhood places.
• A broad and dense network of personal People studying crime and public safety
relationships based on families, have different views about its causes.
friendships, and acquaintances. Some believe that high rates of crime
• A large number of formal and informal and fear are based on the break-down
associations and neighborhood of primary institutions (family, church,
institutions. kinship, neighborhood) and social bonds.
• Rooted in family life. Others think that crime and disorder is
• A high level of involvement in based on differing values of certain people
community life. (“subcultures”, e.g. gangs). This is related
• Community norms of behavior and to the concept of a “culture of poverty.”
values. (Lewis, Working Papers, pp. 3-11) (Recent
• Feelings of trust among neighborhood studies found, however, that lower income
residents. African-Americans and Latinos in high crime
• A process of communicating acceptable areas actually are less tolerant of crime and
behavior and values, monitoring actions, deviance than Whites.) (Sampson, p. 254)
and taking action when the norms are
violated. Some studies linked crime, delinquency, and
• A shared belief in the neighborhood’s disorder with poverty, high mobility, single-
capacity to organize itself to take action parent households, divorce, race, domestic
in relation to needs. violence, immigration, and neighborhood
• Connections among neighborhood diversity. These do not look beyond the
businesses, churches, schools, and simple associations to understand the
organizations. ways by which these conditions have led to
• Linkages to extra-neighborhood assets problems.
such as teachers, business owners,
bankers, elected officials, social service When other studies look at how social
officials, police, court officials, and capital affects crime and disorder, they
religious leaders. found something very interesting. In
• Effective neighborhood action. (See neighborhoods with characteristics
esp. Sampson in Ferguson & Dickens, apparently related to public safety
pp. 253-265) problems (e.g. low incomes, single-parent
households, high immigration, etc.), but
Social capital is no more complicated than high social capital, the connection was
the ordinary actions of neighbors to know greatly reduced or disappeared. (Sampson,
one another, help each other, and work to pp. 259-261) In other words, social capital
improve the neighborhood. intervened in and reduced the connection
between a number of social and economic
It all seems obvious, but the vast array problems and crime, delinquency and
of governmental officials, bureaucrats, disorder. An important key for action was
business and development leaders, and found.
school administrators and teachers often
act, either consciously or not, to marginalize This perspective also points to something
neighborhood residents’ ability to improve else: that crime and fear of crime reduce
their own communities. social capital by making people fearful,
isolating them in their houses, causing them
The following sections illustrate ways that to be distrustful of one another, and making
social capital has been found to improve it more difficult to work together.
neighborhoods and people’s lives, as well as
how its absence frequently has disastrous
consequences.
5
stereotypes of low-income people especially,
fueling their sense of powerlessness and
frustration. In such schools, neighborhood
social capital is actually broken down.
Schools
6
The Texas Communities Organized for in need is the basic tool of . . . oppression.”
Public Services (COPS) found that “the (McKnight, p. 16)
most common strategies for accumulating
social capital did not develop within the . . Just as in the fields of public safety and
. schools but rather in . . . neighborhoods.” education, those in human services began
(Shirley, Community Organizing for Urban to realize the importance of social capital
School Reform, p. 253) and to see people as part of place-based
communities. Studies showed that family,
Human Services friends, and neighbors were the primary
sources for those seeking and receiving
The same story can be told about the help. (Froland, etc., Helping Networks,
professionalization of human services. p. 17) These “informal care-givers” were
Settlement House workers, now claimed found to be as helpful, or more helpful, than
as their own by the social work field, were professionals. Informal helping is voluntary,
active in the late 19th Century when little spontaneous, based on the individual,
distinction was made between the physical sensitive to personal preferences, flexible,
and the human condition of neighborhoods. based on self-reliance, reciprocal, and
Afterwards, community service became simply perceived as part of every day life.
institutionalized in federal, state, and (Froland, pp. 21-26, 35)
local agencies especially during the
Great Depression. As early as 1922, one The most effective informal helping occurred
Settlement worker wrote: “when the idea in social networks that featured:
[service program], explored and developed . • diversity,
. . by individuals, has made good, the State • quality,
comes along, appropriates it, and makes it • interconnectedness,
part of its own machine. Voluntary effort • formal and informal organizations
has . . . triumphed all along the line when • supportive, communicated, and enforced
it finds itself extinguished by the State.” traditions, norms of behavior, attitudes,
(Carruthers in Pacey, p. 151) and
• neighborhood stability. (Froland, pp. 40-
41, 137-149)
7
The Foundations of Social Work Practice, In all, the U.S. workforce has become more
1999, pp. 3-19) The more traditional goals polarized by income and resources. Jobs
of individual and family well being were with the greatest growth in total numbers
expanded to community development. are those paid the lowest wages and
The main task for human service workers with the least claim to benefits – service
became to identify and foster community workers, retail sales, cashiers, clerks,
helping networks, working with them, janitors and cleaning people, nursing aides,
supporting and strengthening them. food counter workers. (Florida, The Rise of
the Creative Class, p. 71)
Kretzman and McKnight take a different
approach that arrives at this place from a
different starting point - the neighborhood.
Their Assets Based Community
Development (ABCD) approach started
with community residents, identifying their
individual and organizational resources, and
building from there. This method is covered
below in this chapter and in the chapter on
neighborhood based human services.
Economic Development
The United States went through a massive The “Creative Class” of high-tech workers,
economic restructuring starting in about business managers, financiers, engineers,
1970. While more than 40% of all jobs lawyers, analysts, designers and so on, has
at the start of the 1970s were lost during doubled in size and has prospered. (Florida,
that decade, the economy grew from pp. 68-70, 72-77)
about 70 million jobs to 90 million in the
same period. (USDOL, Office of Secy, The In the course of the massive social
“New Economy”, http://www.dol.gov/asp/ dislocation produced by economic change,
programs/flsa/report-neweconomy) Older social capital has been pulled apart,
cities like Baltimore, New York, Philadelphia, left in shambles in many low income
and St. Louis lost more than half of their neighborhoods, and sometimes rebuilt in
manufacturing jobs during the past three other places.
decades and employment shifted from cities
to suburbs. In this context, some economists have
concluded that by asking people “to
Incomes of the bottom 1/5th of households consider the economic landscape from
have fallen while those of the top 1/5th a social perspective, new appreciation
have increased rapidly. The wages of non- of market power and opportunities . . .
supervisory workers dropped nearly 20% emerge.” (Gittell & Thompson, in Saegert,
between from 1970 to 1990. (“Spiraling etc., Social Capital and Poor Communities,
Down: The Decline of Real Wages”, Dollars p. 120)
and Sense, April 1992) The percentage
of year-round workers paid low wages Social capital can been found to foster
increased by 50%, to nearly 20% of all neighborhood economic development in
workers, just from 1979 to 1990. The many ways. These include:
percentage of families with children in • securing financing;
poverty increased by more than 30% during • hiring, retaining, and training good
this period. (US Bureau of the Census, employees;
“Workers with Low Wages: 1964 to 1990”, • identifying markets;
1992; US Bureau of the Census, “Trends • finding suitable and affordable facilities;
in Relative Income: 1964 to 1989”, 1991; • obtaining technical assistance related
Medoff & Sklar, p. 192) to accounting, business law, analysis,
marketing, and management; and
8
• gaining support from local government articulates how planners and other agency
including public safety, city services, staff members may help neighborhood
and infrastructure. (Gittel & Thompson efforts.
in Saegert, pp. 115-135; Dickens in
Ferguson and Dickens, esp. pp. 404-
423) Back to Basics: Values and Vision
By the last tally, there were more Personal values and the community’s
than 3,000 Community Development vision are the bedrock upon which all
Corporations (CDC) in the U.S. (Natl. Cong. neighborhood development is built, guiding
For Com Ec. Dev., Coming of Age, 1999) strategies and programs. They are the
These organizations are producing houses fundamental litmus test against which
and jobs and providing social services in actions should be reviewed.
an evolving comprehensive approach to
neighborhood development. CDCs provide Without leadership that embodies personal
good examples of how social capital can be values that are consistent with community
drawn upon and built up by neighborhood development, programs are destined to
economic development activities. lose their way. What are these values? An
all-inclusive list is not possible, but these
values that are shared by different religious
communities – Muslim, Christian, Jew,
Hindu, Buddhist. They are held by people
who do not have theistic convictions such
as those in the Society for Ethical Culture.
Quite simply, they include humility, love,
service (good works), selflessness, respect
for community, reverence for life, and
include living one’s life according to these
principles.
9
hopes for the future. As a whole, it is a
shining expression of faith and a compass
that directs activities.
10
Three Paths of Action Assets Based Community Development,
in contrast, emphasizes mobilizing local
The approaches to improving the resources to improve the community,
neighborhood can be reduced to the carrying out this work locally.
following approaches:
• Rationale Planning, Community Organizing takes a different
• Asset Based Community Development approach: the process is controlled within the
(ABCD), and neighborhood, but it is focused on bringing
• Community Organizing. external resources to bear on community
problems.
The table below summarizes the key
differences among these. Community organizations and planners
should be familiar with all of these
approaches. Each can be, and should be,
used depending on the circumstances, as
will be addressed below. Let’s move now to
a review of each community development
approaches: their natures, assumptions,
strengths and shortcomings.
11
Rational Planning Model
12
Step 3. In this step, plan participants
first identify the actual conditions in the
community in relation to the goals first.
(What are the barriers to overcome? What
are the community’s strengths?) The
information to be collected is informed
by the goals. Only after this background
data has been collected and discussed do
participants consider why the unacceptable
conditions exist (cause and effect).
13
responsible for planning, let’s say the the family. Was he a bright and
Planning Department, has only limited competent individual? Yes. Would he
authority for carrying out plan strategies, be comfortable in a Rational Planning
generally just those involving land use group? Not unless the group was run
and zoning. Implementation can break in a particularly sensitive way, which is
down at this stage unless the group very unlikely to occur
responsible for the plan continues its work
through the implementation phase that If carried out in the usual fashion,
necessarily involves different agencies and the Rational Planning process can
organizations. marginalize some of its participants and
even reinforce participants’ sense of
Step 8. All good Rational Planning models powerlessness and lack of self-worth. It
loop back on themselves by monitoring and happens over and over, that the group
evaluating implementation activities and which begins the planning process gets
adjusting the course if need be. A number smaller over time, as those who are
of options are available to the planning uncomfortable with the approach lose
group. The strategies and programs can be interest and withdraw. Those “still
sound, but the implementation weak. This standing” at the end of the process have
leads to possible changes in management a great deal more control over the plan
efforts, staffing, or placement of the than the group which began.
program in the governmental structure.
Sometimes the program does not work • Who is in the room? A critical issue at
well and another approach is needed. the very start is which organizations /
Sometimes the general strategy needs to be groups have been invited to participate,
reconsidered. The planning group should how many representatives for the
be open to all of these possibilities. On different points of view are included,
occasion the changes needed rise to the and whether or not residents of
importance of amending the plan itself. the neighborhood have sufficient
representation to ensure that their
Strengths and Weaknesses of the Rational concerns and suggestions will be
Planning Method; or the “Faith Can Move reflected in the final plan. At the start
Mountains” Problem of every Rational Planning process,
someone decides who will be invited into
It is very important for neighborhood the room. Often these decisions are
associations to be careful in terms of made consciously to control the outcome
their involvement in the Rational Planning of the planning effort. Neighborhood
approach. Some beginning thoughts related organizations must ensure that their
to its possible good and bad qualities interests are protected through the very
and condition-setting for involvement are composition of the planning group.
critical. Let’s start with the possible snares
for community groups. • How will decisions be made? The
beginning rules about whether
• Inherent bias. A serious consideration decisions will be made through majority
is that the Rational Planning approach, votes or through consensus, or near
in and of its nature, favors a participant consensus, also are important. When
more comfortable with speaking there is a strong difference of opinion
in public, writing and reading, and with a planning group and decisions
analyzing data. In other words, it favors are made by majority vote, adoption
those with a higher level of education, of the plan does not resolve the
background in the planning subject, and differences and conflict is moved into
greater comfort with the public process the implementation phase. On the other
of planning. It was necessary for my hand, requiring consensus when there
father to stop his formal education may be strong differences of interest
after 5th grade and work to support means that important concerns are
14
compromised away or simply dropped two levels - Informing and Consultation
and the resulting plan may be limited in – involve “one way” communication
effectiveness. from the professional staff to the
residents, passive data collection by
The Rational Planning approach of the professionals, and participation in
“consensus building” attempts to the process without true access to staff
address these concerns by (a) ensuring resources to empower citizens.
that all interests are represented
in the planning process, (b) all are Placation involves small improvements
informed, equally “empowered” in the or concessions by the sponsoring
process, with truthful communication agency. While certainly not ideal,
encouraged, and (c) common ground placation is better than nothing at all.
is sought among people with different
interests. This approach improves the The last three ladder levels, Partnership,
Rational Planning model but does not Decentralization, and Citizen Control,
overcome situations where groups and contain true citizen participation. Power
interests are fundamentally at odds. is shared between government agencies
and neighborhood organizations. To
• Types of citizen participation. Arnstein differing degrees, the power to control
carefully examined the ways that a local program is either extended in
government involved neighborhood a conditional and legalistic way or else
residents in the Model Cities programs. held by the community organization.
She produced the following informative This tends to occur when the
“ladder” of citizen participation. organization has an independent source
(Arnstein, “A ladder of citizen of power (e.g. membership, resources,
participation” in JAPA, July 1969, pp. land).
216-224)
While community involvement in
the middle rungs of the ladder is
acceptable, the formation of social
capital most readily occurs at the top
levels of engagement. Neighborhood
organizations need to be aware of
the Rational Planning process role
provided for them in the ladder of citizen
participation.
15
Often this is not the situation, agency producing the plan may not be
unfortunately, what I call the “Can the agency responsible for the programs
Faith Move Mountains?” problem. to implement it. Those who are asked
Frequently, within a government agency, to implement may not be responsible to
the individuals who are best-informed the agency conducting the plan and they
about governmental activities and the may be unwilling to do so. Individuals
availability of resources simply are at a higher organization level who can
not involved in the planning process. compel action may be too busy or
Possibilities are constrained by the too disinterested to cause it to take
knowledge of the professional staff place, or they may actually oppose its
members guiding the process. implementation.
16
understood as means toward this end.
Preconditions for Rational Planning:
When thought of in this way, one can
question whether the planner as the
• Neighborhood organizations are
key actor in the process is appropriate.
stable, have sound leadership,
One can ask, whether social capital was
and a reasonably large and active
increased by relying upon government
membership.
agencies to achieve the plan’s
• Neighborhood organization has
objectives? Some other appropriate
independent access to technical
questions include the following.
assistance. This function may be
Did the process result in better-
performed by the organization’s staff,
informed residents and their increased
students and faculty members from a
capability to make life better? Did the
local university, or capable volunteers.
Rational Planning process strengthen
• From the onset, the Rational Planning
organizations within the neighborhood?
process adopts the “equity planning”
Did it increase local organizations’
approach, intending to improve the
effectiveness in solving local problems?
lives and conditions of those with few
Did it produce local organizations that
resources in the neighborhood.
were better connected to key public and
• Groups and individuals invited
private sector decision makers?
to participate in the process and
the decision-making rules are
Reasons to participate in the Rational carefully considered to address the
Planning process. neighborhood’s legitimate concerns and
suggestions, and ensure their inclusion
The discussion above seems to weigh in in the final plan.
heavily in terms of the problems of Rational • The neighborhood organization is
Planning. There are a number of reasons committed to meet independently
why Rational Planning is helpful and should to monitor the planning process and
not be dismissed out of hand. develop strategies for participating in
the effort.
First and foremost, in general what is worse • The plan should has integrity in the
than Rational Planning is no planning. The form of recognized legitimacy by
true goal of disempowering neighborhoods elected and appointed officials at the
is most blatantly seen in the desire by some top levels of government.
to totally eliminate neighborhood-level and, • The planning process engages
in fact, all planning. Those with position government agencies that control
and economic power often operate at ease programs important to neighborhood
behind closed doors. Despite the caveats residents. These agencies are
presented above, the Rational Planning committed to implement the plan.
process does assume that all stakeholders, • The planning process covers
including neighborhood residents and implementation, issues such as how
local businesses, have a legitimate role in recommendations will be delegated
charting the future. to different agencies. Members of
the planning group stay involved in
Second, when Rational Planning adopts the monitoring how the plan is carried out.
“equity planning” approach it addresses • The neighborhood organization is
issues of adequate housing, health and committed to building local social
human services, economic well-being, and capital through the Rational Planning
so on from the viewpoint of enlarging the process. Neighborhood involvement is
opportunities of those with few resources. never at the bottom of Arnstein ladder
(Krumholz & Forester, Making Equity of citizen participation.
Planning Work) Improving the material • The planning process is used
condition of those with little is a laudable consciously as a way for residents to
goal in spite of the fact that it does not learn and to be empowered.
go far enough in terms of building social
capital.
17
Third, the model reflects the reality
that improving neighborhood conditions
sometimes involves participating in a
complicated technical/political process to
gain access to resources external to the
neighborhood.
18
Assets Based Community into client, but this also his weakness. He
Development pays little attention to the economic and
political conditions underlying the great
Assets Based Community Development, social disruption of America’s cities from the
or ABCD, is at the opposite end of the war to the present. The service economy
spectrum from Rational Planning. It neither created these conditions, nor formed
focuses, first and foremost, on the itself in relation to them.
capacities of neighborhood residents,
businesses, and groups. The frame for It is better to explore a different perspective
neighborhood planning shifts from the on the dynamics of our private economy.
agency to the community and its residents The great dynamic engine of U.S. capitalism
become the agents of action. expands, transforms, and casts aside.
Although the private economy is a social
There is a clear voice of outrage in the construction, the human consequences of
writings of ABCDs originators, John its functions, positive and negative, are
Kretzman and John McKnight, regarding largely by-products. The great economic
treatment of low income people by the transformations occur in a particular place
professional care-givers. This voice is heard and are husbanded by an “apparatus of
clearly in McKnight’s The Careless Society: interlocking pro-growth associations and
The Community and Its Counterfeits (1995) governmental units” called a “growth
and it contains a message about Rational machine.” (Logan & Molotch, Urban
Planning, not directly but by inference. Fortunes, p. 32) This affiliation acts to
shift the cost of growth to other areas and
McKnight believes that one of the to other individuals in their own locations,
central problems in our society is that while capturing as much of the gain as
social capital has been damaged by the possible. The authors write that this
professionalization of caring in planning activity results in “exploiting virtually every
and service systems. Neighborhoods and institution in our political, economic, and
their residents are defined as “in need”, cultural systems,” and through its actions,
“deficient”, and “problems” to be solved. disenfranchises others (Logan & Molotch,
He offers the following monologue by pp. 34, 63).
the professional helper: “As you are the
problem, the assumption is that I, the Kretzman and McKnight really are treading
professional servicer, am the answer. You onto the mechanism of power in society. In
are not the answer. Your peers are not localities, what passes as a debate about
the answer. The political, social, and specifics like whether and where a new
economic environment is not the answer.” road will be built or the charges for new
(McKnight, p. 46). The survival of the development, is actually a contest about
professional helper depends upon the power that is far more important than
continuance of need and deficiency. The the specific issue. Business leaders and
ascendance of professional problem-solving developers know this. Their narrow self-
undermines the capacities of the “primary interest leads them to ameliorate some of
structures of society: family, neighborhood, society’s worst problems, but they resist
church/synagogue, ethnic groups, (and) transferring power to community and
voluntary association.” (McKnight, p. 20) neighborhood organizations because this
McKnight says that: “The most significant ultimately infringes their scope of action.
development transforming America since
World War II has been the growth of a Powerful business leaders penetrate politics
powerful service economy and its pervasive at national, state, and local levels through
serving institutions.” (McKnight, p. x) their involvement with political campaign
and continual monitoring and lobbying
McKnight’s voice has an almost biblical of government decision-makers. Many
anger about the dehumanization inherent in elected officials, in turn, adopt the growth
the transformation of a fully formed person machine’s proprietary interest in power
19
and control and are reluctant to strengthen
local organizations. This attitude pervades
the planning and social service activities
that are responsible to elected officials
ultimately.
21
Example of Assets Inventory
trying to cover every possible asset, is
The above community skills inventory difficult to use. There is a trade-off between
covers past informal helping activities in the creativity that is fed by an expansive
group settings. The inventory calls to mind
approach and the difficulty of undertaking it. It
past neighborhood engagement that could
is a best to have some general ideas of where
form the basis of future activities if it were
facilitated locally. the community development effort is heading
and let those ideas guide the creation of the
At a third level, the personal inventory form. Approaching the survey in this way
focuses on what skills and knowledge the makes it easier to put the information to good
individual holds that might be translated use after it has been collected.
into small scale economic activity. Micro-
lending programs (see Chapter * on
economic development) begin with just this
premise: that almost everyone has skills
and interests around which make it possible
to earn an income and build a business.
22
• Conducting the inventory
face-to-face (peer-to-peer) at
a person’s home. It may be
important to have two people
conduct the survey and
have a statement of support
from a known neighborhood
organization or church group.
• Carrying out the inventory
at a public party held for the
community.
• Collecting the information
in a telephone interview or
on a self-completed form.
A “reverse directory” of
telephone numbers by street
address can be helpful with
this approach, as it obtaining
the names and telephone
numbers of organization
members. These methods
are more impersonal and are
therefore less compatible with
the basic objective of making
personal connections.
23
These associations can be
identified through the following
sources:
• Neighborhood churches,
libraries, and parks that
host meetings of local
organizations.
• Community newspapers
and newsletters of
local organizations and
neighborhood associations.
• Telephone books – either
the Yellow Pages under
Associations, Organizations,
Fraternities or in reverse
directory listings for the
neighborhood.
• Key informants such as
religious or political leaders
or persons who can be
found on almost every block
who are well connected to
neighborhood grapevine.
24
organizational relationships before these Building Communities from the Inside Out
agencies are re-contacted to support the points out many ways that local institutions
community. can help community development efforts
in terms of the use of facilities, equipment,
Kretzman and McKnight talk about each of investments, and other expenditures. Here
the possible institutional partners in terms are some examples of the assets of these
of resources of people, facilities, materials institutions that can be put to good use.
and equipment, and economic power. It • Facilities: meeting rooms, class rooms,
is helpful to consider, as examples, how theaters, auditoriums, gyms and other
the staffs of these organizations might sports facilities, art studios, computer
help develop communities. Here are some rooms, shops, health clinics, kitchens
possibilities. and cafeterias, and even display cases
• Parks. Coach and teach young people and bulletin boards.
athletics, arts, music, and drama. • Equipment: sports, audio-visual,
• Libraries. Offer classes for people of wood-working, car repair, and printing
all ages in GED, literacy, and language; equipment; computers; books and other
compile and write community histories; learning materials; medical supplies and
help research and write grant proposals. equipment; and copy machines.
• Schools. Provide pre-school, and before • Economic Development: purchase
and after-school programs, counseling, goods and supplies locally; hire local
tutoring, conflict resolution, Adult residents as para-professionals,
Basic Education, recreation, literature teachers’ aides, outreach workers,
appreciation, math and computer crime prevention specialists, tutors,
enrichment. Offer a wide range of activity leaders, and so on; employ
educational programs for adults and neighborhood young people; invest in
seniors in the neighborhood and help neighborhood housing and businesses;
link young people to local businesses. deposit funds to neighborhood credit
• Colleges and Universities. Use well- unions and community development
trained faculty and staff in community financial institutions.
development (housing, business
development, youth and adult How does this work in practice? ABCD
education, health care, research) to workbooks indicate there is “no uniform
provide valuable technical assistance to answer to this question” (Guide to Mapping
neighborhood organizations. and Mobilizing, p. 31). In a general way,
• Police. Use police officer roles under the initial community development goals
Community Oriented Policing to forge of the neighborhood organization need to
partnerships with neighborhood be translated into improvement strategies
residents to understand and address and projects based on the resources and
the causes of crime and disorder. Use interests identified by the community. The
police officers act as government ABCD publications counsel paying attention
ombudsman linking community residents to both individual level and community
to local services especially related to level approaches. Literally hundreds of
correcting the physical signs of disorder projects are possible and, in general, ABCD
(e.g. abandoned cars, building code encourages as broad and deep a nesting
violations, and illegal dumping). of community improvement activities as
• Hospitals. Set up health clinics in possible.
local schools, teach health education,
establish nursery schools, and counsel Returning to our original focus of building
victims of sexual and domestic abuse and strengthening neighborhood social
using hospital staff. capital, the principal strength of ABCD is
in the internal workings of social capital.
ABCD focuses primarily on creating a dense
and wide network of social relations among
25
First, more attention is needed to address
How Does the Community Use Local the steps between the neighborhood assets
Assets and Build Social Capital? inventory and a community plan of action.
Ideally, this would deal with the concepts
There are three basic steps in the ABCD of strategies, objectives, and projects
approach to community building: and programs that are consistent with
• Identify the assets of neighborhood the strategies to achieve the objectives.
(See strategic planning Chapter * of this
residents; local groups, organizations,
workbook.) It is essential to define where
and clubs; and city-wide or larger public, to start, who to involve, what resources are
private and non-profit institutions with needed, how the strategies and programs
facilities in the neighborhood. fit together, and ultimate purpose of the
• Productively connect these people, action.
organizations, and institutions to one
another in ways that multiplies their Second, the organization carrying out
power and effectiveness for community all the activities in ABCD is a shadowy
development. presence operating in the background of
• Create relationships that are mutually the picture, belying the importance of the
local organizations. The foundation for is
beneficial and reciprocal. This work
building a power base and the means of
begins with linking the neighborhood power is organization. Focusing on building
residents to one another and to local and strengthening organization through
associations. Establishing links to carrying out the community development
externally controlled institutions located process is very important.
in the neighborhood occurs after the
locally-focused connections are made. Third, an effective organizer is critically
important to establishing a strong
community group. The organizer is
neighborhood residents and organizations. essential to start, build, and maintain the
It is through these connections, and shared community group. Understanding the
values of love and service, that community nature of the role, and the qualities and
development emerges. functions of such a person is essential to the
success of the effort.
Conclusions about ABCD
This chapter began with an observation
The ABCD approach encourages a great from the Dudley Street Neighborhood that
deal of excitement and a release of their strongest tools were: “the concept
community energy. The workbooks of the master plan and the action of
distributed by the ABCD Institute and the aggressive community organizing.”
Institute’s internet list-serve are bursting
with wonderful examples of projects Lastly, crafting critical partnerships with
following this approach and carried out by public agencies such as school systems,
neighborhood associations, libraries, parks, social service agencies and police
hospitals, religious organizations, economic departments charged with community
development groups, service organizations development is necessary. The steps to
for the developmentally disabled, alliances “build community from the inside-out” at
for youth, and so on. It is quite easy some point must meet and collaborate with
for someone to tap into these sources of the many external organizations charged
information, dialogue, and training. and funded for this mission. The chapters
in this workbook covering Community
The strengths of ABCD are apparent but it is Education (Chapter *), Community Policing
important to sound a cautionary note about (Chapter *), Housing (Chapter *), and
some community development issues that Human Services (Chapter *) address
are not well addressed by this approach. how progressive approaches within
26
governmental agencies can work effectively
with community organizations to build social
capital. The extent of the challenge in some
neighborhoods requires nothing less.
27
Community Organizing Alinsky started with union organizing
tactics applied within a neighborhood
Curiously enough, one of the icons of which contained a more complex number
community organizing, Saul Alinsky, started of interrelated issues. He always saw his
as a graduate student in criminology at role as working for the “have nots”, those
the University of Chicago in the 1930s. without money and power. Over time,
He worked for the Institute for Juvenile he devised a set of tactics to draw on the
Research and collected life stories of strength of numbers and commitment,
juvenile delinquents in the neighborhoods sometimes the only assets of the poor. He
where they lived and in correctional formed the Industrial Areas Foundation as
facilities. Through this perspective, Alinsky a training center and base for community
and others developed the theory that the organizing campaigns across the country.
breakdown in family, church, and kinship In 1946, he distilled his experiences in the
within neighborhoods undermines the book Reveille for Radicals, a book that is
transfer of social norms from one generation still in print and contains valuable insights.
to the next, producing crime, a view similar (Alinsky, Reveille)
to social capital as previously discussed.
In the 1950s he formed The Woodlawn
Alinsky worked for an Institute-based Organization in an African-American
community intervention called the Chicago neighborhood in Chicago’s South Side. In
Area Project, located in the Back of the the 1960s, together with lead organizer
Yards neighborhood, an immense slum Ed Chambers, he worked in another well-
located next to the giant Union Stockyard in known community campaign focused on
Chicago. the hiring practices of Eastman Kodak in an
African-American community in Rochester,
New York. He worked regularly to improve
conditions in low-income communities of
color.
28
and those controlling vital resources or with intentionally sets out to do. Alinsky did not
those taking action in stark opposition to want to use a different word for power, to
the neighborhood. minimize, to “dilute the meaning . . . . the
hate and love, the agony and the triumph
Discussing Alinsky’s contribution to . . . leaving an aseptic imitation of life.” In
community organizing does not fully fact, power is what allows the neighborhood
express the measure of the man. In to obtain resources to rehabilitate homes,
Reveille for Radical, he describes a radical, receive adequate police services, make
talking about himself in the same words. sure that children are learning in the local
Radicals, he said, “really liked people, loved school, guarantee services like trash pick-up
people, all people. They were the human and street paving, have good quality parks,
torches setting aflame the hearts of men so recreational equipment, services, and so on.
that they passionately fought for the rights
of their fellow men, all men. They were There is a reluctance to talk about the
hated, feared, and branded . . . .” (Alinsky, importance of power. Too often power
Reveille, p. 9) He was steel willed and has led to arrogance, isolation, and
self-righteous: not the kind of person you abuse. But power can be a balm to the
wanted to cross, or if you were a business powerless. Usually, the gathering of power
executive or government official, not the by a low-income community means that
person you wanted to see in your waiting there is a “balance of power” between the
room. He quoted Jehovah: “I will render neighborhood and other forces affecting
vengeance unto my enemies, and those that residents’ lives. It seldom means the kind
hate me will I requite.” (Alinsky, Rules, p. of unrestrained control that leads to abuse.
18). And he meant it.
Powerlessness is, moreover, equally
conducive to abuse as unrestrained
power. Self-destructive behavior, such
as drug addiction, crime, disorder, and
school failure, is more closely related
to the absence of personal power and
efficacy. A measure of power in low income
communities is quite likely to create better
partnerships with local governments,
businesses, and developers. Research by
Rohe and Gates found that more than 80%
of those interviewed who were directly
involved with neighborhood planning efforts
believed that citizen-government relations
had improved as a result. (Rohe and Gates,
Planning with Neighborhoods, pp. 117-119)
29
The ability to act can be carried out through comes directly from the fundamental need
networks of relationships, through simple of humans to improve their own lives
communication, through participation (self-interest), to help ones’ neighbors,
in political or administrative processes, to improve local conditions, and to be
through using the human and organizational effective and self-actualizing in the world.
assets in one’s own neighborhood. Power This cannot be achieved in its fullness
can be exercised in a whisper. by an isolated individual. Through an
organization, individuals realize that what
In the broadest sense, power is the same seems to be a personal problem actually
as social capital as discussed here. But is shared by the community. Through an
sometimes considering things in the organization, people come realize that
broadest way does not give the needed problems range through many aspects of
specifics to neighborhood organizations. life and a program is needed to address
In the section above on Assets Based them that is “broad, deep, and all-inclusive.”
Community Development, we discussed (Alinsky, Reveille, p. 56) They also see that
how social capital can be created through the entire community needs to be mobilized
neighborhood-based efforts drawing on local to improve its circumstances in a way that
residents and organizations. This is a part meets its residents’ hopes for the future.
of developing neighborhood power. Power
also built and expressed through the ability Great circular relationships are being
to obtain external resources. Many times described here. The need for power,
a public campaign is required to obtain when locally directed, helps to create
rightful respect and achieve position in the organization; and the strength of the
political arena. organization expressed through action
reinforces its power. The motivation
One IAF organizer, Michael Gecan, explains to improve local conditions leads to
this well when he says: “when we are organization, and the existence of a
called by the neighborhood or religious powerful organization provides the
leaders of a city, we tell them that we motivation to change and improve. This
won’t come to solve a housing problem mutually reinforcing pattern of action,
or an education problem or a low-wage motivation, and organization is key to the
problem. No, we say we’ll try to help them Alinsky and IAF approach.
solve a more fundamental problem – a
power problem.” (Gecan, Going Public, p. 9) “There is no such animal as a disorganized
Quite fundamentally, the bottom line is not community.” (Alinsky, Rules, p. 115)
better housing, responsible police service,
good schools, and so on; the fundamental Just as the scope of the program for an
concern is the power to achieve these goals. Alinsky group is broad, all of the existing
local organizations in the neighborhood
Alinsky was the master of the form of power form the foundation of the group: “all of the
creation associated with public campaigns. churches, civic, social, athletic, recreational,
The following part of this section focuses labor, nationality, and service organizations
on how he proposed this be done. This and many of the business-men of [the]
discussion will fold into Alinsky’s views the community.” (Alinsky, Reveille, p. 48) As
refinement of the approach by the Industrial with Alinsky’s approach, ABCD found that
Areas Foundation (IAF) after his death in even marginalized neighborhoods have
1972. hundreds of local organizations. This
approach assumes that the initial leadership
The importance of organization of the neighborhood organization comes
from the leadership of the different groups,
For Alinsky and the IAF, the means to power many of whom are “completely unknown
is a strong and durable organization. He outside the community” (Alinsky, Reveille.
said: “power and organization are one and p. 72).
the same.” (Alinsky, Rules, p. 113) Power
30
Alinsky realized, however, that the Role of the organizer
experience of living poor in a community
that is mostly neglected by government The IAF calls building a strong and reliable
agencies and businesses leads to feelings base the “sponsoring committee phase.”
of prejudice, despair, surrender, and (Gecan, p. 12). Until the power base of the
apathy. Despite a structure of existing community organization is established, no
organizations, many had atrophied in major issues are confronted. This work is
membership, activities, and vision. As a activated by an organizer, a very important
result, the IAF deliberately created new role for Alinsky and the IAF. Organizers are
organizations, not collaborations or alliances
of existing groups. (Gecan, p. 135)
31
The organizer helps create this association and that residents want to change. For
foundation initially through the series of both Alinsky and McKnight, the rise in
meetings in the neighborhood described professional “helping” has led to a rapid
above. increase in the number of needs and just
as fast a decrease in the number of issues.
The organizer essentially is the staff Professional service delivery has created
member of the community, with qualities passive “clients” and not active citizens who
including: are organized to create change.
• Skills in leadership and organization
building and recruitment, The successful community organization’s
• Ability to communicate, educate, and engagement in an issue is approached
train, carefully. It almost never is begun until
• Action-orientation, there are sufficient people, organization,
• Non-dogmatic communication, discipline, and money to undertake it.
• Understanding of tactics, i.e. the choices (Gecan, p. 37) The steps involve the
of action and the location and nature of engagement of community leadership
political resources, in education and learning, planning the
• Flexibility to adapt to changing action, execution, and evaluating the
situations, results. Even after an issue has been
• Ability to set aside personal judgment identified, considerable work goes into
aside (democratic faith that in the long testing and retesting strategies of action.
run people making their own decisions The IAF’s organizational culture is one of
will arrive at the correct conclusions), accountability that holds dear the personal
and compact made when people join and
• Recognition that compromise (“doing participate in a neighborhood organization.
best for the most”) is essential.
(Alinsky, Rules, pp. 63-80) Good issues for community action are ones
that:
Based on the perspective that leadership • Are strongly felt within the
must come out of the neighborhood, the neighborhood,
organizer works to foster and support • Have a high educational and
local leaders. Shirley in describing the communications value in terms of the
IAF practice in Texas noted “as part of nature of local conditions, why the
the organization’s emphasis of leadership conditions exist, and what can be done
development, every citizen who participates to improve them,
in Texas IAF actions is referred to as a • Are specific and contain achievable
“leader.” (Shirley, p. 49) This implies outcomes,
working non-egotistically and not putting • Have a high symbolic value to the
the organizer in the position of leading neighborhood, and
meetings, negotiating, or representing the • Will galvanize participation and increase
community. membership.
32
Single focus organizing has a weakness in with Guiliani. They sought “renewed
maintaining the continuity of action that access to the mayor, regular meetings
organization-building requires. with commissioners, a professional pattern
of responses to our requests, public
Alinsky, in Rules for Radicals, offers recognition when things went well, public
a number of lessons about tactics for criticism when they did not” (Gecan, p.
neighborhood organizations. (Alinsky, 114). They also addressed issues related
Rules, pp. 125-164) Here are a few of the to housing, education, and the police,
important ones: specifically greater recruitment of minority
• Have fun, officers and better response to legitimate
• Draw on the community’s resources, complaints about police behavior, attitude,
mobilize as many local organizations as and response.
possible,
• Act within the experience of supporters Gecan reports a number of positive
and outside the experience of outcomes from this approach affecting
opponents, thousands of New Yorkers, outcomes that
• Identify the target of the action, polarize would have not been possible without “the
the situation, and personalize the existence of an intricate and long-term
conflict, public relationship.” (Gecan, p. 125; also
• Understand when it is necessary to pp. 112-126). Here we see the functioning
challenge the rules of “proper” and legal of a complex situation that is created when
behavior, power and force is used in a campaign
• Address the issue in person, strategy to secure concessions that improve
• Keep applying the pressure, but do not the neighborhoods, but with public officials
allow an action to drag on, who have on-going control over important
• Be flexible in the course of the action public assets. The focus of Community
and make use of the opponent’s Organizing on external resources has
reaction, inherent political limitations that must be
• Make the opposition live by their own handled very thoughtfully.
rules,
• Creatively use the of divisions of interest From Alinsky to IAF: A reconsideration of
within the opposition, and values.
• Always have a solution or alternative
ready and be ready to compromise. For Alinsky, “spiritual values and
considerations of justice, equality, peace,
There is an evolution in the approach from and brotherhood” in political action were
Alinsky to the IAF. In the former, there often viewed as a facade covering the
is a kind of “no holds barred,” blood and real motivating substance of self-interest.
sinew approach to community organizing. (Alinsky, Rules, pp 22-23). Especially
This is tempered in the more recent work under Ernesto Cortez’ leadership working
of the IAF. The IAF understands that it is in San Antonio, Texas, IAF intentionally
important to maintain long term positive “reclaim[ed] the emancipatory currents
relationships with elected officials and public of the “Judeo-Christian heritage”, the
employees. requirements of service to those in need
and the dignity of the poor. (Shirley, p. 38).
Gegan describes the ways that New York We should take this further by being more
Metro IAF interacted with Mayor Rudy inclusive. The moral and ethical foundations
Guiliani over the Amadou Diallo and Patrick of the organizing work have been rooted all
Dorismonds shooting by police officers. Prior along in the social gospel, the currents of
to these events, IAF had been frozen out of liberation theology, and the commitment to
communications with City Hall because of good deeds. In the evolution from Alinsky
its support of Living Wage legislation that to Cortez, these underlying values were be
was adopted over the mayor’s opposition. more honestly called upon in coalescing the
Rather than participate in public protests work of priests, ministers, rabbis, and other
of the police shootings, IAF met quietly religious leaders.
33
The value of religious and ethical beliefs in organization, “when confronted with
supporting community development work questions of change, they begin to think
is very important. More important is the and to ask questions about how to make the
dignity afforded all people based on their changes.” (Alinsky, Rules, p. 105)
intrinsic worth and their life-affirming
actions especially in the context of poverty, The comprehensive development agenda of
ill-health, and other personal challenges. a neighborhood organization breaks down
personal and community isolation and, by
Community organizing as education its broad scope, makes real and functional
learning possible.
Alinsky, in Reveille for Radicals, said that
the ultimate objective of any popular South American educator and activist Paolo
movement is education. Organizations Friere developed the concept of “critical
should be continually searching for ways consciousness” and influenced Liberation
that lead the community to be receptive to Theology. He talks about the inherent
learning and education should be a phase passivity and oppressive quality of the
of every project. (Alinsky, Reveille, pp. traditional method of education, where the
155, 158) It is quite clear that learning teacher is the source of all information and
is involved with identifying problems and knowledge and the student is the passive
issues, understanding their nature and receptacle. We are all to an extent, and
why they occur, determining the assets the the poor especially, oppressed if we are
neighborhood holds that might address passive citizens and the quiet objects of
them, and coming up with strategies, schools, government, and the economy.
tactics, and programs to reduce or eliminate Personally transformative social change
them. Basic learning in terms of readings, involves neighborhood residents as the
writing, and math skills, and civic skills leaders in their own emancipation. Critical
are needed to work in a group, make consciousness results from problem-posing
presentations, represent the organization “educational projects” that are carried out
before public officials, and accomplish the in the context of community organizing.
goals of the organization. (Friere, Pedagogy of the Oppressed, 1970,
p. 67-68). Friere said we should seek
There is an important difference between a more broadly “not merely for freedom
classroom and a community and between from [want], but for . . . freedom to create
a student and a neighborhood resident. A and construct, to wonder and to venture.”
community group needs to identify the (Friere, p. 68)
conditions and the climate that lead to
learning in the neighborhood. It is a short step, then, from Community
Organizing to the concepts of “communities
In the introduction to Black Metropolis, of learning” in the education field. One of
Richard Wright said: “And we can ask, after the practitioners of Community Education,
reading the scandalous facts of the low Rene Cardenas, said that the purpose of
level of literacy among Negro migrants in community development has never been
northern cities, if more education without building a road or improving a park, but “to
more opportunity will solve anything.” teach others to teach themselves, to learn
(Drake and Clayton p. xxxii) Alinsky knew how to learn, and to evolve form a history
there was a connection between personal of dependence . . . to one of independence
and political empowerment and learning. and helpfulness.” (Clearinghouse, Coming
He said that unless people thought they Home, p. 9)
could change an unacceptable situation,
they were unlikely to even think about
it. Once a community has power based
34
The Three Paths of Community scope of responsibility of the decision-maker
Development (Mayor, County Commissioner, Governor,
State Legislator, etc.) affects the power
A few comments are appropriate at this base that must be mobilized to influence
point about the differences between it. If the decision is made by the mayor,
Rational Planning and both Assets Based a city-wide coalition is called for. If the
Community Development and community decision is made the governor, some state-
organizing. wide program and organization is required.
• Rational Planning tends to prioritize It is easy to see how community organizing,
problems in terms of their assumed which begins with building a neighborhood
importance to the neighborhood. base, evolves into a broader-based effort.
ABCD and community organizing stem
from issues that are important to Power is manifest in social capital. Social
the neighborhood and around which capital is essential for both ABCD and
leadership and organization can be community organizing, but each tends to
developed. address a different aspect of social capital.
• In Rational Planning, improvement ABCD looks within the community’s network
strategies (and even problem of relationships, its norms, and its ability
identification) are based generally to tap its own strengths to address local
upon the broad agreement of diverse issues. Community organizing focuses on
stakeholders in the planning process. mobilizing local resources in campaigns to
In ABCD and community organizing, affect external decisions and resources.
the concerns of the “have nots” set In other words, it addresses the part of
the priorities and, very often, political social capital that calls for effectiveness
tension between the “haves” and the outside the neighborhood. Both types of
“have nots” is a positive quality of a neighborhood power are needed.
strategy.
• In Rational Planning, the desired
outcome is improvement in some Roles of Planners
identified condition, such as small
business formation, jobs, or housing. The roles of planners and their relationship
For ABCD and community organizing, to the community change a great deal
improvement in neighborhood conditions based on the community development
is a means to the end of higher model employed. The table on the following
awareness, participation, motivation, page summarizes the important differences
and organization; in short, to greater in roles under ABCD, community organizing,
social capital. and Rational Planning.
The differences between ABCD and In general, the role of the planner recedes
Community Organizing come about under the Assets Based Community
because of the work’s primary focus. ABCD Development and the community
is principally, but not entirely, focused organizing approaches. This is not to say
within the community. It begins with the that the planner’s role is marginalized
identification of all the neighborhood’s because it is still very important to the
human and organizational assets and carries neighborhood. Given the primary concern
out community development by drawing with building neighborhood social capital,
on this base. Community organizing, the community itself, its residents, leaders,
alternatively, attempts to acquire resources, and organizations, take a far more central
policies, and regulations that are externally and active role under ABCD and community
controlled to improve local conditions. The organizing.
consequence of this perspective is that
sufficient political authority and power For whom do planners work under ABCD
must be marshaled to affect the person or and community organizing? It is difficult
organization making key decisions. The to provide an exhaustive list, but here are
35
ABCD / Community Rational Planning must be aware of the importance of
Organizing neighborhood social capita, as well as their
Values * Values articulated * “Value Free” role in either enhancing or diminishing it,
by planner * Impartial, Objective and they must have a working knowledge
* Equity, Inclusion of the variety of legitimate ways to be a
* Advocate for
less powerful and community development planner in order to
wealthy be effective.
Objectives * Transformation of * Plan document
individual residents * Improvement
* Community
empowerment and
projects Reflections on Thirty Years of
control Community Development Work
Agency of * Community action * Government
Action * Community based agencies William Peterman, in Neighborhood Planning
organizations * Elected officials and Community-Based Development, makes
* Private businesses some comments that are relevant to this
Community * Subject of plan * Object of plan discussion, based on his nearly thirty year
Role * Establishes goals, * Formal and history providing technical support for
strategies, projects proscribed citizen neighborhood development efforts. His
participation
comments reinforce the need to accept
Planner Role * Support for * Convener the importance of all the community
neighborhood * Technical expertise
residents
development approaches addressed here.
* Mediator
* Technical expertise
* Consensus builder
* Educator Peterman cautions us correctly not to
* Educator
narrow our focus too greatly within the
neighborhood. It would be short sighted
to ignore the changes that have taken
representative types of organizations that place in this country even since the
hire planners whose approach is consistent Model Cities program in the 1967. The
with ABCD and community organizing: locus of economic and political control
• third party organization like the Local has moved beyond cities and states,
Initiatives Support Corporation (LISC) even beyond the nation, in terms of the
and the Enterprise Foundation, increasingly integrated global economy.
• federal and state funded neighborhood As the political importance of cities has
planning resource centers, declined, the commitment of the federal
• churches, and state governments to address their
• community coalitions, problems has diminished. In a more
• some social work agencies, school general way, Peterman asks whether it is
districts, and health care organizations, appropriate to concentrate our efforts on
• local government neighborhood planning the neighborhood. He calls on us to ask
offices, and whether the neighborhood focus is too
• Community Development Corporations. isolating and inward looking to be a usable
strategy for community development.
Planners for regular line agencies of federal,
state, and local governments generally Peterman draws a questionable distinction
employ the Rational Planning approach (that we have not made) between
although they are more tolerant of ABCD. neighborhood planning and “community
building.” He concludes that neighborhood
The American Planning Association’s based community development is valuable.
1979 guide to neighborhood planning Whatever its limitations, neighborhood
discouraged planners from adopting the conditions would have been worse absent
Alinsky approach because of the divided this effort. Peterman wholeheartedly
allegiance that work for a governmental supports the creation of “viable, healthy,
agency often entails. (APA, quoted in and constructive communities.” (Peterman,
Peterman, p. 31) All planners, however, p. 113) It is a matter of how we do it.
36
Conditions of effective neighborhood based Summary
action.
This chapter has reviewed the three
Here are Peterman’s four criteria for principal approaches used to carrying out
successful neighborhood development work: community development: Rational Planning,
(Peterman, p. 155) Asset Based Community Development,
and community organizing. Each has its
1. Sufficient and continuing monetary strengths and weaknesses. Each can be
resources and technical resources must either consciously used by neighborhood
be available both for individual projects residents or represents a planning process
and for comprehensive community into which the neighborhood inevitably
development. is drawn. In other words, all three of
2. Community development activities these approaches, used in appropriate
must spring from community and thoughtful ways, can result in better
organizing. Without such an approach, neighborhood conditions.
“neighborhood revitalization . . . almost
always results in gentrification and Some people say that neighborhoods are
displacement.” (Peterman, p. 156) relics of the past and perhaps were never
3 Community leaders must “build and very important to city life. They say that
maintain strong and direct ties with neighborhood-based efforts are inherently
public officials, technical, legal, and limited and likely to fall short. This is wrong
final experts; and other community for many practical and ontological reasons.
organizations and umbrella coalitions.”
4. The on-going relationships between There is even a more profound goal of
the neighborhood organization and the work of Assets Based Community
government staff must have an Development and community organizing
atmosphere of creative tension, neither than building a new recreational centers
too friendly nor too antagonistic. or a certain number of affordable housing
units. By taking concrete action to improve
local conditions, individuals in possession of
“responsibility, strength, and human dignity”
The Dudley Street Neighborhood Initiative are formed (Rev. p. 50). The efforts
(DSNI) offers a good picture of how a
identified in neighborhood development are
neighborhood benefit from all three, as shown
in Streets of Hope. Residents grounded
nothing less than a call to residents’ best
themselves in the Assets Based Community and most humane selves.
Development approach. However, DSNI
leaders concluded early on that they did not Let us close this chapter with a different
want to become housing or human service way of thinking about this work. One of the
providers. They chose, rather, to play the four Buddhist vows is “Although sentient
roles of “organizer, planner, monitor, enabler beings are innumerable, we vow to save
and protector of the community interest.” them . . . . Even though it is impossible,
(Medoff & Sklar, pp. 268-271) They continue
we have to do it because our true nature
to do so for two reasons: first because
being program managers stretches the
wants us to.” (Suzuki, p. 45) In the last
organization’s human resources too thin over analysis, working to improve the condition
important functions and second, because the of the poor and otherwise challenged, caring
roles of program manager and community and helping one another, ensuring that
advocate are seen as potentially in conflict. government works in the interest of all the
They prioritized their community organizing. people, building a network of friendship
and mutual responsibility within our
neighborhoods, is simply something that we
must do for humanity’s good and not just
for material or economic reasons.
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Resources
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