MODULE 1

Syllabus

 Introduction to the course.

 Global and Indian energy recourses
 Energy demand and supply
 Components, layout and working principles of steam, hydro, nuclear, gas turbine
and diesel power plants

Course outcome:-
 Estimate different resources and various power plants. ( K2)

“Only when I saw the Earth from space, in all its ineffable
beauty and fragility, did I realize that humankind's most urgent
task is to cherish and preserve it for future generations.”
— Sigmund Jahn, German Astronaut

1. Introduction to the course.

Introduction to Renewable Energy for Engineers is intended for
beginning engineering students and students in other fields of study who want to learn the
fundamental engineering principles of renewable energy. The primary focus of this book is
the application of renewable energy to electrical power generation. Renewable
energy means energy made from the wind, ocean waves, solar power, biomass (plants grown
especially for energy), and so on. It's called renewable because, in theory, it will never run
out. Renewable sources currently supply about 10–20 percent of the world's energy.
Why Do We Need Renewable Energy?
 Fossil Fuels Are Limited
 Carbon Emissions & Climate Change
 Energy Security
 Economic Stability
 Environmental Damage
 Public Health

Types of renewable energy

There are many forms of renewable energy . Most of these renewable energies depend in
one way or another on sunlight. They are,
1. Solar. ...
2. Wind Power. ...
3. Hydroelectric energy. ...
4. Biomass is the term for energy from plants. ...
5. Hydrogen and fuel cells. ...
6. Geothermal power. ...

Advantages and Disadvantages of Renewable Energy

The advantages of renewable energy

1. It is safe, abundant, and clean to use when compared to fossil fuels.
Even clean-burning natural gas is at a disadvantage to what renewable energy sources can
provide. Enough sunlight comes down on our planet every day that if we could harvest it with
solar panels and other forms of collection, we could power everything for an entire year. Because
wind is created by the warmth of the sun, it is also virtually limitless. Fossil fuels, in theory, are a
finite resource because of how they are created.
2. Multiple forms of renewable energy exist.
Diversification within the renewable energy sector has exploded since the 1970s. From
dams that provide hydropower to solar strips that are strong enough to handle the weight of a
vehicle and can be turned into roads, we have numerous methods of creating power through the
collection of renewable energy. There is greater diversity in this sector when compared to fossil
fuel resources.

3. It provides the foundation for energy independence.

Many nations rely on fossil fuels for their society to function under the ―modern‖
definition. These fuels come from a handful of countries that work to control pricing and
availability. By developing renewable energy resources, countries can work toward energy
independence with a diversified portfolio of energy to access. Although these resources take time
to develop, it should be remembered that the current fossil fuel infrastructure has more than a
century of development behind it.

4. Renewable energy is stable.

When renewable are creating energy, the power produced is stable and usable, just like
any other form of ―traditional‖ power. It is a dependable resource when an infrastructure is
available to support it. Jobs are created within the sector as well, creating stability within local
economic sectors at the same time. The power created can be distributed through existing grids,
which can limit installation costs for some communities.

5. It is a technology instead of a fuel.

Coal must be mined and refined to make it useful. Natural gas must be released and
transported. A fossil fuel is created from natural resources, whereas renewable energies are
created thanks to the use of technology. For this reason, the pricing of renewable energies will
continue to go down as improvements in technology occur. Fossil fuels can see price reductions
through mining and refining efficiency improvements, but there will always be an underlying
labor cost that will affect pricing and availability.

Disadvantages of Renewable Energy

1. Not every form of renewable energy is commercially viable.

Many forms of renewable energy must be collected at a specific location, which means
distribution networks must be setup to take advantage of the power that can be generated. These
networks require a massive fossil fuel investment that can take generations to neutralize with the
use of renewable energy. From tidal power to geothermal, the commercial viability of many
renewable energy resources is not available right now.

2. Many forms of renewable energy are location-specific.

Even solar energy has limited potential in some locations. In Seattle, Washington, just 71
days per year are classified as ―sunny,‖ or having a cloud cover that is less than 30%. Northern
cities may go prolonged periods without any sunlight during the winter months. Because
renewable energy is often location-specific, it may not be available for every community to use.

3. Many forms of renewable energy require storage capabilities.

With traditional power resources, a home or business is connected to a local distribution
grid so that it can be accessed 24/7. When using a renewable energy resource, back-up and
storage resources must be included with the power generation opportunity. Sunlight doesn‘t
happen at night. Wind speeds are not always consistent. The storage capabilities that are required
can push the cost of a new renewable energy system beyond what the average person or
community can afford.

4. Pollution is still generated with renewable energy.

Renewable energies are cleaner than most fossil fuels, but ―cleaner‖ and ―clean‖ are very
different terms. A resource like biomass still burns waste products and puts pollution into the
atmosphere. This includes carbon and methane, which are classified as greenhouse gases. The
technologies and facilities that are used to build renewable energy resources require fossil fuels,
as do the transportation and distribution networks. In many instances, renewable energy relies on
fossil fuels, whereas fossil fuels do not rely on renewable.

5. Renewable often require subsidies to make them affordable.

In the United States, an emphasis on biofuels and renewable energies led to the creation
of ethanol as a crude oil replacement. Despite taxpayer-funded subsidies in place for this corn-
based fuel, only 430,000 barrels per day were produced in 2007. That was enough to replace 2%
of the oil that was being consumed while corn prices skyrocketed because of the crops being
funneled into this renewable fuel.

6. Some forms of renewable energy require a massive amount of space.

To produce 20 megawatts of energy, current solar technologies require 100 acres of
space. In comparison, the footprint for a nuclear power plant is 1 square mile to produce 1,000
megawatts of energy. Solar is therefore 45 times less space efficient compared to nuclear power.
Solar is even worse, requiring up to 360 square miles to produce the same energy as one nuclear
power plant.

Comparison between conventional and non conventional energy sources.

BASIS FOR CONVENTIONAL NON-CONVENTIONAL

COMPARISON SOURCES OF ENERGY SOURCES OF ENERGY

Meaning Conventional sources of Non-conventional sources of

energy are the sources that energy refer to the sources
are commonly in use since that are identified few
long time. decades ago.

Exhaustible They can be exhausted due They cannot be exhausted.

to over consumption.

Pollution They pollute environment, They are environment

on a large scale and adds to friendly sources, which does
global warming. not causes pollution.

Use They are primarily used for They are mainly used for
industrial and commercial domestic purposes.
purposes.

Expense Costly. Comparatively less

expensive.

Key Differences between Conventional and Non-Conventional Sources of Energy

The differences between conventional and non-conventional sources of energy are presented
below in points:

1. Conventional sources of energy, as the name suggests, are those sources which are
widely used all around the world since ages. On the contrary, non-conventional sources
of energy are described as the energy sources whose evolution have been done in the
recent past and have gained popularity since then.
2. As the conventional sources of energy are limited in nature, and their formation takes
millions of years, they can be exhausted one day. Conversely, non-conventional sources
of energy are the sources that are in abundance in the environment and are easily
renewable, so they are inexhaustible.
 3. Conventional sources of energy pollute the environment on a large scale through the
smoke and hazardous waste emitted from the power plants. However, the energy
produced from running water does not pollute the environment. On the other hand, non-
conventional sources of energy are environment-friendly, so they do not harm the nature,
by polluting it.
4. The energy produced from conventional sources are highly used for industrial and
commercial purposes. As against, the energy generated out of non-conventional sources
are used for domestic purposes.
5. Conventional sources of energy are costly because they are scarce but their uses are
unlimited. In contrast, non-conventional sources of energy are less expensive, because of
their enormous presence in nature.

Global and Indian energy recourses

Energy affects all aspects of modern life. The demand for energy is increasing at
an exponential rate due to the exponential growth of world population. Oil and gas are expected
to continue to be important sources of energy. Contemporary electric power generation is based
on non-renewable resources such as oil, coal, and nuclear power. New efficient and cost-
effective small-scale renewable energy generation options are commercially available today. The
share of renewable energy sources is expected to increase very significantly. Alternative energy
technologies are being disseminated in many countries with an objective to reduce the uses of
traditional and commercial energy sources. For each country, the choice between the various
available options is strongly dependent on the local condition.

Figure represents the main fuels in the world total primary energy supply (TPES)*,
with a disaggregation of the share of the main renewable categories. In 2004, renewable
accounted for 13.1% of the 11 059 Mtoe of world total primary energy supply. Combustible
renewable and waste (97% of which is biomass, both commercial and non-commercial)
represented 79.4% of total renewable followed by hydro (16.7%).

Total renewable supply experienced an annual growth rate of 2.3% over the last 33
years, marginally higher than the annual growth of 2.2% in TPES. However, the ―other‖ category
in Figure 2 (also referred to as ―new‖ renewable and including geothermal, solar, wind, etc.)
recorded a much higher annual growth of 8.2%. Due to a very low base in 1971 and to recent
fast-growing development, wind experienced the highest increase (+48% p.a.) followed by solar
(+28% p.a.).
 Due to the high share of biomass in total renewable, non-OECD regions like Asia,
Africa and Latin America emerge as the main renewable users. The bulk of the consumption
occurs in the residential sector for cooking and heating purposes. When looking at hydro and
other (or ―new‖) renewable (solar, wind, etc.), OECD accounts for most of the use with,
respectively, 45% and 66%.

Renewable are the third largest contributor to global electricity production. They
accounted for almost 18% of production in 2004, after coal (40%) and natural gas (close to
20%), but ahead of nuclear (16%), and oil (7%) and nonrenewable waste. Almost 90% of
electricity generated from renewable comes from hydropower plants while close to 6% comes
from combustible renewable and waste. Geothermal, solar and wind have now reached 4.5% of
renewable generation (Figure 5).

India ranks sixth in the world in total energy consumption, whereas more than 70% of
its primary energy needs are being met through imports, mainly in the form of crude oil and
natural Gas. Coming to the power generation in the country, India has increased installed power
capacity from 1362 MW to over 112,058 MW since independence and electrified more than
500,000 villages. This achievement is impressive but not sufficient. The electricity consumption
per capita for India is just 566 KWh and is far below most other countries or regions 357 | P a g e
in the world. Even though 85% of villages are considered electrified, around 57% of the rural
households and 12% of urban households, i.e. 84 million households in the country, do not have
access to electricity. Electricity consumption in India is expected to rise to around 2280 BkWh
by 2021-22 and around 4500 BkWh by2031-32. Figure 2 shows the Human Development Index
(HDI) which is calculated from the literacy rate, infant mortality rate and GDP plotted against
per capita electricity consumption Capacity of body to do work is known as Energy.

We found that energy supplied is less than the energy required. The difference between
the production and requirement is about (-2.1%, 24077MW) in energy and about (- 4%) in peak
power. We can overcome this deficit of energy from the non-conventional energy resources.
Non-conventional energy (especially solar and wind) could enhance India‟s energy
security and represent a bright spot in its economic and environmental future. If India switched
from coal, oil, natural gas and nuclear power plants, it is possible that 70% of the electricity and
35% of its total energy could be derived from renewable resources by 2030. Supplying almost
100 % of India‟s energy demand through the use of clean renewable energy from solar, wind,
hydro and biogas, etc. by 2050 is technically and economically feasible.
Energy demand and supply

Energy demand management, also known as demand-side management (DSM) or

demand-side response (DSR), is the modification of consumer demands for energy through
various methods such as financial incentives and behavioral change through education.
Energy supply is the delivery of fuels or transformed fuels to point of consumption. It
potentially encompasses the extraction, transmission, generation, distribution and storage of
fuels. It is also sometimes called energy flow.
The demand for energy across the world is constantly rising. This increased demand
is caused in part by the increase in population, and by economic development. ... It is because
these areas experienced large-scale economic development, their
original energy sources were fossil fuels – first coal and the oil and gas.
India has always been a power-deficient country. The demand for power is huge in India. As
seen in the above graph, the supply of power in India has not been able to meet its demand.
Under the Government‘s ―Power for all by 2021‖ plan, it has targeted per capita consumption of
1000 kWh by the end of the 11th Five Year Plan (2012-2021) as compared to levels of 734 kWh
in 2008-09. In order to provide per capita availability of over 1000 kWh of electricity by year
2012, it is estimated that capacity addition of more than 1, 00,000 MW would be required. This
shows that huge capacity additions are required at good efficiency rates, indicating that the
opportunities available in this sector are huge.
 India is surplus in electricity generation and also marginal exporter of electricity in
2017. India is largely dependent on fossil fuel imports to meet its energy demands – by
2030; India's dependence on energy imports is expected to exceed 53% of the country's
total energy consumption.

Components, layout and working principles of steam, hydro, nuclear, gas turbine and
diesel power plants:-

Thermal (steam) power plant and its Working Principle

A thermal power station is known as power plant in which the prime mover is steam
drive. Water is made to enter into the system and then heated, later which turns into the steam.
The steam spins in a steam turbine which efforts an electrical generator.

The Basic Components of the Thermal Power Station Are

 Boiler
 Steam turbine
 Generator
 Condenser
 Cooling towers
 Circulating water pump
 Boiler feed pump
 Forced or induced draught fans
 Ash precipitators

These are the main components in the thermal power plant

Boiler
A boiler is a closed vessel in which the water or fluid is heated

Steam turbine
A steam turbine is a device which extracts thermal energy from the pressurized steam. The
energy must be used to organize mechanical work on a rotating output shaft.

Generator
A generator is a device which is used to convert the mechanical form of energy into the electrical
energy.

Condenser
A condenser is a device used to converts the gaseous substance into the liquid state substance
with the help of cooling.

Cooling towers
A cooling tower is a heat rejection device, which discards the waste heat into the atmosphere
with help of the cooling water stream to a lower temperature.
 Circulating water pump

Circulating pump is a special device used to circulate the liquids, gases and slurries present in the
closed circuit. The main purpose of the circulating pump is circulating the water in a cooling
system or hydronic heating.

Boiler feed pump

A boiler feed pump is a specific type of pump which is used to feed the water into the steam
boiler. The condition of water supply depends on the boiler produce the condensation of the
steam.

Forced draught fans

Forced draught fans are used to provide a positive pressure to a system.

Induced draught fans

Induced draught fans are used to provide a negative pressure or vacuum in a slack or system

Ash precipitators
Precipitators are devices used to remove the fine particles like smoke and dust. By using the
force of induced electrostatic charge minimally close the flow of gases through the unit.

Four basic circuits of thermal / steam power plant

 Coal and Ash circuit: This includes coal delivery, preparation, coal handling, boiler furnace, ash
handling and ash storage. ...
 Water and Steam circuit. It consists of feed pump, economizer, boiler drum, super heater,
turbine condenser etc. ...
 Air and Flue gas circuit. ...
 Cooling water circuit:

Plant layout
Working Principle of Thermal Power Plant:
Water is used as the working fluid in the thermal power plant. We can see coal based and
nuclear power plants in this category. From the working of the power plant energy, later from the
fuel gets transferred into the form of electricity. With the help of high pressure and high steams a
steam turbine in a thermal power plant is rotates, the rotation must be transfer to the generator to
produce power.

When turbine blades are rotated with the high pressure and high temperature at that case
the steam loses its energy. So it results in the low pressure and low temperature at the outlet of
the turbine. Steam must be expanded upto the point where it reaches the saturation point. So
from the steam, there is no heat addition or removal that takes place. Entropy of the steam
remains same. So we can notice the change in the pressure and volume and temperature along
with the entropy diagrams. If the condition comes to the low pressure and low temperature steam
back to the original state, from that we can produce continuous electricity.

To compress the gaseous state liquids at that case large amount of energy is required. So
before the compression we need to convert the fluids into liquid state. For this purpose condenser
is required and heat is rejected to the surroundings and converts the steam into liquid state.
During this process the temperature and volume of the fluid changes take place hardly, so it turns
into liquid state. And the fluid turns to the original state. To bring the fluid to the original state
external heat is added. To the heat exchanger heat is added which is called as boiler. Then the
pressure of the fluid must remain same. In heat exchanger tubes it expands freely. Due to
increase in temperature the liquid state is transformed into the vapour state and the temperature
remains same. So know we complete the thermodynamic cycle in the thermal power plant. It is
known as Rankine cycle. By repeating the cycle we can produce the power continuously.

With the help of boiler furnace heat is added to the boiler. Then the fuel must reacts with
the air and produces heat. The fuel must be either nuclear or coal. In this process if we use coal
as a fuel we can observe lot of pollutants before ejects in to the air clean or removed the particles
and send into surroundings. The process is done in various steps. By using the electro static
precipitator the ash particles are removed. So with the help of the stack clean exhaust must be
send outside.

Characteristics of steam power plant:

 It gives high efficiency
 Cost is low
 Water requirement is reduced
 Environmental impact like air pollution is reduced
 Higher availability and reliability
 Ability to burn coal mainly high ash content
Advantages of thermal power plant:
 Compare to the hydroelectric plant the initial set up cost must be low
 Near to the load centers the power plants are located, for that the transportation cost is
low and transmission is reduced.
 In hydroelectric power plant the quality depends upon the nature like rives and rains.
 We cannot observe the situation in the thermal power plant.
 Construction must be takes place in very less period compare to the remaining power
plants.
Disadvantages of Thermal power plant:
 We are using nonrenewable energy resources in this process
  It cannot be used as a peak load plant; part load efficiency must decreases rapidly along
with decreasing load.
 The coal plants are located far away from the power plants so it is difficult to transport
the fuel to the plant
 The power generation cost is high compare to the hydroelectric power plant
 The released smoke produces the pollution in the surroundings.
 The life time must be 25 years and for hydropower plant it is 35 years

Hydroelectric Power Plant and Its Layout

Working principle:
Dam is built through the river and water is stored, from that hydroelectric power plant
operates to develop the potential energy. From the stored water the potential energy is converted
into the kinetic energy. With the help of the penstock pipe the water must flows through it as it
generates the energy. In the water turbine the developed kinetic energy must be converted into
the mechanical energy. Here, to the electric generator the turbine is coupled. In the turbine at the
shaft the mechanical energy is converted into the electrical energy with the help of generator.
Due to gravity it provides the force which allows the water to flow, in this water the stored
energy is known as gravitational potential energy.

Layouts of hydroelectric power plant:

 Dam
 Water reservoir
 Gate
 Spillway
 Surge tank
 Pressure tunnel
 Penstock
 Water turbine
 Draft tube
  Tail race level
 Power house

Dam:
The main purpose of the dam is to store the water and to control the outgoing run of
water. All the incoming water is stored in the dam. The water head is increased with the help of
the dam, which is essential when an enough head is available.

Water reservoir:
During rainy season in a reservoir water is collected from the watershed and stored
behind the dam. At the time of rainy season, water from rivers is stockpiled behind a dam.
Nonstop accessibility of water is an elementary requirement for a hydroelectric power plant. In
the reservoir the level of surface water is called head water level. The available water head for
power generation hang on the reservoir height

Gate:
The main purpose of the gate is used to control the flow of water from dam.

Spillway:
High amount of water in the reservoir leads to the damage of the reservoir so that a stable
state of water is maintained in the dam. During rainy seasons spillways are provided to avoid the
water flow and to release the water outside. So the risk factor must be reduced and the water
level in the dam also comes down. The excess water present in the storage area is allowed
outside by using the spillways.

Surge Tank:
It is a small tank or a reservoir in which the water level falls or rises due to sudden
pressure change. Due to sudden increment of the pressure in the penstock pipe we can notice the
sudden backflow of the water. On the turbine the load must be decreased. The rapid rise of
pressure in the penstock pipe is called as water hammer. The surge tank is situated between the
turbine and dam to serve the water at the time of need.

By reducing the gap between the turbine and the dam is in the way of reducing the water
hammer effect also. It functions as a source tank to the turbine, while the water in the pipe is
enhanced during amplified load conditions, as storage tank when the water is slow down during
compact load conditions.

Pressure tunnel
By using the pressure tunnel the water passes from the reservoir to the surge tank.

Penstock
The main aim of the penstock is to bring the water from the dam to the hydraulic turbine.
The pipes are made up of reinforced concrete or steel. In the dam at low level the turbines are to
be installed. At the inlet, gate is delivers to the penstocks in order to close the water supply. To
control the water flow rate it delivers gate valve at the inlet to totally close by the water supply. It
has a regulator valve to switch the water flow rate into the turbine

Water turbine
The water turbine is also known as hydraulic turbine. The turbine converts the water
energy into the mechanical energy. On the turbine shaft the available mechanical energy, this is
joined to the shaft for the electrical generator which produces the electrical energy. The water
present in the turbine blade is discharged through the draft tube. The prime motivators which are
in mutual use are Kaplan turbine, Pelton wheel and Francis turbine

Draft tube
Draft tube is linked to the exit of the turbine. It exchanges the kinetic energy offered in
the water into pressure energy in the differing portion. It retains a pressure of impartial in the
atmospheric at exist of the draft tube to run the water into a tail race. From the tail race water is
released for irrigation purposes.

Tail race level

Tail race is a water path to lead the water exiting from the turbine to the canal or river. In
the tail race the water detained is called Tailrace water level

Power house
 The power houses provide accommodations the generator, transformer and water turbine
and along with control room.
 If the water flows through the turbine, there water turns the turbine shaft, and it is joined
to the electric generator.
 A rotating electromagnet is attached to generator it called a rotor and a motionless part
called as a stator.
 A magnetic field that produces with the help of rotor and an electric charge is produced in
the stator.
 The charge is transferred as electricity. The step up transformer raises the voltage of the
current coming from the stator. Through the power lines the electricity is distributed.

Hydro Electric Power Plant Turbine Advantages:

 To the power plant water source is regularly available without break. To generate
electricity fuel is not required. It is properly termed as white coal.
 Through the turbine, the water is passed to do the work and to downstream the process.
Its effectiveness remains exhaustive for cultivation of farms and reducing the dehydration
problem.
 Compared to the nuclear power station and thermal power station the running cost is very
less in the hydroelectric power plant installation.
 In case of thermal power plant we can see the cost of fuel along with the transportation
cost of the fuel.
 In the thermal power station there is no problem with the disposal of ash. In the system
there is no problem with the polluting gases, and particulates are not released into the
atmosphere.
 We cannot find the green house effects in the hydroelectric power plant. But it causes the
acid rains and emits Nitrogen into the atmosphere.
 In case of nuclear and thermal power plant, the steam turbine is put on turning gear for
nearly two days during the starting and ending.
 The thought of the hydroelectric power plant is very simple and self-contained in the
process.
 Compare with the other power plants the reliability of the system must be higher. The life
time of the modern equipment‘s have high life expectancy and without causing any
trouble they work for 50 years.
 In case of the thermal power plant they work for 30 years.
  Due to the relaxation of picking up and throwing off loads in the hydroelectric power
plant can be used as the idyllic spinning inverse in a system mixed up of nuclear and
hydro power plant.
 At considerable range of loads modern hydro generator gives more efficiency.
 Main advantage is that the efficiency of system must be improved.
 Power plant receives more benefits from the flood control, irrigation, navigation, and
afforestation and aqua culture.
 For operation process it does not required high skilled labor. Condition of man power is
also low.

Disadvantages of Hydroelectric power plant:

 Initial cost of the hydroelectric power plant is high and comparatively the returns are in
low rates.
 The annual report importance of this capital cost is a large part of the annual cost of
hydropower installations.
 The development period of hydro projects is moderately large.
 The gap between the groundwork and achievement of a project may spread from 10 years
to 15 years.
 Power generation is reliant on the capacity of water available, which may vary from year
to year and season to season.
 If the rainfall is in-time and satisfactory, only then the reasonable operation from the
plant can be anticipated.
 Such plants are often far away from the load center and require long transmission lines to
deliver power.
 The charges of transmission lines and losses in them are more.
 Large hydroelectric plants disturb the bio network of the zone, along deforestation,
extinguishing plants and relocating people.
 Production of such plants is a limiting factor.
 The stress is now extra on mini, small and micro hydroelectric power stations

Nuclear Power Plant

Nuclear power plant generates electrical energy using heat energy and Uranium-235 is
used as a fuel, to produce that heat. Nuclear energy originates from the splitting of uranium
atoms – a process called fission. This generates heat to produce steam, which is used by a turbine
generator to generate electricity. Because nuclear power plants do not burn fuel, they do not
produce greenhouse gas emissions.

Working Principle
The energy source of a nuclear power plant is fission reaction. In fission reaction we start
with an unstable atom (uranium-235) which splits apart into two small more stable atoms. When
we go from something that is really very unstable (uranium-235) to thing that is more stable
(barium and krypton), energy is released. Now to split the uranium atom we need to aggravate it,
what we do is we strike a neutron into this big uranium atom, which converts it into uranium-236
from uranium -235. Uranium-236 is super unstable atom and splits up into krypton-92 and
barium-141, which are way more stable. Other than release of energy, 3 free neutrons are also
released in the process. These neutrons further strikes another 3 uranium atoms and starts up a
chain reaction, helping in getting a great amount of thermal energy.

The Main Parts Of The Nuclear Power Plant Are:

 Nuclear reactor
 Nuclear fuel
  Moderator
 Steam Generator
 Control rods
 Reflector
 Turbine
 Condenser
 Shielding

Nuclear reactor:
In the steam power plant in case of the boiler furnace the nuclear reactor is replaced. In
the reactor heat is produced due to the happening of the nuclear fission in the fuel. At the time of
fission process high amount of heat must be generated. But the liberation heat must be absorbed
by the coolant along with the circulated core. In the nuclear power plant different types of
reactors are used they are fast breeder reactors, boiling water reactors and pressurized water
reactors.

Nuclear fuel:
To develop nuclear energy the nuclear fuel material are burnt by the nuclear fission. The
nuclear fuel can be referred as a fuel; the physical objects should be composed with fuel
material, and mixed up with the structural, neutron reflecting materials or neutron moderating
materials.

In many cases the nuclear fuels contains the heavy fissile elements which are capable for
the nuclear fission. The fuels are hit by the neutrons; at that case they have the capability of
emitting neutrons when they are broken separately. So from that there is a possibility of self-
sustaining chain reaction which releases the energy and controls the rate of nuclear reactor
otherwise a rapid uncontrolled process can be observed in the nuclear weapons. Most normally
used nuclear fuels are , Plutonium. The movements of refining, mining, purifying disposing of
nuclear fuel together create the nuclear fuel cycle.

By using some other types like and some more elements produce the small amount of
nuclear power by using the radioactive decay in the generators and in other cases of atomic
batteries. In nuclear fusion tritium can be used as fuel.

Moderator:
Mainly the moderator is used to reduce the kinetic energy of the fast moving neutrons to
slow down the moving neutrons. The neutrons increase the possibility of the chain reaction. The
moderators used are beryllium, graphite and heavy water.

Properties of moderator:
 Moderator should possess high thermal conductivity
 Mainly they are available in pure state only
 In solid moderators we absorb high melting point
 In liquid moderators we can absorb low melting point
 By expending solid moderator it would have machinability and good strength.
 It offers resistance to the corrosion.
 Under radiation and heat it should be stable
 Mainly it slows down the neutrons.
Steam generator:
In the reactor the heat is liberated and the reactor coolant is in use and later circulated
through the core. By using the coolant the generated heat must be transferred into the core
reactor and later the remaining uses it for the steam generation. The commonly used coolant is
heavy water or ordinary water.

Control rods:
By using the control rods the rate of a chain reaction is regulates. The control rods are
made up of cadmium; boron and some more other absorb neutron elements.

Properties of control rods:

 It should possess acceptable heat transfer properties.
 Under radiation and heat they are stable
 Control rods are corrosion resistance.
 For absorption they should have sufficient cross sectional area.
 Under all conditions they should be strong and be able to shut down the reactor suddenly

Reflector:
During the fission process the neutrons produced will be partly absorbed by the coolant,
moderator, structural material, fuel rods. The unabsorbed neutrons are left and will try to leave
the reactor core later will be lost. The losses are decreased by surrounding the core reactor by a
material which is known as reflector. By using the reflector the neutrons are sent back to the
core. The riveted neutrons can cause the fission and it improves the reactor neutrons economy. In
most of the cases the reflector are made up of beryllium and graphite.

Turbine:
Steam which was produced in the steam generators are passed into the turbine. By
expanding the steam in the turbine the work must be done.

Condenser:
The steam from the turbine flows into the condenser where the cooling water is
circulated. The exhausted steam must be converted into the water in the condenser through
cooling. By using the feed pump the condensate is pumped in to the steam generator.

Shielding:
The source of the reactor is intense radioactivity. The released radiations are very
dangerous. So for that situation shielding is providing a grip to the radioactive rays. To prevent
the radiation thick concrete shielding along with the pressure vessel is provided and the radiation
is escaped into the atmosphere.
 Working of Nuclear Power Plant

1. First, uranium fuel is loaded up into the reactor—a giant concrete dome that's reinforced
in case it explodes. In the heart of the reactor (the core), atoms split apart and release heat
energy, producing neutrons and splitting other atoms in a carefully controlled nuclear
reaction.
2. Control rods made of materials such as cadmium and boron can be raised or lowered into
the reactor to soak up neutrons and slow down or speed up the chain reaction.
3. Water is pumped through the reactor to collect the heat energy that the chain reaction
produces. It constantly flows around a closed loop linking the reactor with a heat
exchanger.
4. Inside the heat exchanger, the water from the reactor gives up its energy to cooler water
flowing in another closed loop, turning it into steam. Using two unconnected loops of
water and the heat exchanger helps to keep water contaminated with radioactivity safely
contained in one place and well away from most of the equipment in the plant.
5. The steam from the heat exchanger is piped to a turbine. As the steam blows past the
turbine's vanes, they spin around at high speed.
6. The spinning turbine is connected to an electricity generator and makes that spin too.
7. The generator produces electricity that flows out to the power grid—and to our homes,
shops, offices, and factories.

Advantages of Nuclear Energy

 There is no pollution in generating electricity from nuclear reaction in nuclear power plant.
 The operating cost of reactor is quite low, and the life of a reactor is about 50-60 years before it
goes out of business
 Reliability and consistency over a long period of time is the prime factor which makes it an
extraordinary source of power, as it does not depend upon weather conditions.
 Uranium is available in a large amount and going to last longer than fossil fuels.
 If any country sets up a nuclear power plant, then it does not have to worry about the fluctuating
prices of fossil fuels and worlds environmental rules and regulations.

Disadvantages of Nuclear Energy

 The biggest challenge of nuclear power plant is to store the used fuel, as it would cover up a
piece of land for a large number of years.
 You have to keep an eye on the waste storage plant, for it to be safe and check for radiation to
be under limit.
 There is always a chance of nuclear accident as in Fukushima, Japan due to tsunami. The bad
effects of radiation remain for a long time, over generations.
 This energy has got so much of power in it, that if it goes into wrong hands it could destroy
human race from earth.

Gas Turbine Power Plant and Working Principle

Gas Turbine:
A gas turbine is also known as combustion turbine. It is an internal type of combustion
engine. In the downstream turbine upstream rotating compressor is coupled in-between
combustion chamber also.

Gas Turbine power plant:

It is defined as the principal prime mover which is of the turbine type and the medium of
working is permanent gas‖.

Components present in the gas turbine power plant:

 Compressor
 Intercooler
 Regenerator
 Combustion chamber
 Gas turbine
 Reheating unit

Compressor
In most of the cases centrifugal and axial turbines are used in the gas turbine power
plants. Two compressors are used in the gas turbine power plant. In that one of them is low
pressure compressor and the other one is high pressure compressor. Through the filer the
atmospheric air must be drawn into the compressor by using the low pressure compressor. The
developed power must be used to run the compressor. It uses nearly 66% of the power source.
With the help of the intercooler low pressure air, and is moved into the high pressure
compressor. Then immediately the high pressure air must be moves in to the regenerator.

Intercooler:
The main aim of the intercooler is to reduce the compressor work and it is to be placed
between the low pressure and high pressure compressors. Where the pressure ratio must be high
then intercoolers are used. The energy required to compress the air must be proportional to the
inlet air pressure. The compressed air cooling in the intercooler is complete by water.

Regenerator:
When the air is entering to the regenerator then preheating is doen to reduce the fuel
consumption in the combustion chamber, where the efficiency needs to be increased. This is
done by heat of hot exhaust gases coming out of the turbine.

Combustion chamber:
From the regenerator hot air must be allowed to flow into the combustion chamber. The
fuel like natural gas, coal and kerosene are inserted into the combustion chamber. So the high
temperature and high pressure products of combustion must be passes through the turbine.
Working of gas turbine power plant:
From the atmosphere the air must be drawn into the low presser compressor with the help
of the air filter and then it must be compressed.

The compressed low pressure air must come out into the compressor which contains high
pressure through the intercooler. So the heat compressed air must be removed. Then the
compressed air which consists of high presser must be allowed to go into the combustion
chamber with the help of the regenerator. The fuel must be added to the compressor air with the
help of the combustion chamber, and then the fuel combustion needs to takes place. So the
products obtained from the combustion must be allowed into the high pressure turbine. The
exhaust present the high pressure turbine must be enters in to another combustion chamber. In
which the additional fuel must be added then it moves through the low pressure turbine. In the
low pressure turbine after completion of expansion the exhaust must be used as heat the sir
coming out with high pressure. Then it moves to the combustion chamber followed by the
regenerator. Then the exhaust must be released in to the atmosphere.

Advantage of gas turbine power plant:

 In gas turbine power plant natural gas is suitable as the fuel. Depends up the available of
the natural gas turbine must be installed.
 Gas turbine power plants can effort carefully for small organization hours.
 Loading of fuel needs less capacity and handling is stress-free.
 Gas turbine power plant is minor and close in size when compared with the steam power
plants
 It can be started fast and can be place on load in an identical small interval time
 The maintenance cost is less
 It is simple in construction compare to the remaining power plants
 In case of the steam power plants there is no requirement for boiler, condenser
 The gas turbine can function at high speed meanwhile there is no reciprocating part
 Cheaper fuel such as paraffin, kerosene, powdered coal and benzene can be used
 Gas turbine power plants can be used in water shortage areas
 Less pollution is noticed
 A smaller amount of water is necessary for the method

Disadvantage of gas turbine power plant:

 To effort the compressor 66% of the developed source is recycled
 The gas turbine unit has a small thermal efficiency
 The running speed of the gas turbine is in the range from 40k to 100k rpm
  The working temperature is as great as 2000 C, for this reason different alloys and metals
are used for the several components of the turbine
 Special cooling techniques are necessary for cooling the turbine blades
 It is hard to start a gas turbine as associated to a diesel engine in a diesel power plant
 The life span of a gas turbine plant is up to 10 years, after which its efficiency declines to
less than 10 percent

Application of gas turbine power plant:

 To drive generators and supply loads in steam, diesel or hydro plants
 To work with conventional steam boilers as combination plants
 Thermal process industries
 Petro chemical industries
 Power generation in aircraft and ships for their propulsion.
 They are not suitable for cars because of their high speeds

Diesel Power Plant and Its Components

For the generation of the electrical energy, the diesel used as prime mover in the
generation station is known as diesel power station.

The working principle of the diesel power station is very simple; as we compress the air in a
cylinder to raise the temperature, then we burn the diesel inside the engine and the
combustion produces the working fluid at high temperature and high-pressure to convert the
heat energy into mechanical energy.

Working Of the Diesel Power Plant:

In the diesel engine power plant the fuel mixture and air is used as a working medium.
During the time of the suction stroke atmospheric air enters the combustion chamber. With the
help of the injection pump fuel is injected in to the chamber. Inside the engine the air and the fuel
is mixed and the charge must be ignited because of the compression present inside the cylinder.
The main principle observed in the diesel engine is the thermal energy it must be converted in to
the mechanical energy and further the mechanical energy must be converted in to the electrical
energy. The main purpose is to develop electricity with the help of the alternator or generator.
Components Present In the Diesel Power Plant:
 Diesel engine
 Air filters
 Super chargers
 Engine starting system
 Fuel system
 Lubrication system
 Cooling system
 Governing system
 Exhaust system

Diesel engine
Diesel engine is one of the main components present in the diesel power plant. Mainly
the engines are classified in to two types they are two stroke engine and four stroke engine. In
the diesel engine the engine is straight away joined to the generator to develop power. In the
engine the air entered in the cylinder must be compressed. Fuel must be injected by the end of
the compression stroke. After the burning of the fuel the burnt gases expand and apply pressure
on the piston. To the generator the shaft of the engine is straightly attached to the engine. After
the completion of the combustion the burnt gases are ejected in the atmosphere.
Air filters
Air filters are used to remove the dust particles present in the air during the entrance in to
the engine. Air filters are a dry air filter type which consists of wool, felt or cloth. In case of the
oil bath type filters the air is brushed over a bath of oil so the dust must be elements that get
coated.

Super chargers
The super changers are used to increase the air pressure which is provided to the engine.
Then the power of the engine is improved.

Engine starting system

In the diesel power plant diesel engine used is not self-starting. Starting of the engine
includes the air tanks along with the air compressor. In the cold conditions the engine is started
by delivering the air.

Fuel system
The fuel system contains the fuel transfer pump, fuel pump, storage tank, heaters and
strainers. With the help of the Pumps the diesel from the storing tank is drawn and with the help
of the filter it is supplied to the small day tank. Day tank delivers the day-to-day fuel essential for
the engine. In place of the high placed flows the day tank is used so that the diesel movements
the engine takes place under gravity. Again the diesel filtered before it is injected into the engine
with the help of fuel injection pump.

With the help of the fuel injection system some functions are performs they are

 Initially the fuel must be filtered

 At the time of injection of the fuel correct quantity is to be injected in to the system.
 Injection process must take place at a particular time
 The fuel supply must be regulated
 In the combustion chamber atomized fuel must be separated properly.
 According to the loads of the plants the fuel must be supplied.
Lubrication system
The lubrication system must includes oil tanks, coolers, pipes and oil pumps. The main
aim is in moving parts. It is used to reduce the friction and reduce tear and wear of the engine
components. Like cylinder walls and piston. Due to the friction the Lubrication oil must be gets
heated of and the moving parts are cooled earlier reflow. In the lubrication system the oil is
forced from the oil tank through the oil chiller. The oil is cooled with the cold water which
enters the engine. After cooling of the hot oil the moving parts are returned in to the lubricating
oil tank.

Cooling system
Inside the engine cylinder the high temperature of the burning fuel is around 1500 to
2000 C. In case we lower this temperature the water is dispersed through the engine. The water
jacket covers the engine. And the heat from the piston, cylinder, and combustion chamber must
be passed by the flowing water. The level of the hot water in the jacket is delivered through the
heat exchanger. In the heat exchanger, the heat is carried away by the water which is circulated
over the heat exchanger and the water is cooled in the cooling tower

Governing system
The governing system is used to control the speediness of the engine. This is completed
by changing the fuel stream permitting it to the engine load

Exhaust system
The exhaust gases approaching out of the engine are very loud. To reduce the sound a
silencer is used.

Applications:
Diesel Power Plant finds wide application in the following fields:
1. Diesel power plant is used for electrical power generation in capacities ranging from
100 to 5000 H.P.
2. They are commonly used for mobile power generation and are widely used in
transportation systems consisting of railroads, ships, automobiles, and airplanes.
3. They can be used as standby power plants.
4. They can be utilized as peak load plants for some other types of power plants.
5. For Industries where power requirement is small in the order of 500 kW, diesel
power plants become more economical due to higher overall efficiency

Advantages:
The advantages of diesel power plants are listed below:
1. Diesel power plant design is simple for installation.
2. The layout of the diesel power plant is quite simple.
3. The limited quantity of cooling water required.
4. Standby losses are very less as compared to other Power plants.
5. Low fuel cost for operation.
6. Smaller storage is needed for the fuel.
7. There is no problem of ash handling.
8. Less time monitoring is sufficient required.
9. For small capacity power generation, diesel power plant is more efficient than the
steam power plant.
10. Quickly started and put on load.
11. They can respond to varying loads without having any difficulty.
Disadvantages:
The disadvantages of diesel power plants are listed below:
1. High Maintenance and operating cost.
2. The plant cost per kW power is comparatively more.
3. The working life of diesel power plant is small due to high maintenance.
4. The plant produces too much noise.
5. Diesel power plants are tough to construct for large scale.
 MODULE 2

Syllabus

 Solar energy – Passive and active solar thermal energy,

 Solar collectors,
 Solar thermal electric systems,
 Solar photovoltaic systems,
 Economics of solar power,
 Sustainability attributes.

Course outcome:-
Judge the use, advantages, and disadvantages of different types of solar energy
systems.

Introduction
Solar energy is radiant light and heat from the Sun that is harnessed using a range of
ever-evolving technologies such as solar heating, photovoltaic,
solar thermal energy, solar architecture, molten salt power plants and artificial photosynthesis.
Solar power generation has several advantages over other forms of electricity generation:
Reduced Dependence on Fossil Fuels. Solar energy production does not require fossil fuels and
is therefore less dependent on this limited and expensive natural resource. While in
use, solar panels create absolutely no waste or emissions. Unlike fossil fuel power plants, they
produce clean, renewable energy from a fuel source that requires no locating, excavation,
transportation, or combustion. It's a simpler, cheaper, cleaner, and all-around better
energy solution. Solar power systems derive clean, pure energy from the sun. Installing solar
panels on your home helps combat greenhouse gas emissions and reduces our collective
dependence on fossil fuel. Traditional electricity is sourced from fossil fuels such as coal and
natural gas.
It is an important source of renewable energy and its technologies are broadly
characterized as either passive solar or active solar depending on how they capture and distribute
solar energy or convert it into solar power. Active solar techniques include the use
of photovoltaic systems, concentrated solar power and solar water heating to harness the energy.
Passive solar techniques include orienting a building to the Sun, selecting materials with
favorable thermal mass or light-dispersing properties, and designing spaces that naturally
circulate air.

Common Solar Uses

 Residential Homes. Every home or business needs hot water and electricity. ...
 Central Power Stations. ...
 Other Recreational Applications. ...
 Solar Water Heating Systems. ...
 Industrial Applications. ...
 Water Pumping, lighting, heating in the Developing World. ...
 Commercial buildings.
Advantages and disadvantages of solar energy
Advantages:

1. Solar power is pollution free and causes no greenhouse gases to be emitted after
installation
2. Reduced dependence on foreign oil and fossil fuels
3. Renewable clean power that is available every day of the year, even cloudy days produce
some power
4. Return on investment unlike paying for utility bills
5. Virtually no maintenance as solar panels last over 30 years
6. Creates jobs by employing solar panel manufacturers, solar installers, etc. and in turn
helps the economy
7. Excess power can be sold back to the power company if grid intertied
8. Ability to live grid free if all power generated provides enough for the home / building
9. Can be installed virtually anywhere; in a field to on a building
10. Use batteries to store extra power for use at night
11. Solar can be used to heat water, power homes and building, even power cars
12. Safer than traditional electric current
13. Efficiency is always improving so the same size solar that is available today will become
more efficient tomorrow
14. Aesthetics are improving making the solar more versatile compared to older models; i.e.
printing, flexible, solar shingles, etc.
15. Federal grants, tax incentives, and rebate programs are available to help with initial costs

Disadvantages

1. High initial costs for material and installation and long ROI
2. Needs lots of space as efficiency is not 100% yet
3. No solar power at night so there is a need for a large battery bank
4. Some people think they are ugly (I am definitely not one of those!)
5. Devices that run on DC power directly are more expensive
6. Depending on geographical location the size of the solar panels vary for the same power
generation
7. Cloudy days do not produce much energy
8. Solar panels are not being massed produced due to lack of material and technology to
lower the cost enough to be more affordable
9. Solar powered cars do not have the same speeds and power as typical gas powered cars
10. Lower production in the winter months

Solar power applications

1. Concentrating Solar Power (CSP): Concentrating solar power (CSP) plants are utility-
scale generators that produce electricity using mirrors or lenses to efficiently concentrate
the sun‘s energy. The four principal CSP technologies are parabolic troughs, dish-Stirling
engine systems, central receivers, and concentrating photovoltaic systems (CPV).

2. Solar Thermal Electric Power Plants: Solar thermal energy involves harnessing solar
power for practical applications from solar heating to electrical power generation. Solar
thermal collectors, such as solar hot water panels, are commonly used to generate solar
hot water for domestic and light industrial applications. This energy system is also used
 in architecture and building design to control heating and ventilation in both active solar
and passive solar designs.
3. Photovoltaics: Photovoltaic or PV technology employs solar cells or solar photovoltaic
arrays to convert energy from the sun into electricity. Solar cells produce direct current
electricity from the sun‘s rays, which can be used to power equipment or to recharge
batteries. Many pocket calculators incorporate a single solar cell, but for larger
applications, cells are generally grouped together to form PV modules that are in turn
arranged in solar arrays. Solar arrays can be used to power orbiting satellites and other
spacecraft, and in remote areas as a source of power for roadside emergency telephones,
remote sensing, and cathodic protection of pipelines.
4. Solar Heating Systems: Solar hot water systems use sunlight to heat water. The systems
are composed of solar thermal collectors and a storage tank, and they may be active,
passive or batch systems.
5. Solar Lighting: Also known as daylighting, this is the use of natural light to provide
illumination to offset energy use in electric lighting systems and reduce the cooling load
on HVAC systems. Daylighting features include building orientation, window
orientation, exterior shading, saw tooth roofs, clerestory windows, light shelves,
skylights, and light tubes. Architectural trends increasingly recognize daylighting as a
cornerstone of sustainable design.
6. Solar Cars: A solar car is an electric vehicle powered by energy obtained from solar
panels on the surface of the car which convert the sun‘s energy directly into electrical
energy. Solar cars are not currently a practical form of transportation. Although they can
operate for limited distances without sun, the solar cells are generally very fragile.
Development teams have focused their efforts on optimizing the efficiency of the vehicle,
but many have only enough room for one or two people.
7. Solar Power Satellite: A solar power satellite (SPS) is a proposed satellite built in high
Earth orbit that uses microwave power transmission to beam solar power to a very large
antenna on Earth where it can be used in place of conventional power sources. The
advantage of placing the solar collectors in space is the unobstructed view of the sun,
unaffected by the day/night cycle, weather, or seasons. However, the costs of
construction are very high, and SPSs will not be able to compete with conventional
sources unless low launch costs can be achieved or unless a space-based manufacturing
industry develops and they can be built in orbit from off-earth materials.
8. Solar Updraft Tower: A solar updraft tower is a proposed type of renewable-energy
power plant. Air is heated in a very large circular greenhouse-like structure, and the
resulting convection causes the air to rise and escape through a tall tower. The moving air
drives turbines, which produce electricity. There are no solar updraft towers in operation
at present. A research prototype operated in Spain in the 1980s, and EnviroMission is
proposing to construct a full-scale power station using this technology in Australia.
9. Renewable Solar Power Systems with Regenerative Fuel Cell Systems: NASA has
long recognized the unique advantages of regenerative fuel cell (RFC) systems to provide
energy storage for solar power systems in space. RFC systems are uniquely qualified to
provide the necessary energy storage for solar surface power systems on the moon or
Mars during long periods of darkness, i.e. during the 14-day lunar night or the12-hour
Martian night. The nature of the RFC and its inherent design flexibility enables it to
effectively meet the requirements of space missions. And in the course of implementing
the NASA RFC Program, researchers recognized that there are numerous applications in
government, industry, transportation, and the military for RFC systems as well.
10. Solar Water Heating:
A solar water heating unit comprises a blackened flat plate metal collector with an
associated metal tubing facing the general direction of the sun. The plate collector has a
transparent glass cover above and a layer of thermal insulation beneath it. The metal
tubing of the collector is connected by a pipe to an insulated tank that stores hot water
 during cloudy days. The collector absorbs solar radiations and transfers the heat to the
water circulating through the tubing either by gravity or by a pump. This hot water is
supplied to the storage tank via the associated metal tubing. This system of water
heating is commonly used in hotels, guest houses, tourist bungalows, hospitals, canteens
as well as domestic and industrial units.

11. Solar Heating of Buildings:

Solar energy can be used for space heating of buildings in many ways namely:
(a) Collecting the solar radiation by some element of the building itself i.e. solar energy
is admitted directly into the building through large South-facing windows.
(b) Using separate solar collectors which may heat either water or air or storage devices
which can accumulate the collected solar energy for use at night and during inclement
days.
When the building requires heat then from these collectors or storage devices, the heat is
transferred by conventional equipment such as fan, ducts, air outlets, radiators and hot
air registers etc. to warm up the living spaces of a building.
When the building does not require heat, the heated air or water from the collector can
be moved to the heat storage device such as well insulated water tank or other heat
holding material. For inclement days, an auxiliary heating system using gas, oil or
electricity is required as a backup system.

12. Solar Still

A solar still is a green energy product that uses the natural energy of the sun to purify
water. The solar-still process uses the sun instead of other sources such as fossil fuels to
gain the energy needed for purification. Solar stills are then able to supply pure water for
drinking and cooking, even in areas where there are no other sources of energy, while
still being friendly to the environment.
How Is It Used?
Solar stills are used across the world to provide clean, drinkable water to the masses.
Some solar stills are used in homes to help reduce energy costs and pollution, while
others are used in poverty-stricken areas around the world where there are no other
sources of clean drinking water.
Equipment
A solar still is made up of a two water troughs and a piece of glass running across the
top of the water containers. Dirty water is placed in one of the troughs, while the other
remains empty. The glass is placed across the top at an angle, angling directly down into
the empty trough. The bottom of the trough containing the dirty water is usually painted
black to help absorb the energy from the sun.
Evaporation
A solar still works on two scientific principles: evaporation and condensation. First, the
water that needs to be purified is placed in the trough with the black bottom. The solar
still is then allowed to sit in the sun, which allows the still to absorb the sun's short-wave
energy. As the energy is absorbed, it starts to heat the water. As the temperature of the
water rises, the liquid H20 is converted into steam and evaporates towards the glass
ceiling, leaving anything that is not pure H20 in the trough below.
Condensation
The second scientific principle on which a solar still acts is condensation. After the
water begins to evaporate, it hits the glass ceiling. The water slowly condenses on the
glass, causing pure water droplets. Since the glass is angled down toward the second
trough, the water droplets roll down and into the clean water trough. Because none of
the minerals, bacteria or other substances are able to evaporate with the pure H20, the
water droplets that end up in the second trough are simply purified, and are now safe for
drinking and cooking.
 Working
In arid semi and or coastal areas there is scarcity of potable water. The abundant sunlight
in these areas can be used for converting saline water into potable distilled water by the
method of solar distillation. In this method, solar radiation is admitted through a
transparent air tight glass cover into a shallow blackened basin containing saline water.
Solar radiation passes through the covers and is absorbed and converted into heat in the
blackened surface causing the water to evaporate from the brine (impure saline water).
The vapors produced get condensed to form purified water in the cool interior of the roof.
The condensed water flows down the sloping roof and is collected in the troughs placed
at the bottom and from there into a water storage tank to supply potable distilled water in
areas of scarcity, in colleges, school science laboratories, defense labs, petrol pumps,
hospitals and pharmaceutical industries. Per liter distilled water cost obtained by this
system is cheaper than distilled water obtained by other electrical energy-based
processes.

13. Solar-pumping:
In solar pumping, the power generated by solar-energy is utilized for pumping water for
irrigation purposes. The requirement for water pumping is greatest in the hot summer
months which coincide with the increased solar radiations during this period and so this
method is most appropriate for irrigation purpose. During periods of inclement weather
when solar radiations are low then the requirement for water pumping is also relatively
less as the transpiration losses from the crops are also low.
14. Solar Drying of Agricultural and Animal Products:
This is a traditional method of utilising solar energy for drying of agricultural and animal
products. Agricultural products are dried in a simple cabinet dryer which consists of a
box insulated at the base, painted black on the inner side and covered with an inclined
transparent sheet of glass. At the base and top of the sides ventilation holes are provided
to facilitate the flow of air over the drying material which is placed on perforated trays
inside the cabinet. These perforated trays or racks are carefully designed to provide
controlled exposure to solar radiations. Solar drying, especially of fruits improves fruit
quality as the sugar concentration increases on drying. Normally soft fruits are
particularly vulnerable to insect attack as the sugar content increases on drying but in a
fruit dryer considerable time is saved by quicker drying —minimizing gap the chances of
insect attack. The present practice of drying chilies by spreading them on the floor not
only requires a lot of open space and manual labour for material handling but it becomes
difficult to maintain its quality and taste unless drying is done in a controlled atmosphere.
Moreover, the products being sun dried very often get spoiled due to sudden rains, dust
storms or by birds. Besides, reports reveal that it is not possible to attain very low
moisture content in the sun-dried chilies. As a result, the chilies become prone to attack
 by fungi and bacteria. In sun-drying sometimes, the produce is over dried and its quality
is lost. Solar energy operated dryer helps to overcome most of these disadvantages. Other
agricultural products commonly solar-dried are potato-chips, berseem, grains of maize
and paddy, ginger, peas, pepper, cashew-nuts, timber and veneer drying and tobacco
curing. Spray drying of milk and fish drying are examples of solar dried animal products.

15. Solar Furnaces:

In a Solar furnace, high temperature is obtained by concentrating the solar radiations onto
a specimen using a number of heliostats (turn-able mirrors) arranged on a sloping surface.
The solar furnace is used for studying the properties of ceramics at extremely high
temperatures above the range measurable in laboratories with flames and electric
currents. Heating can be accomplished without any contamination and temperature can be
easily controlled by changing the position of the material in focus. This is especially
useful for metallurgical and chemical operations. Various property measurements are
possible on an open specimen. An important future application of solar furnaces is the
production of nitric acid and fertilizers from air.

16. Solar Cooking:

A variety of fuel like coal, kerosene, cooking gas, firewood, dung cakes and agricultural
wastes are used for cooking purposes. Due to the energy crisis, supply of these fuels are
either deteriorating (wood, coal, kerosene, cooking gas) or are too precious to be wasted
for cooking purposes (cow dung can be better used as manure for improving soil
fertility). This necessitated the use of solar energy for cooking purposes and the
development of solar cookers. A simple solar cooker is the flat plate box type solar
cooker. It consists of a well insulated metal or wooden box which is blackened from the
inner side. The solar radiations entering the box are of short wavelength. As higher wave-
length radiations are unable to pass through the glass covers, the re-radiation from the
blackened interior to outside the box through the two glass covers is minimised, thereby
minimising the heat loss. The heat loss due to convection is minimised by making the box
airtight. This is achieved by providing a rubber strip between the upper lid and the box
for minimising the heat loss due to conduction, the space between the blackened tray and
outer cover of the box is filled with an insulting material like glass wool, saw-dust, paddy
husk etc. When placed in sunlight, the solar rays penetrate the glass covers and are ab-
sorbed by the blackened surface thereby resulting in an increase in temperature inside the
box. Cooking pots blackened from outside are placed in the solar box. The uncooked
food gets cooked with the heat energy produced due to increased temperature of the solar
box. Collector area of such a solar cooker can be increased by providing a plane reflector
mirror. When this reflector is adjusted to reflect the sun rays into the box, then a 15°C to
25°C rise in temperature is achieved inside the cooker box. The solar cooker requires
neither fuel nor attention while cooking food and there is no pollution, no charring or
overflowing of food and the most important advantage is that nutritional value of the
cooked food is very high as the vitamins and natural tastes of the food are not destroyed.
Maintenance cost of the solar cooker is negligible. The main disadvantage of the solar
cooker is that the food cannot be cooked at night, during cloudy days or at short notice.
Cooking takes comparatively more time and chapattis cannot be cooked in a solar cooker.

17. Solar Electric Power Generation:

Electric energy or electricity can be produced directly from solar energy by means of
photovoltaic cells. The photovoltaic cell is an energy conversion device which is used to
convert photons of sunlight directly into electricity. It is made of semi conductors which
absorb the photons received from the sun, creating free electrons with high energies.
These high energy free electrons are induced by an electric field, to flow out of the
semiconductor to do useful work. This electric field in photovoltaic cells is usually
 provided by a p-n junction of materials which have different electrical properties. There
are different fabrication techniques to enable these cells to achieve maximum efficiency.
These cells are arranged in parallel or series combination to form cell modules. Some of
the special features of these modules are high reliability, no expenditure on fuel,
minimum cost of maintenance, long life, portability, modularity, pollution free working
etc. Photovoltaic cells have been used to operate irrigation pumps, rail road crossing
warnings, navigational signals, highway emergency call systems, automatic
meteorological stations etc. in areas where it is difficult to lay power lines. hey are also
used for weather monitoring and as portable power sources for televisions, calculators,
watches, computer card readers, battery charging and in satellites etc. Besides these,
photovoltaic cells are used for the energisation of pump sets for irrigation, drinking water
supply and for providing electricity in rural areas i.e. street lights etc.

18. Solar Thermal Power Production:

Solar thermal power production means the conversion of solar energy into electricity
through thermal energy. In this procedure, solar energy is first utilised to heat up a
working fluid, gas, water or any other volatile liquid. This heat energy is then converted
into mechanical energy m a turbine. Finally a conventional generator coupled to a turbine
converts this mechanical energy into electrical energy.

19. Production of Power through Solar Ponds:

A solar pond is a natural or artificial body of water utilised for collecting and absorbing
solar radiation and storing it as heat. It is very shallow (5-10 cm deep) and has a radiation
absorbing (black plastic) bottom. It has a curved fibre glass cover over it to permit the
entry of solar radiation but reduces losses by radiation and convection (air movement).
Loss of heat to the ground is minimised by providing a bed of insulating material under
the pond. Solar ponds utilise water for collecting and storing the solar energy which is
used for many applications such as space heating, industrial process heating and to
generate electricity by driving a turbine powered by evaporating an organic fluid with a
low boiling point.

20. Solar Green Houses:

A green house is a structure covered with transparent material (glass or plastic) that acts
as a solar collector and utilises solar radiant energy to grow plants. It has heating, cooling
and ventilating devices for controlling the temperature inside the green house.Solar
radiations can pass through the green house glazing but the thermal radiations emitted by
the objects within the green house cannot escape through the glazed surface. As a result,
the radiations get trapped within the green house and result in an increase in
temperature.As the green house structure has a closed boundary, the air inside the green-
house gets enriched with CO2 as there is no mixing of the greenhouse air with the
ambient air. Further, there is reduced moisture loss due to restricted transpiration. All
these features help to sustain plant growth throughout the day as well as during the night
and all year round.
21. Solar Pond
A solar pond is simply a pool of saltwater which collects and stores solar thermal
energy. The saltwater naturally forms a vertical salinity gradient also known as a
―halocline", in which low-salinity water floats on top of high-salinity water.
 The sun is the largest source of renewable energy and this energy is abundantly available
in all parts of the earth. It is in fact one of the best alternatives to the non-renewable sources of
energy.

One way to tap solar energy is through the use of solar ponds. Solar ponds are large-scale
energy collectors with integral heat storage for supplying thermal energy. It can be use for
various applications, such as process heating, water desalination, refrigeration, drying and power
generation.

The solar pond works on a very simple principle. It is well-known that water or air is
heated they become lighter and rise upward e.g. a hot air balloon. Similarly, in an ordinary pond,
the sun‘s rays heat the water and the heated water from within the pond rises and reaches the top
but loses the heat into the atmosphere. The net result is that the pond water remains at the
atmospheric temperature. The solar pond restricts this tendency by dissolving salt in the bottom
layer of the pond making it too heavy to rise.

A solar pond has three zones. The top zone is the surface zone, or UCZ (Upper
Convective Zone), which is at atmospheric temperature and has little salt content. The bottom
zone is very hot, 70°– 85° C, and is very salty. It is this zone that collects and stores solar energy
in the form of heat, and is, therefore, known as the storage zone or LCZ (Lower Convective
Zone). Separating these two zones is the important gradient zone or NCZ (Non-Convective
Zone). Here the salt content increases as depth increases, thereby creating a salinity or density
gradient. If we consider a particular layer in this zone, water of that layer cannot rise, as the layer
of water above has less salt content and is, therefore, lighter. Similarly, the water from this layer
cannot fall as the water layer below has a higher salt content and is, therefore, heavier. This
gradient zone acts as a transparent insulator permitting sunlight to reach the bottom zone but also
entrapping it there. The trapped (solar) energy is then withdrawn from the pond in the form of
hot brine from the storage zone.
Advantages of Solar Pond

 Saves money as the cost associated with it is only its initial cost. Very large area collectors
can be constructed just with the cost of the clay or plastic pond liner.
 This technology is attractive for rural areas in developing countries.
 The accumulated salt crystals which is a by-product from solar pond can be used further.
 Separate collector is not needed for this thermal storage system.
 Environmental friendly.
 Flexibility of location as they can be located anywhere regardless of the distance to the
nearest power outlet provided that there is access to direct sunlight near the pond site.

Disadvantages of Solar Pond

 The accumulated salt crystals have to be removed periodically and this adds maintenance
expense.
 Solar ponds require a significant amount of land area to function properly.
 Can only operate in sunny days and if the site is shaded by tall trees or building, it may not
work properly.
 Proper algae and dust removal is needed as the thermal efficiency of a solar pond sturdily
dependents on the clarity of the pond.

Active and Passive Solar Systems

Solar energy is radiant energy from the Sun. This energy travels through space to Earth
in the form of electromagnetic waves. In an hour, the Sun sends to the earth‘s surface as much or
more energy as people use to run factories, machines, and vehicles and to heat buildings for a
year. But only a small part of this direct solar energy can be collected and used because the solar
energy is so spread out over the Earth‘s surface. Most of the solar energy that reaches Earth‘s
surface is in the form of visible light.
There are two types of solar thermal systems:
– Passive and Active.
• A passive system requires no equipment, like when heat builds up inside your car when
it's left parked in the sun.
• An active system requires some way to absorb and collect solar radiation and then store
it.

Both active and passive solar energy systems can convert the sun‘s rays into direct
electricity, but their mechanisms are a bit different from each other,

Active solar systems: Active solar power setups rely on external energy sources – or backup
systems, such as radiators and heat pumps — to capture, store and then convert solar energy into
electricity. Active solar systems include the following features:
 The collectors are made up of flat-plate PV panels, which are usually mounted and
stationary. In advanced designs, panels are often connected with each other to form
modules.
 The solar collectors use liquid or air as conductors to store and convert energy. Those
that use liquid are known as hydronic collectors, while those that contain air are called
air collectors.
  Liquid conductors are more common than those that are air-based, as liquid is
generally more efficient at conducting heat, though air-based solar systems have the
benefit of not freezing.

The most common application of these systems is the production of domestic hot water, known
to all as solar water heaters.

Passive solar systems: In contrast to active solar systems, passive systems operate without the
reliance on external devices. Rather, such as in greenhouses, solariums and sunrooms, solar
energy captures sunbeams through glass windows that absorb and retain heat. Passive solar
systems include these features:
 Instead of using PV panels, passive collectors usually rely on south-facing windows to
convert rays into sunlight.
 Design of passive solar collectors is based on the law of thermodynamics, which
posits that heat transfers from warm to cool surfaces, such as through convection.
 The success of the passive solar system depends on its orientation and the thermal
mass of its walls, which determine its ability to absorb heat.

An example of a passive system for space heating is a sunspace or solar greenhouse.

The two methods of directly using solar energy to heat buildings and homes are:

Passive solar heating is a method of heating with solar energy that does not require mechanical
power to circulate heat. Instead, structural designs are used that help to absorb solar energy and
allow the heat to circulate by natural convection. For example, during the year as Earth revolves
(to move in a curved path about another object) around the Sun, because Earth‘s axis is tilted in
relation to the Sun, the apparent path of the Sun across the sky is lower in the winter and higher
in the summer. So buildings in the Northern Hemisphere with large windows facing south allow
more sunlight to enter a room than windows facing other directions. To prevent overheating in
the summer, overhangs on buildings block some of the summer (high-angle) sunlight but allow
more of the winter (low-angle) sunlight to enter and warm rooms. Another technique is to build a
wall of special energy absorbing material that is painted black on the inside of the house. Black
materials absorb more solar energy than other colors. This wall absorbs solar energy, heats up,
and then radiates this heat warming the house during the day and into the night.
Another example of a passive solar energy system is a solar oven, which is a device that uses
sunlight to cook food. The simplest oven might be a metal box that gets hot inside because
sunlight heats the metal or a closed jar containing a liquid that heats because of sunlight hitting
the jar.

Active solar heating is a method of heating with solar energy that requires mechanical power,
such as pumps and fans, to circulate heat from solar collectors. A common solar collector is the
flat-plate collector. It has a black metal plate in a box with a glass cover. Tubes filled with a
liquid lie on the metal plate and are connected to pipes that carry the liquid through a building.
The black metal plate absorbs heat from sunlight and heats the liquid in the tubes. A pump
moves the heated liquid through a pipe, which runs through a container of water called a heat
exchanger. Here the heat from the hot fluid in the pipe is transferred to the water. The cooler
water in the pipe is then pumped back to the collector where it is reheated. The hot water in the
heat exchanger is transferred to a storage tank for later use and cooler water is pumped into the
exchanger to be heated. The hot water in the storage tank is pumped through pipes to different
parts of the house including faucets and heaters. In a heater, some of the thermal energy of the
water is lost as infrared radiation and some is lost as heat is transferred by conduction to the
air surrounding the heater. The heated air transfers heat throughout the room by convection.

Solar Power Plant – Main Components, Working, Advantages and Disadvantages

Introduction
Knowing the fact that fossil fuels are not going to last forever, solar power generation
seems to be leading the path in clean and renewable energy generation among all other
renewable sources of energy production. China which once seems world‘s largest polluter has
now developed the largest solar power plant. Furthermore by 2020 India is aiming to produce
100,000 MW of electricity from solar power plant only.

Tesla has taken the initiative to power up the Kauai island of Hawaii through solar power
plant only. Tesla is providing its industrial battery packs, to store the energy of sun to be used at
night. They are ensuring that they can light up the entire island without sunshine for as long as 3
days. And gets recharged back in just 7 hours of sunlight, isn‘t that amazing!

Efficient production of power from sunlight is the leading topic of research all around the
globe. Let‘s just figure out what it takes to convert sunlight into electricity.

How does a Solar Panel Converts Sunlight into Electricity?

Image source
Silicon is a much known semiconductor having properties of both metals and non-metals.
To make a solar panel, this silicon is doped by a pentavalent impurity converting silicon into
positive type silicon also known as p-type silicon. And similarly other part is converted into
negative or n-type silicon. As name suggest p-type have excess of holes (positive charge) in it
and n- type has excessive electrons. Then these two are combined together one over other upto
the atomic level. Due to their contact and having opposite charge electrons flow from n-type to
p-type and holes travel from p-type to n-type thus creating a thin potential barrier between them.
The current so generated from this movement of charges is named as diffusion current. But we
need to understand yet another thing that is due to this potential barrier, giving rise to electric
field which flows from the positive charge near n-type and negative charge near p-type junction
(the area where potential is generated or meeting area of p and n type). Due to this electric field
electrons from p-type starts flowing towards n-type and holes from n-type towards p-type giving
rise to a current called drift current. Initially the diffusion current is more than the drift current
but as potential difference increases due to diffusion it simultaneously increases the drift current.
Current stops flowing when drift current becomes equal to diffusion current.

Sunlight travels to earth in the form of small energy particles called photons. This photon strike
the p- type region and transfer its energy to hole and electron pair thus exciting the electron and
it gets away from hole. The electric field we have due to potential difference at p-n junction
makes its electron to travel to n-type region thus causing the current to flow.

But there a bit more to know, to make this electric field strong enough so that it must travel to n-
type region and not recombine with the hole it has been separated from. To make this electric
field strong the n-type and p-type regions are connected to negative and positive terminals of
battery, this process is known as reverse bias condition. Doing this increases the probability of
electron travelling all along the way to n-type region once separated from a hole. Thus increasing
the efficiency of a solar panel.

Working Principle
The working principle is that we use the energy of photons to get the drift current flowing in the
circuit using reversed bias p-n junction diode (p-type and n-type silicon combination).

Main Components
1. Solar Panels
It is the heart of the solar power plant. Solar panels consists a number of solar cells. We have got
around 35 solar cells in one panel. The energy produced by each solar cell is very small, but
combining the energy of 35 of them we have got enough energy to charge a 12 volt battery.

2. Solar Cells
It is the energy generating unit, made up of p-type and n-type silicon semiconductor. It‘s the
heart of solar power plant.

3. Battery
Batteries are used to produce the power back or store the excess energy produced during day, to
be supplied during night.

4. D.C. to A.C. Converter (Inverter)

Solar panels produce direct current which is required to be converted into alternating current to
be supplied to homes or power grid.
Working of Solar Power Plant
As sunlight falls over a solar cells, a large number of photons strike the p-type region of silicon.
Electron and hole pair will get separated after absorbing the energy of photon. The electron
travels from p-type region to n-type region due to the action of electric field at p-n junction.
Further the diode is reversed biased to increase this electric field. So this current starts flowing in
the circuit for individual solar cell. We combine the current of all the solar cells of a solar panel,
to get a significant output.

Solar power plant have a large number of solar panels connected to each other to get a large
voltage output. The electrical energy coming from the combined effort of solar panels is stored in
the Lithium ion batteries to be supplied at night time, when there is no sunlight.

Energy Storage
Storage of the energy generated by the solar panels is a important issue. Sometimes the unused
energy generated during daytime is used to pump water to some height, so that it could be used
to generate electricity using its potential energy when required or mainly at night time.

For current being Tesla is providing its industrial energy pack to store energy and currently it is
lighting up an entire island. Tesla has also made an offer to Australia that it could provide its
battery pack for emergency blackouts.

The cost of manufacturing of solar panels has decreased rapidly in last few years, same is said to
be true with the industrial energy pack (Lithium ion batteries), as the production and demand
increases their cost is going to decrease in coming few years.

What About Solar Panel Pollution?

The pollution produced during the production of solar panels varies from nothing to a
considerable range depending upon who is manufacturing it in the first place. In production of
electric panels the chemicals used are sodium hydroxide, hydrofluoric acid and carbon tetra
oxide. These chemicals are mainly used in up-steam in supply chain, where the raw material is
treated. Its ia real danger to the workers producing the panels but if preventive measures and
proper equipments are being used then the production of panels is said to be safe.

But then we have china as the leading manufacturer of solar panels, it is hard to say if they are
using the right workplace and proper work environment, as one of the solar panel manufacturer
in china is caught dumping solar waste into the nearby river.
 Advantages of Solar Energy
 Most clean and renewable source of energy.
 It is available in abundance and endless.
 It provides electricity at low cost, as fuel is free.
 With new research in this sector we now have a good power storage solution.
 Keeping in mind the pollution and cost of fossil fuel, it‘s becoming the most reliable source of
clean energy.

Disadvantages of Solar Power Plant

 It requires a lot of land to be captured forever.
 Initial cost of installation is too high.
 The energy storage options are not efficient and moreover costly if efficient.
 Power production is quite low as compared to nuclear or other resources to produce power.
 There is a problem if it is cloudy for few days.
 Their production causes pollution.

Applications
 Solar power plant is powering cities in most efficient manner.
 Solar panels could be used to generate electricity individually for each house especially in
remote areas.

Solar collectors:-

Definition of solar collector. : any of various devices for the absorption of solar radiation for
the heating of water or buildings or the production of electricity. Solar collectors transform solar
radiation into heat and transfer that heat to a medium (water, solar fluid, or air). Then solar heat
can be used for heating water, to back up heating systems or for heating swimming pools.
Solar collectors can be either non-concentrating or concentrating. The difference
between them is that concentrating collectors have a bigger interceptor than the absorber, while
the non-concentrating collectors have them both with same sizes. Flat-plate and evacuated-tube
solar collectors are used for domestic purposes, such as space heating, hot water or cooling.
Flat Plate Collectors

These collectors are simply metal boxes that have some sort of transparent glazing as a
cover on top of a dark-coloured absorber plate. The sides and bottom of the collector are usually
covered with insulation to minimize heat losses to other parts of the collector. Solar radiation
passes through the transparent glazing material and hits the absorber plate.[4] This plate heats up,
transferring the heat to either water or air that is held between the glazing and absorber plate.
Sometimes these absorber plates are painted with special coatings designed to absorb and retain
heat better than traditional black paint. These plates are usually made out of metal that is a
good conductor - usually copper or aluminum.
Evacuated Tube Collectors

This type of solar collector uses a series of evacuated tubes to heat water for use. These
tubes utilize a vacuum, or evacuated space, to capture the suns energy while minimizing the loss
of heat to the surroundings. They have an inner metal tube which acts as the absorber plate,
which is connected to a heat pipe to carry the heat collected from the Sun to the water. This heat
pipe is essentially a pipe where the fluid contents are under a very particular pressure. At this
pressure, the "hot" end of the pipe has boiling liquid in it while the "cold" end has condensing
vapour. This allows for thermal energy to move more efficiently from one end of the pipe to the
other. Once the heat from the Sun moves from the hot end of the heat pipe to the condensing end,
the thermal energy is transported into the water being heated for use.

Line Focus Collectors

These collectors, sometimes known as parabolic troughs, use highly reflective materials
to collect and concentrate the heat energy from solar radiation. These collectors are composed of
parabolically shaped reflective sections connected into a long trough. A pipe that carries water is
placed in the center of this trough so that sunlight collected by the reflective material is focused
onto the pipe, heating the contents. These are very high powered collectors and are thus
generally used to generate steam for solar thermal power plants and are not used in residential
applications. These troughs can be extremely effective in generating heat from the Sun,
particularly those that can pivot, tracking the Sun in the sky to ensure maximum sunlight
collection.[2]

Point Focus Collectors

These collectors are large parabolic dishes composed of some reflective material that
focus the Sun's energy onto a single point. The heat from these collectors is generally used for
driving Stirling engines.[ Although very effective at collecting sunlight, they must actively track
the Sun across the sky to be of any value. These dishes can work alone or be combined into an
array to gather even more energy from the Sun
Point focus collectors and similar apparatuses can also be utilized to concentrate solar energy for
use with concentrated photovoltaic. In this case, instead of producing heat, the Sun's energy is
converted directly into electricity with high efficiency photovoltaic cells designed specifically to
harness concentrated solar energy.
Solar photovoltaic systems,
A photovoltaic (PV) cell or SOLAR CELL is an energy harvesting technology that
converts solar energy into useful electricity through a process called the photovoltaic effect.
A solar cell is an electronic device that catches sunlight and turns it directly
into electricity. It's about the size of an adult's palm, octagonal in shape, and colored bluish
black. Solar cells are often bundled together to make larger units called solar modules,
themselves coupled into even bigger units known as solar panels

• The photovoltaic effect is a process that generates voltage or electric current in

a photovoltaic cell when it is exposed to sunlight.
• There are several different types of PV cells which all use semiconductors to interact with
incoming photons from the Sun in order to generate an electric current.
 • These solar cells are composed of two different types of semiconductors—a p-type and
an n-type—that are joined together to create a p-n junction.
• By joining these two types of semiconductors, an electric field is formed in the region of
the junction as electrons move to the positive p-side and holes move to the negative n-
side.
• This field causes negatively charged particles to move in one direction and positively
charged particles in the other direction.
• Light is composed of photons, which are simply small bundles of electromagnetic
radiation or energy.
• When light of a suitable wavelength is incident on these cells, energy from the photon is
transferred to an electron of the semiconducting material, causing it to jump to a higher
energy state known as the conduction band.
• In their excited state in the conduction band, these electrons are free to move through the
material, and it is this motion of the electron that creates an electric current in the cell.

Working of a photovoltaic cell or solar cell

The basic operation of a PV cell

A solar cell is a sandwich of n-type silicon (blue) and p-type silicon (red). It generates
electricity by using sunlight to make electrons hop across the junction between the different
flavors of silicon:

1. When sunlight shines on the cell, photons (light particles) bombard the upper surface.
2. The photons (yellow blobs) carry their energy down through the cell.
3. The photons give up their energy to electrons (green blobs) in the lower, p-type layer.
4. The electrons use this energy to jump across the barrier into the upper, n-type layer and
escape out into the circuit.
5. Flowing around the circuit, the electrons make the lamp light up.
Types of photovoltaic solar cells

Most of the solar cells you'll see on people's roofs today are essentially just silicon
sandwiches, specially treated ("doped") to make them better electrical conductors. Scientists
refer to these classic solar cells as first-generation, largely to differentiate them from two
different, more modern technologies known as second- and third-generation.

First-generation

Photo: A colorful collection of first-generation solar cells..

About 90 percent of the world's solar cells are made from wafers of crystalline silicon
(abbreviated c-Si), sliced from large ingots. The ingots either take the form of single crystals
(monocrystalline or mono-Si) or contain multiple crystals (polycrystalline, multi-Si or poly c-
Si). They use a single, simple junction between n-type and p-type silicon layers, which are sliced
from separate ingots. So an n-type ingot would be made by heating chunks of silicon with small
amounts of phosphorus, antimony, or arsenic as the dopant, while a p-type ingot would use boron
as the dopant. Slices of n-type and p-type silicon are then fused to make the junction. A few
more bells and whistles are added, but a simple p-n junction is the essence of most solar cells

Second-generation

Photo: A thin-film, second-generation solar "panel." The power-generating film is made from
amorphous silicon, fastened to a thin, flexible, and relatively inexpensive plastic backing (the
"substrate).

Classic solar cells are relatively thin wafers—usually a fraction of a millimeter deep
(about 200 micrometers, 200μm, or so). But they're absolute slabs compared to second-
generation cells, popularly known as thin-film solar cells (TPSC) or thin-film photovoltaics
(TFPV), which are about 100 times thinner again (several micrometers or millionths of a meter
deep). Although most are still made from silicon (a different form known as amorphous silicon,
a-Si, in which atoms are arranged randomly instead of precisely ordered in a regular crystalline
structure), some are made from other materials, notably cadmium-telluride (Cd-Te) and copper
indium gallium diselenide (CIGS). Because they're extremely thin, light, and flexible, second-
generation solar cells can be laminated onto windows, skylights, roof tiles, and all kinds of
"substrates" (backing materials) including metals, glass, and polymers (plastics).

Third-generation

Photo: Third-generation plastic solar cells produced by researchers at the National Renewable
Energy Laboratory.

The latest technologies combine the best features of first and second generation cells.
Like first-generation cells, they promise relatively high efficiencies (30 percent or more). Like
second-generation cells, they're more likely to be made from materials other than "simple"
silicon, such as amorphous silicon, organic polymers (making organic photovoltaics, OPVs),
perovskite crystals, and feature multiple junctions (made from multiple layers of different
semiconducting materials). Ideally, that would make them cheaper, more efficient, and more
practical than either first- or second-generation cells.

Economics of solar power

It is the most important source of energy for life forms. It is a renewable source of
energy unlike non- renewable sources such as fossil fuels. Solar energy technologies use the
sun's energy to light homes, produce hot water, heat homes as shown in solar tankless water
heater reviews and electricity.
Solar power in India is a fast developing industry. The country's solar installed capacity
reached 23 GW as of 30 June 2018.[1] India expanded its solar-generation capacity 8 times from
2,650 MW on 26 May 2014 to over 20 GW as on 31 January 2018. The 20 GW capacity was
initially targeted for 2022 but the government achieved the target four years ahead of
schedule.[2][3] [4] The country added 3 GW of solar capacity in 2015-2016, 5 GW in 2016-2017
and over 10 GW in 2017-2018, with the average current price of solar electricity dropping to
18% below the average price of its coal-fired counterpart.

For home owners, the economics of solar power are largely determined by the costs and
incentives of the solar applications you are interested in. These vary widely depending on the
type of solar application you are considering and how it will be implemented.
 Saving Money with Solar Energy

But to really make a good decision on which solar solutions you should implement, you need to
look at each option you are considering as an investment. This will provide you with a picture of
the true value each option will give you in both the short-term and the long-term.

Annual solar power generation

Year Solar power generation (TWh)

2013-14 3.35

2014-15 4.60

2015-16 7.45

2016-17 12.09

2017-18 25.87

Solar Energy Costs

There are many variables that factor into the cost of solar energy solutions. These include items
such as...

 Materials
 Labor
 Maintenance
 Permits
 Insurance

If minimizing how much you spend is important for you, then you will need to make sure
you have a complete listing of all the costs your solar solution will require so you can make good
decisions and find ways to reduce the costs.
 However, don't forget that you can also affect what your cost of solar energy will be by
taking steps to increase your home's energy efficiency. If your home is more energy efficient,
you can greatly reduce how much you need to spend on a solar solution.

For example, if you are considering installing a solar electricity system, it's always a
good idea to cut your electricity use as much as possible before you install your system - it is far
less expensive to cut demand up front and then install a smaller system, than to install a system
large enough to meet your current needs.

There are many simple steps you can take to make your home more energy efficient!

Solar Energy Investment

Once you have determined the costs of your solar solution and know what incentives you qualify
for, you can decide whether your solution is a wise solar energy investment for you. This will
become a major factor in your decision of which solar solutions to implement.

The most critical aspects to consider will be the return on your investment (ROI), payback
period, and the increase in your home‘s value.

However, you also need to look at your personal reasons for going solar. Whether it is to lower
your utility bills, reduce your environmental impact to the planet, or the multitude of other
reasons home owners go solar, it will play a major role in your solar decision.

The Deciding Factor

Understanding the economics of solar power can help you decide which solar solutions are best
for you.

 Some solar applications are expensive to implement while others require very little
money to put into action.
 Some solar applications also have incentives available to help offset their costs whereas
others don't.
 By looking at your solar energy options as investments that take into account both costs
and incentives, you can gain visibility into their value in both the short-term and long-
term.
 • The 3,287,240 sq. km area of India receives solar radiation worth 4,300 quadrillion kcal
(5,000 trillion kWh) every year, Which is equivalent to 430 trillion kgs. of OIL
equivalent.
• The daily average solar energy incident over India varies from 14,000 to 25,000
kjoules/m2/day.
• Depending on the geographic location the annual solar grade sunlight hours vary from
1,200–1,700 hours annually.
• Each m2 of flat solar collector area conserves between 400 – 700 kWh or 60 litres to 100
litres of diesel annually assuming 275 days of operations. For every 1 million m2 of
installed collector area 10 GW of peak load shaving can be achieved

Sustainability attributes.
Energy is an important and crucial issue to reach sustainable development. Nowadays
economies are still mainly based on fossil fuels, which imply the depletion of non renewable
resources and environmental problems such as air pollution and climate change. In addition
markets and prices present some instability and there is a need to increase security of supply.
Renewable energy sources are one of the pillars that can support new and more sustainable
energy systems, which includes undoubtedly solar energy: a cleaner, available and renewable
energy.
Solar energy is a renewable free source of energy that is sustainable and totally
inexhaustible, unlike fossil fuels that are finite. It is also a non-polluting source of energy and it
does not emit any greenhouse gases when producing electricity.

Students graduating with a sustainability background should have a firm grounding in,
and be able to demonstrate, the following four key attributes: Holistic Systems Thinking,
Sustainability Knowledge, Acting for Positive Change, and Awareness and Integration

• Holistic Systems Thinking

Holistic Systems Thinking considers the interdependent, inter-relational, and contextual
aspects of phenomena and applies an integrated, inclusive mindset to problem solving. Holistic
approaches are concerned with the assumptions, knowledge, methods, and implications of
various disciplines and treats them as an integrated whole, or system.

• Sustainability Knowledge
A student's area of academic inquiry informs their interests and values as it relates to
sustainability. A working knowledge of sustainability depends on fundamental, overarching
concepts central to its themes.
 • Awareness and Integration
From the advent of the scientific and industrial revolutions in the 16th and 18th/19th
centuries respectively, humankind has benefited greatly from the emergence of the modern
scientific and social scientific disciplines.

• Acting for Positive Change

To be an effective and successful graduate a student must be able to engage others and
implement or contribute to positive change. The integration and application of a holistic
approach, core sustainability knowledge, and the ability to connect across intellectual constructs
must be intertwined with a personal value system that inspires action.
 MODULE III
Syllabus:
 Wind energy
 Principle of wind energy conversion system
 Wind data and energy estimation
 Wind turbines
 Aerodynamics of wind turbines
 Wind power economics
 Introduction to solar – wind hybrid energy systems

Introduction:
Wind energy is a source of renewable power which comes from air current flowing
across the earth's surface. ... Green Power: The electricity produced from wind power is said to
be "clean" because its generation produces no pollution or greenhouse gases.
Wind energy is one of the fastest growing sources of new electricity generation in the
world today. These growth trends can be linked to the multi-dimensional benefits associated with
wind energy.
 Green Power: The electricity produced from wind power is said to be "clean" because its
generation produces no pollution or greenhouse gases. As both health and environmental
concerns are on the rise, clean energy sources are a growing demand.
 Sustainable: Wind is a renewable energy resource, it is inexhaustible and requires no
"fuel" besides the wind that blows across the earth. This infinite energy supply is a
security that many users view as a stable investment in our energy economy as well as in
our children's' future.
 Affordable: Wind power is a cost-competitive source of electricity, largely due to
technological advancements, as well as economies of scale as more of these machines are
manufactured and put online around the world.
 Economic Development: As well as being affordable, wind power is a locally-produced
source of electricity that enables communities to keep energy dollars in their economy.
Job creation (manufacturing, service, construction, and operation) and tax base increase
are other economic development benefits for communities utilizing wind energy.

Wind energy is a form of solar energy. Wind energy (or wind power) describes the
process by which wind is used to generate electricity. Wind turbines convert the
kinetic energy in the wind into mechanical power. A generator can convert mechanical power
into electricity.
A windmill converts wind energy into rotational energy by means of its blades. The
basic principle of every windmill is to convert kinetic energy of wind into
mechanical energy which is used to rotate the turbine of electrical generator to produce
electricity.
Wind power generation capacity in India has significantly increased in recent years. As of
30 June 2018 the total installed wind power capacity was 34.293 GW, the fourth largest installed
wind power capacity in the world. Wind power capacity is mainly spread across the South, West
and North regions
55 MW production of wind power is installed in Kerala. The first wind farm of the state
was set up 1997 at Kanjikode in Palakkad district.

Principle of wind energy conversion system:

A wind energy conversion system (WECS), or wind energy harvester is a machine
that, powered by the energy of the wind, generates mechanical energy that can be used to directly
power machinery (mill, pump,) or to power an electrical generator for making electricity. The
term can thus refer to windmills, wind pumps as well as wind turbines.
 Wind power production has been under the main focus for the past decade in power
production and tremendous amount of research work is going on renewable energy, specifically
on wind power extraction. Wind power provides an ecofriendly power generation and helps to
meet the national energy demand when there is a diminishing trend in terms of non-renewable
resources.

Block diagram of wind energy conversion system supported converter.

Wind data and energy estimation

Long term measurements are needed for a good wind energy assessment. The longer the
period of collected data the more reliable are the estimated wind potentials. ... The data were
used to evaluate frequencies of a certain wind speed as well as the monthly and annual
mean wind speeds.
The calculation of the wind resources on-site and the corresponding energy production
are based on the assessment of wind potentials by anemometric measurement. The wind data is
processed by software packages to calculate the expected wind energy yield for the proposed
site.
An anemometer is a device used for measuring wind speed, and is also a common
weather station instrument. The arms are attached to a vertical rod. As the wind blows, the cups
rotate, making the rod spin. The stronger the wind blows, the faster the rod spins. The
anemometer counts the number of rotations, or turns, which is used to calculate wind speed.
Wind speed is the rate of the movement of wind in distance per unit of time. It is the rate of the
movement of air flow. It can be reported in a couple of ways: knots or nautical miles per hour, or
statute miles per hour. Wind speed can be affected by terrain and obstacles such as buildings or
trees.

The Betz limit is the theoretical maximum efficiency for a wind turbine, conjectured by
German physicist Albert Betz in 1919. Betz concluded that this value is 59.3%, meaning that at
most only 59.3% of the kinetic energy from wind can be used to spin the turbine and generate
electricity
The Ideal Braking of the Wind
The more kinetic energy a wind turbine pulls out of the wind, the more the wind will be
slowed down as it leaves the left side of the turbine in the picture.
If we tried to extract all the energy from the wind, the air would move away with the speed
zero, i.e. the air could not leave the turbine. In that case we would not extract any energy at all,
since all of the air would obviously also be prevented from entering the rotor of the turbine.
In the other extreme case, the wind could pass though our tube above without being hindered
at all. In this case we would likewise not have extracted any energy from the wind.
We can therefore assume that there must be some way of braking the wind which is in
between these two extremes, and is more efficient in converting the energy in the wind to useful
mechanical energy. It turns out that there is a surprisingly simple answer to this: An ideal wind
turbine would slow down the wind by 2/3 of its original speed.

1 2 1 1
K .E. 2 mv ( V )v 2 (  AL)v 2 1
Power   2 2   Av 3
t t t t 2

Wind turbines
A wind turbine is a device that converts kinetic energy from the wind into electricity. The
blades of a wind turbine turn between 13 and 20 revolutions per minute, depending on their
technology, at a constant or variable velocity, where the velocity of the rotor varies in relation to
the velocity of the wind in order to reach a greater efficiency.
Wind turbines are classified as below
1. Horizontal axis wind turbine (HAWT)
A horizontal Axis Wind Turbine is the most common wind turbine design. In
addition to being parallel to the ground, the axis of blade rotation is parallel to the
wind flow.

A. Mono blade
B. Double blade
C. Triple blade
D. Multiple blade

2. Vertical axis wind turbine (VAWT)

A vertical axis machine has its blades rotating on an axis perpendicular to the
ground.

A. Savonius Wind Turbine

The Savonius turbine is S-shaped if viewed from above. This drag-type
VAWT turns relatively slowly, but yields a high torque. It is useful for
grinding grain, pumping water, and many other tasks, but its slow
rotational speeds make it unsuitable for generating electricity on a large-
scale.
B. Darrieus Wind Turbine
The Darrieus turbine is the most famous vertical axis wind turbone. It is
characterised by its C-shaped rotor blades which give it its eggbeater
appearance. It is normally built with two or three blades.
C. Giromill Wind Turbine
The giromill is typically powered by two or three vertical aerofoils
attached to the central mast by horizontal supports. Giromill turbines work
well in turbulent wind conditions and are an affordable option where a
standard horizontal axis windmill type turbine is unsuitable.
D. Flapping Panel Wind Turbine
The wind can actually come from any direction and the wind turbine will
work the same way.

Horizontal axis wind turbine (HAWT)

A horizontal Axis Wind Turbine is the most common wind turbine design. In addition to
being parallel to the ground, the axis of blade rotation is parallel to the wind flow.
WORKING:
Horizontal axis wind turbines are the most common type used (see figure 1). All of the
components (blades, shaft, and generator) are on top of a tall tower, and the blades face into the
wind. The shaft is horizontal to the ground. The wind hits the blades of the turbine that are
connected to a shaft causing rotation. The shaft has a gear on the end which turns a generator.
The generator produces electricity and sends the electricity into the power grid. The wind turbine
also has some key elements that add to efficiency. Inside the Nacelle (or head) are an
anemometer, wind vane, and controller that read the speed and direction of the wind. As the
wind changes direction, a motor (yaw motor) turns the nacelle so the blades are always facing
the wind. The power source also comes with a safety feature. In case of extreme winds the
turbine has a break that can slow the shaft speed. This is to inhibit any damage to the turbine in
extreme conditions.

Wind Turbine Basic Parts & Functions

For those of you who are interested to know more about wind turbines, below are their basic
parts and functions:
 Anemometer – is a tool that measures wind speed.
 Blades – are the main electricity-generating parts of the turbine. Once wind passes
through it, they will rotate thereby causing a series of reaction which will eventually lead
to electricity production.
 Brake – as with any other break, this is used to stop the turbines in emergency cases. This
could be a mechanical, electrical, or hydraulic break.
 Controller – this dictates the wind speed at which turbines start and stop. It usually starts
the machine when the wind hits 8 mph and stops it upon reaching 55 mph. It is an
important part of the machine since it automatically stops any machine activity when
wind speed is more than 55 mph because blades may easily be damaged.
 Generator – produces electricity usually at 60 cycles.
 Shaft – signals the generator to conduct electricity.
 Tower – is a place where turbines may be placed to get more wind.

Advantages
• Blades are to the side of the turbines center of gravity, helping stability
• Ability to wing warp, which gives the turbine blades the best angle of attack
• Ability to pitch the rotor blades in a storm to minimize damage
• Tall tower allows access to stronger wind in sites with wind shear
• Tall tower allows placement on uneven land or in offshore locations
• Can be sited in forest above tree-line
• Most are self-starting

Disadvantages
• Difficulty operating in near ground winds
• Difficult to transport (20% of equipment costs)
• Difficult to install (require tall cranes and skilled operators)
• Effect radar in proximity
• Local opposition to aesthetics
• Difficult maintenance
Vertical axis turbines
In vertical axis turbines the shaft the blades are connected to is vertical to the ground. All
of the main components are close to the ground. Also, the wind turbine itself is near the ground,
unlike horizontal where everything is on a tower. There are two types of vertical axis wind
turbines; lift based and drag based. Lift based designs are generally much more efficient than
drag, or ‗paddle‘ designs.

Advantages
• Easy to maintain
• Lower construction and transportation costs
• Not directional
• Most effective at mesas, hilltops, ridgelines and passes

Disadvantages
• Blades constantly spinning back into the wind causing drag
• Less efficient
• Operate in lower, more turbulent wind
• Low starting torque and may require energy to start turning

 Aerodynamics of wind turbines

The most familiar type of aerodynamic force is drag. The direction of the drag
force is parallel to the relative wind. Lift-based wind turbines typically have lifting surfaces
moving perpendicular to the flow. Here, the relative wind does not decrease; rather, it increases
with rotor speed.
The wind‘s force to push the blades into motion, modern turbines uses more
sophisticated aerodynamic principles to capture the wind‘s energy most effectively? The two
primary aerodynamic forces at work in wind-turbine rotors are lift, which acts perpendicular to
the direction of wind flow; and drag, which acts parallel to the direction of wind flow
 Turbine Aerodynamics
Turbine blades are shaped a lot like airplane wings -- they use an airfoil design. In an
airfoil, one surface of the blade is somewhat rounded, while the other is relatively flat. When
wind travels over the rounded, downwind face of the blade, it has to move faster to reach the end
of the blade in time to meet the wind travelling over the flat, upwind face of the blade (facing the
direction from which the wind is blowing). Since faster moving air tends to rise in the
atmosphere, the downwind, curved surface ends up with a low-pressure pocket just above it. The
low-pressure area sucks the blade in the downwind direction, an effect known as "lift." On the
upwind side of the blade, the wind is moving slower and creating an area of higher pressure that
pushes on the blade, trying to slow it down. A high lift-to-drag ratio is essential in designing an
efficient turbine blade. Turbine blades are twisted so they can always present an angle that takes
advantage of the ideal lift-to-drag force ratio.
Aerodynamics is not the only design consideration at play in creating an effective wind
turbine. Size matters -- the longer the turbine blades (and therefore the greater the diameter of the
rotor), the more energy a turbine can capture from the wind and the greater the electricity-
generating capacity. Generally speaking, doubling the rotor diameter produces a four-fold
increase in energy output. In some cases, however, in a lower-wind-speed area, a smaller-
diameter rotor can end up producing more energy than a larger rotor because with a smaller
setup, it takes less wind power to spin the smaller generator, so the turbine can be running at full
capacity almost all the time. Tower height is a major factor in production capacity, as well. The
higher the turbine, the more energy it can capture because wind speeds increase with elevation
increase -- ground friction and ground-level objects interrupt the flow of the wind. Scientists
estimate a 12 percent increase in wind speed with each doubling of elevation.

 Wind power economics

Power and energy in the wind: It is well known that wind is certainly an inexhaustible
abundant source of energy which is caused by the differential solar radiation on the Earth‘s geo-
diverse surfaces, having different degrees of absorption / reflection / refraction / convection
/transmission. Wind power is not only a renewable green source of energy; but also results in
significant saving of potable/drinking water, which is much needed for human survival.
Electricity generation by wind consumes only (1/ 200) th to (1/ 400) th of water that is used by
nuclear/oil/coal. We understand the wind as breeze (gentle/comfortable), a force to reckon with
at times of design of structures, a power to harness through wind machines and a brute
force/power to be resisted during cyclones/hurricanes. We need to be clear that a Country with a
long coast line need not necessarily be having economic/technical potential for wind power with
its diurnal variations of land breeze/sea breeze. At the other extreme the mere occurrence of good
monsoon or frequency of cyclones & hurricanes may not provide an economical viability, a
technical feasibility of wind power. When wind (i.e. velocity ‗U‘) is a resource, it has a force
proportional to square of wind velocity (U2 ), the power proportional to cube of wind velocity
(U3 ).
The economics of wind power. It is often stated that since no one can charge money for
the wind, wind-generated electricity is free. A modern wind turbine, which can generate 2
megawatts of electricity (MWe) when the wind is blowing, costs about $3.5 million installed

 Introduction to solar – wind hybrid energy systems

Solar-Wind hybrid Power system is the combined power generating system by wind mill
and solar energy panel. It also includes a battery which is used to store the energy generated
from both the sources. Both units can be generated power when both sources are available.

Components:
1. Photovoltaic solar power
2. Wind Power
3. Batteries
4. Inverter
5. Microcontroller

1. Photovoltaic solar power

Solar panels are the medium to convert solar energy into the electrical energy. Solar
panels can convert the energy directly or heat the water with the induced energy. PV (Photo-
voltaic) cells are made up from semiconductor structures as in the computer technologies.
Sun rays are absorbed with this material and electrons are emitted from the atoms .This
release activates a current. Photovoltaic is known as the process between radiation absorbed
and the electricity induced. Solar power is converted into the electric power by a common
principle called photo electric effect. The solar cell array or panel consists of an appropriate
number of solar cell modules connected in series or parallel based on the required current and
voltage.
2. Wind Power
The wind energy is a renewable source of energy. Wind turbines are used to convert the
wind power into electric power. Electric generator inside the turbine converts the mechanical
power into the electric power. Wind turbine systems are available ranging from 50W to 3-4
MW. The energy production by wind turbines depends on the wind velocity acting on the
turbine. Wind power is able to feed both energy production and demand in the rural areas. It
is used to run a windmill which in turn drives a wind generator or wind turbine to produce
electricity.
3. Batteries
The batteries in the system provide to store the electricity that is generated from the wind
or the solar power. Any required capacity can be obtained by serial or parallel connections of
the batteries. The battery that provides the most advantageous operation in the solar and wind
power systems are maintenance free dry type and utilizes the special electrolytes. These
batteries provide a perfect performance for long discharges
4. Inverter
Energy stored in the battery is drawn by electrical loads through the inverter, which
converts DC power into AC power. The inverter has in-built protection for Short-Circuit,
Reverse Polarity, Low Battery Voltage and Over Load.
5. Microcontroller
The microcontroller compares the input of both Power system and gives the signal to the
particular relay and charges the DC Battery. The DC voltage is converted into AC Supply by
Inverter Circuit. The MOSFET (IRF 540) is connected to the Secondary of the centre tapped
transformer. By triggering of MOSFET alternatively, the current flow in the Primary winding
is also alternative in nature and we get the AC supply in the primary winding of the
transformer

Working:
Solar-Wind hybrid Power system is the combined power generating system by wind mill
and solar energy panel. It also includes a battery which is used to store the energy generated
from both the sources. Using this system power generation by windmill when wind source is
available and generation from PV module when light radiation is available can be achieved.
Both units can be generated power when both sources are available. By providing the battery
uninterrupted power supply is possible when both sources are idle
The power generated from wind mill is of AC voltage which is converted through AC-
DC rectifier. A special type of converter is used to step up or step down through MOSFET
switching called ―SEPIC‖ converter for wind mill. For solar system converter is used for the
regulation. The micro controller incorporated in this scheme, which regularly refers the
operation of sources and switches the corresponding converters and fed into change the
battery or to the load through inverters. The output of the inverter is connected with the load
and after that the voltage is stepped up by a transformer. The driver circuit is used to give the
gate signal for the MOSFET of converters.

Advantages:
1. Best for remote area power systems
2. Two different energy sources provide a diversity of supply, reducing the risk of
power outages.
3. Can be used for 24-hrs power generation
4. The daily output will be more stable
5. Operational in all weather condition
6. Green energy
 Disadvantage:
1. Infrastructure cost may be high
2. Too labor intensive
3. Wind turbine cannot operate in high or low wind speeds
4. Not for large scale production
5. Control more complicated
6. Independent systems require more maintenance

Applications of solar wind hybrid energy system

• Street lighting: The foremost application of SWHES is solar street lighting. Solar Street
light become as SWHES lighting. Use of this reduces the load from conventional power
plants.
• Household: Residential appliances can use power generated through hybrid solar wind
energy system. SWHES are used to supply electricity to different offices or other parts of
the building in reliable manner.
• Remote Applications: like military services where it is impossible to provide
conventional power supply.
• Ventilation system: The proposed systems are also used for ventilation purposes, these
helps in running Bath fans, floor fans and ceiling fans in buildings.
• Power Pump: SWHES can also help to pump the water to any building. DC power
operated pump can circulate the water through your home.
• Village Power: The proposed system is very useful in villages which are in valley and on
hills, where it is not possible to send electricity.
• On shore : The wind blows more at coastal areas, SWHES are installed near sea and on
the boats for power generation
• Commercial: In hotels, tourist places SWHES give the required electric power.

 Advantages and disadvantage of wind power

Advantages of Wind Power

• Is a clean source of energy? According to the Wind Vision Report, wind has the
potential to reduce cumulative greenhouse gas emissions by 14%, saving $400 billion in
avoided global damage by 2050
• Sustainable -
• Larger Capacity in lesser Space
• Availability of Modern Technologies
• Can be Built on Existing Farms
• Does not consume water like the conventional electricity sources
• Negligible carbon foot print in manufacturing of the equipment
• Job Creation - In 2016, the wind energy sector invested more than $8.8 billion of private
capital. Economy to build projects and employed more than 101,000 workers
(approximately 30% women, 11% veterans, and 25% minorities)

Disadvantages of Wind Power

• Cost of power – The cost of power generated by wind mills is directly dependent on the
wind speed at the site. At lower wind speeds, the cost of wind power is more than the
traditional power sources
• Huge installation costs – While the wind energy systems are very expensive to
manufacture and install, most of the locations suited for wind energy are in remote places
making it even more difficult and escalates the cost of installation
 • Noise Pollution – Wind turbines create noise hence not very suitable for installation in
residential areas Visual Impact to Landscape – Typically wind turbines are setup at a
height of 50-80 mts above the ground and hence impacts the view of the landscape
• Danger to wildlife – While the danger to wild life from wind energy is far less compared
to traditional sources, birds have been killed flying into rotating turbine blades. Hence
wind energy is not suitable for ecologically sensitive areas
• Seasonality – Wind energy across geographies is seasonal, hence the reliability of wind
energy is low
• Suitability – Wind energy is not suitable for every geography. In India, only 4 states are
very well suited for sustained wind energy
• Higher transmission costs – Since wind mills/farms are established in remote areas, high
costs are incurred to setup new transmission lines to connect to the grid

The applications of Wind Power

 Generation of Electricity - Windmills harness wind energy to create electricity. Its a

clean & green form of energy.
 Transportation - The power of the wind is used for propulsion in sailing vessels and
sail boats
 Pumping water - Similar to windmills the energy from the wind is used to drive a
pump.
 Milling Grain - Grain milling is certain locations are done using wind energy.
 Sports - A number of sports use wind energy as their source like Wind Surfing, Land
Surfing, Kite boarding
 Module IV
Syllabus:

 Biomass Energy
 Biomass as a fuel,
 Thermo-chemical, bio-chemical and agro-chemical conversion of biomass-
 Pyrolysis, gasification, combustion and fermentation, transesterification,
 Economics of biomass power generation,
 Future prospects.

 Introduction
Biomass is the material derived from plants that use sunlight to grow which
include plant and animal material such as wood from forests, material left over from
agricultural and forestry processes, and organic industrial, human and animal wastes
Biogas is a gaseous fuel obtained from biomass by the process of anaerobic
digestion (fermentation).
Plants absorb energy from the sun through the process of photosynthesis.
When biomass is burned, this stored energy is released as heat. Burning biomass releases
carbon dioxide. ... Many different kinds of biomass, such as wood chips, corn, and some
types of garbage, are used to produce electricity.

Biomass comes from a variety of sources which include:

• Wood from natural forests and woodlands
• Forestry plantations
• Forestry residues
• Agricultural residues such as straw, stover, cane trash and green agricultural wastes
• Agro-industrial wastes, such as sugarcane bagasse and rice husk
• Animal wastes
• Industrial wastes, such as black liquor from paper manufacturing
• Sewage
• Municipal solid wastes (MSW)
• Food processing wastes

What is biomass power?

Biomass power is carbon neutral electricity generated from renewable organic waste that would otherwise
be dumped in landfills, openly burned, or left as fodder for forest fires. When burned, the energy in
biomass is released as heat. If you have a fireplace, you already are participating in the use of biomass as
the wood you burn in it is a biomass fuel.

In biomass power plants, wood waste or other waste is burned to produce steam that runs a turbine to
make electricity, or that provides heat to industries and homes. Fortunately, new technologies —
including pollution controls and combustion engineering — have advanced to the point that any
emissions from burning biomass in industrial facilities are generally less than emissions produced when
using fossil fuels (coal, natural gas, oil). ReEnergy has included these technologies in our facilities.

PHOTOSYNTHESIS In the process of photosynthesis, plants convert radiant energy from

the sun into chemical energy in the form of glucose (or sugar)

 Biomass as a fuel
We have used biomass energy, or "bioenergy"—the energy from plants and plant-derived
materials—since people began burning wood to cook food and keep warm. Wood is still the
largest biomass energy resource today, but other sources of biomass can also be used. These
include food crops, grassy and woody plants, residues from agriculture or forestry, oil-rich algae,
and the organic component of municipal and industrial wastes. Even the fumes from landfills
(which are methane, the main component in natural gas) can be used as a biomass energy source.

Biodiesel is a fuel made by chemically reacting alcohol with vegetable oils, animal fats,
or greases, such as recycled restaurant grease. Most biodiesel today is made from soybean oil.
Biodiesel is most often blended with petroleum diesel in ratios of two percent (B2), ve percent
(B5), or 20 percent (B20). It can also be used as neat (pure) biodiesel (B100). Biodiesel fuels are
compatible with and can be used in unmodied diesel engines with the existing fueling
infrastructure. It is one of the fastest growing transportation fuels in the U.S. Biodiesel contains
virtually no sulfur, so it can reduce sulfur levels in the nation‘s diesel fuel supply, even compared
with today‘s low sulfur fuels. While removing sulfur from petroleum-based diesel results in poor
lubrication, biodiesel is a superior lubricant and can reduce the friction of diesel fuel in blends of
only one or two percent. This is an important characteristic because the Environmental
Protection Agency now requires that sulfur levels in diesel fuel be 97 percent lower than they
were pervious years.
Types of Biomass Fuels

Biomass fuels are organic materials produced in a renewable manner. Two categories of
biomass fuels, woody fuels and animal wastes, comprise the vast majority of available biomass
fuels. Municipal solid waste (MSW) is also a source of biomass fuel. Biomass fuels have low
energy densities compared to fossil fuels. In other words, a significantly larger volume of
biomass fuel is required to generate the same energy as a smaller volume of fossil fuel.

The low energy density means that the costs of fuel collection and transportation can quickly
outweigh the value of the fuel. Biomass fuels are typically consumed on-site or transported short
distances only (e.g., less than 50 miles). Biomass fuels tend to have a high moisture content,
which adds weight and increases the cost of transportation. The moisture content also decreases
combustion performance.

There are two primary factors to be considered in the evaluation of biomass fuels: Fuel supply,
including the total quantities available, the stability of the supply or of the industry generating
the fuel, and competitive uses or markets for the fuel. Cost of biomass fuel collection,
processing, and transportation, and who pays these costs.
This section discusses three sources of biomass fuel: woody fuels, animal waste, and MSW.
These discussions include the issues of fuel supply and costs..

Woody Fuels

Wood wastes of all types make excellent biomass fuels and can be used in a wide variety of
biomass technologies. Combustion of woody fuels to generate steam or electricity is a proven
technology and is the most common biomass-to-energy process. Different types of woody fuels
can typically be mixed together as a common fuel, although differing moisture content and
chemical makeup can affect the overall conversion rate or efficiency of a biomass project. There
are at least six subgroups of woody fuels. The differentiators between these subgroups mainly
have to do with availability and cost. Forestry residues—in-forest woody debris and slash from
logging and forest management activities. Mill residues—byproducts such as sawdust, hog fuel,
and wood chips from lumber mills, plywood manufacturing, and other wood processing
facilities. Agricultural residues—byproducts of agricultural activities including crop wastes,
vineyard and orchard prunings or turnings, and rejected agricultural products. Urban wood and
yard wastes—residential organics collected by municipal programs or recycling centers and
construction wood wastes. Dedicated biomass crops—trees, corn, oilseed rape, and other crops
grown as dedicated feedstocks for a biomass project. Chemical recovery fuels (black liquor)—
woody residues recovered out of the chemicals used to separate fiber for the pulp and paper
industry.

Forestry Residues

Forestry residues have been the focus of many recent biomass studies and feasibility assessments
due to increasing forest management and wildfire prevention activities under the National Fire
Plan. The USDA Forest Service and the Bureau of Land Management have been tasked with
reducing the hazardous fuel loading within the forests and the urban-wildland interface.

Forestry residues are typically disposed of by on-site (in-forest) stacking and burning. This
results in substantial air emissions that affect not only the forest lands and nearby populations,
but the overall regional air quality as well. Open burning can also cause water quality and
erosion concerns. The Forest Service and other public and private land management entities
would like to have viable alternatives for disposing of their forestry residues in a more
environmentally benign manner. An ideal situation, from the perspective of forest managers,
would be the creation of a market for the forestry residues. The market they envision would
generate revenues for the forest managers, which in turn would allow much needed expansion of
the forest management programs.

Mill Residues

Mill residues are a much more economically attractive fuel than forestry residues, since the in-
forest collection and chipping are already included as part of the commercial mill operations.
Biomass facilities collocated with and integral to the mill operation have the advantage of
eliminating transportation altogether and thus truly achieve a no-cost fuel. Mill residues have
long been used to generate steam and electricity.

In Washington State alone, there are approximately 38 facilities that combust about 3 million
BDT of mill residues per year to generate steam and electricity. All but two of these mill-
residue-fired biomass projects are owned and operated by the mills or wood products companies
that supply their fuel. The in-plant facilities primarily generate steam for lumber drying and
processing. Any electricity produced is used to offset plant use, although a few facilities do sell
excess electrical power to the local utility.

One example of a mill residue biomass-to-energy facility not owned by a mill is Avista Utility's
Kettle Falls Station in northeastern Washington. The facility is strategically located within an
average distance of 46 miles from 15 different mills, and purchases approximately 350,000 BDT
per year of residues to generate 46 MW of electrical power. The facility was conceived in the
late 1970s when mills were facing stricter pollution regulations that required them to replace
their wigwam burners. Rather than invest in new equipment, the mills were willing to enter into
long-term contracts with the private electric utility to supply a biomass facility with mill
residues. The facility continues to operate successfully, due in large part to its unique location in
one of the most heavily forested areas in the Pacific Northwest.

Agricultural Residues

Agricultural residues can provide a substantial amount of biomass fuel. Similar to the way mill
residues provide a significant portion of the overall biomass consumption in the Pacific
Northwest, agricultural residues from sugar cane harvesting and processing provide a significant
portion of the total biomass consumption in other parts ofthe world. One significant issue with
agricultural residues is the seasonal variation of the supply.

Large residue volumes follow harvests, but residues throughout the rest of the year are minimal.
Biomass facilities that depend significantly on agricultural residues must either be able to adjust
output to follow the seasonal variation, or have the capacity to stockpile a significant amount of
fuel.

Urban Wood and Yard Wastes

Urban wood and yard wastes are similar in nature to agricultural residues in many regards. A
biomass facility will rarely need to purchase urban wood and yard wastes, and most likely can
charge a tipping fee to accept the fuel. Many landfills are already sorting waste material by
isolating wood waste. This waste could be diverted to a biomass project, and although the
volume currently accepted at the landfills would not be enough on its own to fuel a biomass
project, it could be an important supplemental fuel and could provide more value to the
community in which the landfill resides through a biomass project than it currently does as daily
landfill cover.

Dedicated Biomass Crops

Dedicated biomass crops are grown specifically to fuel a biomass project. The most prevalent
example of dedicated biomass crops are corn varieties grown for ethanol production. Fast-
growing poplar trees have also been farm-raised for a biomass fuel, but this has not proven to be
economically sustainable. Another dedicated crop example is soybean oils used in the production
of biodiesel.

Chemical Recovery Fuels

Chemical recovery fuels are responsible for over 60 percent of the total biomass energy
consumption of the United States, and therefore must be mentioned in any analysis of biomass.
By and large, the chemical recovery facilities are owned by pulp and paper facilities and are an
integral part of the facility operation.

Animal Wastes

Animal wastes include manures, renderings, and other wastes from livestock finishing
operations. Although animal wastes contain energy, the primary motivation for biomass
processing of animal wastes is mitigation of a disposal issue rather than generation of energy.
This is especially true for animal manures. Animal manures are typically disposed of through
land application to farmlands. Tightening regulations on nutrient management, surface and
groundwater contamination, and odor control are beginning to force new manure management
and disposal practices. Biomass technologies present attractive options for mitigating many of
the environmental challenges of manure wastes. The most common biomass technologies for
animal manures are combustion, anaerobic digestion, and composting. Moisture content of the
manure and the amount of contaminants, such as bedding, determine which technology is most
appropriate.

The dairy industry in particular is well suited to biomass-to-energy opportunities because of the
large volume of manure that a milking cow produces, and because dairy operations have
automated and frequent manure collection processes. Yakima County is the largest producer of
dairy products of any county in the State, and the dairy populations within the County include
approximately 75,000 to 85,000 active milking cows on about 80 separate dairies.

Dry Animal Manure

Dry animal manure is produced by feedlots and livestock corrals, where the manure is collected
and removed only once or twice a year. Manure that is scraped or flushed on a more frequent
schedule can also be separated, stacked, and allowed to dry. Dry manure is typically defined as
having a moisture content less than 30 percent. Dry manure can be composted or can fuel a
biomass-to-energy combustion project.

Animal manure does have value to farmers as fertilizer, and a biomass-to-energy project would
need to compete for the manure. However, the total volume of manure produced in many
livestock operations exceeds the amount of fertilizer required for the farmlands, and Nutrient
Management Plans are beginning to limit the over-fertilization of farmlands. Therefore, although
there are competitive uses for the manure and low-cost disposal options at this time, manure
disposal is going to become more costly over time, and the demand for alternative disposal
options, including biomass-to-energy, will only increase.

Wet Animal Manure (Dairy Manure Slurry)

Wet animal manure is typically associated with larger and more modern dairy operations that
house their milking cows in free-stall barns and use a flush system for manure collection. The
combination of free-stall barns and manure flushing collects all of the milking cow manure with
every milking cycle, two or three times a day. The manure is significantly diluted through the
addition of the flush water, but after separation of some of the flush water, the slurry is an
excellent fuel.

Thermo-chemical, bio-chemical and agro-chemical conversion of biomass-

Biomass energy conversion techniques:

Biomass can either be utilized directly as a fuel, or can be converted into liquid or
gaseous fuels, which can also be as feedstock for industries. Most biomass in dry state can be
burned directly to produce heat, steam or electricity. On the other hand biological conversion
technologies utilize natural anaerobic decay processes to produce high quality fuels from
biomass.
Various possible conversion technologies for getting different products from biomass is
broadly classified into three groups,
(i) Thermo-chemical conversion,
(ii) Bio-chemical conversion
(iii) Chemical extraction.
These alternative technologies for biomass conversion offer sound and alternative options
for meeting the future fuels, chemicals, food and feed requirements. Three main approaches can
be adopted for generation and utilization of biomass:
(i) Collection of urban and industrial wastes as supplementary fuel in boilers and as
a feed stock for producing methane and some liquid fuels.
(ii) Collection of agricultural and forest residues to produce fuels, organic manures
and chemical feed stock.
(iii) Growth of some specific energy plants for use as energy feedstock and cultivation
of commercial forestry, aquatic and marine plants for different products
 Thermo-chemical conversion includes processes like combustion, gasification and
pyrolysis. Combustion refers to the conversion of biomass to heat and power by directly burning
it, as occurs in boilers. Gasification is the process of converting solid biomass with a limited
quantity of air into producer gas, pyrolysis is the thermal decomposition of biomass in the
absence of oxygen. The products of pyrolysis are charcoal, condensable liquid and gaseous
products.
Biochemical conversion includes anaerobic digestion to produce biogas and fermentation
to obtain alcohol fuels, The third approach is oil extraction. Edible and non-edible oils can be
extracted from a variety of grains and seeds. They can be directly used as fuels by
transesterification process to produce bio-diesel, which is a good substitute for conventional
diesel oil.

• Combustion: the process by which flammable materials are burned in the presence of air
or oxygen to release heat. It is the simplest method by which biomass can be used
for energy..
• Gasification: is the conversion of biomass into a combustible gas mixture referred to as
Producer Gas (CO+H2+CH4) or Syngas. The gasification process uses heat, pressure and
partial combustion to create syngas, which can then be used in place of natural gas.
• Pyrolysis: Consists of thermal decomposition in the absence of oxygen. It is takes place
as part of both gasification and combustion. The products of pyrolysis include gas,
liquid and a sold char.
• Anaerobic digestion (or biodigestion): is the process whereby bacteria break down
organic material in the absence of air, yielding a biogas containing methane and a solid
residue.
• Fermentation: involves the conversion of a plant‘s glucose (or carbohydrate) into an
alcohol or acid. Yeast or bacteria are added to the biomass material, which feed on the
sugars to produce ethanol (an alcohol) and carbon dioxide.
• Transesterification: The process is the reaction of a triglyceride (fat/oil) with an alcohol
to form esters and glycerol. ... In most production, methanol or ethanol is the alcohol used
(methanol produces methyl esters, ethanol produces ethyl esters) and is base catalyzed by
either potassium or sodium hydroxide.

Pyrolysis
Pyrolysis is the thermal decomposition of biomass occurring in the absence of oxygen. It
is the fundamental chemical reaction that is the precursor of both the combustion and gasification
processes and occurs naturally in the first two seconds. The products of biomass pyrolysis
include biochar, bio-oil and gases including methane, hydrogen, carbon monoxide, and carbon
dioxide. Depending on the thermal environment and the final temperature, pyrolysis will yield
mainly biochar at low temperatures, less than 450 0C, when the heating rate is quite slow, and
mainly gases at high temperatures, greater than 800 0C, with rapid heating rates. At an
intermediate temperature and under relatively high heating rates, the main product is bio-oil.
Pyrolysis can be performed at relatively small scale and at remote locations which
enhance energy density of the biomass resource and reduce transport and handling costs. Heat
transfer is a critical area in pyrolysis as the pyrolysis process is endothermic and sufficient heat
transfer surface has to be provided to meet process heat needs. Pyrolysis offers a flexible and
attractive way of converting solid biomass into an easily stored and transported liquid, which can
be successfully used for the production of heat, power and chemicals.
 Process conditions for pyrolysis of biomass

Feedstock for Pyrolysis

A wide range of biomass feedstocks can be used in pyrolysis processes. The pyrolysis
process is very dependent on the moisture content of the feedstock, which should be around
10%. At higher moisture contents, high levels of water are produced and at lower levels there is a
risk that the process only produces dust instead of oil. High-moisture waste streams, such as
sludge and meat processing wastes, require drying before subjecting to pyrolysis.
The efficiency and nature of the pyrolysis process is dependent on the particle size of feedstocks.
Most of the pyrolysis technologies can only process small particles to a maximum of 2 mm
keeping in view the need for rapid heat transfer through the particle. The demand for small
particle size means that the feedstock has to be size-reduced before being used for pyrolysis.

Types of Pyrolysis
Pyrolysis processes can be categorized as slow pyrolysis or fast pyrolysis. Fast pyrolysis is
currently the most widely used pyrolysis system. Slow pyrolysis takes several hours to complete
and results in biochar as the main product. On the other hand, fast pyrolysis yields 60% bio-oil
and takes seconds for complete pyrolysis. In addition, it gives 20% biochar and 20% syngas.
Fast pyrolysis processes include open-core fixed bed pyrolysis, ablative fast pyrolysis, cyclonic
fast pyrolysis, and rotating core fast pyrolysis systems. The essential features of a fast pyrolysis
process are:
 Very high heating and heat transfer rates, which require a finely ground feed.
 Carefully controlled reaction temperature of around 500oC in the vapour phase
 Residence time of pyrolysis vapours in the reactor less than 1 sec
 Quenching (rapid cooling) of the pyrolysis vapours to give the bio-oil product.
Biomass pyrolysis has been attracting much attention due to its high efficiency and good
environmental performance characteristics. It also provides an opportunity for the processing of
agricultural residues, wood wastes and municipal solid waste into clean energy. In addition,
biochar sequestration could make a big difference in the fossil fuel emissions worldwide and act
as a major player in the global carbon market with its robust, clean and simple production
technology.

Combustion
Combustion, or burning, is the most conventional method of obtaining heat from biomass. The
chemical energy of biomass is converted into heat energy through a series of chemical reactions
when biomass is burnt. The efficiency of combustion depends primarily on good contact between
the oxygen in the air and the biomass. The main products of efficient biomass combustion are
carbon dioxide and water vapour; however, tar, smoke, and alkaline ash particles are also
produced.
Biomass combustion is a complex process that consists of consecutive heterogeneous and
homogeneous reactions. The main process steps are drying, devolatilization, gasification, char
combustion, and gas-phase oxidation. The time used for each reaction depends on the fuel size
and properties, on temperature, and on combustion conditions. Batch combustion of a small
particle shows a distinct separation between a volatile and a char combustion phase with time.
For the design of combustion appliances, the high content of volatiles (80% to 85%) needs to be
respected. For large particles, the phases overlap to a certain extent. Nevertheless, even for log
wood furnaces, a certain separation of distinct combustion regimes with time can be found. Since
automatic combustion systems are operated continuously, the consecutive reactions occur
simultaneously at different places in the furnace (e.g., in different sections on and above a grate).
Hence the zones for different process steps during combustion can be optimized by furnace
design.
Good fuels for combustion are materials rich in hydrogen and carbon, called hydrocarbons. Such
fuels include natural gas, coal, diesel,gasoline, propane, wood, agriculturalresidues and municipa
l solid waste.Ideally, all hydrogen and carbonwould split off and combine with theoxygen in the
air to create watervapor, carbon dioxide and heat.
Below is the generalized formula for a combustion reaction:

Fuel + Oxygen Carbon Dioxide + Water Vapor + Heat

Since biomass fuels are primarily composed of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen, the main products
from burning biomass are carbon dioxide and water. Flame temperatures can exceed 20000c,
depending on the heating value and moisture content of the fuel, the amount of air used to burn
the fuel and the construction of the furnace
Combustion has three requirements – fuel, air and heat. If any of these three are removed,
burning stops. When all three are available in the correct proportion, combustion is self-
sustaining, because the fuel releases excess heat to initiate further burning. Complete
combustion of biomass requires a certain amount of air. Air consists of 21 percent oxygen and
about 79 percent nitrogen. Therefore, the product of a stoichiometric combustion of biomass in
air will include carbon dioxide, water vapor and nitrogen. This reaction will generate heat.
The stoichiometric equation for the combustion of biomass is given as follows:
Biomass + Air Carbon Dioxide + Water Vapor + Nitrogen + Heat

There are three main stages to the combustion process

Drying – All biomass contains moisture, and this moisture has to be driven off before
combustion can take place. The heat for drying is supplied by radiation from flames and from the
stored heat in the body of the combustion unit.
Pyrolysis – When the temperature of the dry biomass reaches between 200ºC and 350ºC, the
volatile gases are released. Pyrolysis products include carbon monoxide (CO), carbon dioxide
(CO2), methane (CH4) and high molecular weight compounds (tar) that condense to a liquid if
cooled. These gases mix with oxygen from the air and burn producing a yellow flame. This
process is selfsustaining as the heat from the burning gases is used to dry the fresh fuel and
release further volatile gases. Oxygen has to be provided to sustain this part of the combustion
process. Char is the remaining material after all the volatiles have been burned off.
Oxidation – At about 800ºC, the char oxidizes or burns. Again oxygen is required, both at
the fire bed for the oxidation of the carbon and, secondly, above the fire bed where it mixes with
carbon monoxide to form carbon dioxide that is given off to the atmosphere. Long residence time
for fuel in a combustor allows the fuel to be completely consumed. It is worth bearing in mind
that all the above stages can occur within a fire at the same time.

Combustion is complete when 100 percent of the energy in the fuel has been extracted. It is
important to strive for complete combustion to preserve fuel and improve the cost efficiency of
the combustion process. There must be enough air in the combustion chamber for complete
combustion to occur. The addition of excess air greatly lowers the formation of carbon monoxide
(CO) by allowing CO to react with O2. More complete combustion will result in less CO in the
flue gas.

Anaerobic digestion
It is a series of biological processes in which microorganisms break down biodegradable
material in the absence of oxygen. One of the end products is biogas, which is combusted to
generate electricity and heat, or can be processed into renewable natural gas and transportation
fuels.
Biogas is generated during anaerobic digestion when microorganisms break down (eat)
organic materials in the absence of air (or oxygen). Biogas is mostly methane (CH4) and carbon
dioxide (CO2), with very small amounts of water vapor and other gases
The digestion process begins with bacterial hydrolysis of the input materials in order to break
down insoluble organic polymers such as carbohydrates and make them available for other
bacteria. Acidogenic bacteria then convert the sugars and amino acids into carbon dioxide,
hydrogen, ammonia, and organic acids. Acetogenic bacteria then convert these resulting organic
acids into acetic acid, along with additional ammonia, hydrogen, and carbon dioxide. Finally,
methanogens convert these products to methane and carbon dioxide.

The three principal products of anaerobic digestion are biogas, digestate, and water
Biogas is the ultimate waste product of the bacteria feeding off the input biodegradable
feedstock and is mostly methane and carbon dioxide, with a small amount hydrogen and trace
hydrogen sulfide. (As-produced, biogas also contains water vapor, with the fractional water
vapor volume a function of biogas temperature). Most of the biogas is produced during the
middle of the digestion, after the bacterial population has grown, and tapers off as the putrescible
material is exhausted. The gas is normally stored on top of the digester in an inflatable gas
bubble or extracted and stored next to the facility in a gas holder.
Digestate is the solid remnants of the original input material to the digesters that the
microbes cannot use. It also consists of the mineralised remains of the dead bacteria from within
the digesters. Digestate can come in three forms: fibrous, liquor, or a sludge-based combination
of the two fractions. In two-stage systems, different forms of digestate come from different
digestion tanks. In single-stage digestion systems, the two fractions will be combined and, if
desired, separated by further processing.
The final output from anaerobic digestion systems is water, which originates both from
the moisture content of the original waste that was treated and water produced during the
microbial reactions in the digestion systems. This water may be released from the dewatering of
the digestate or may be implicitly separate from the digestate.
Application
Using anaerobic digestion technologies can help to reduce the emission of greenhouse gases in a
number of key ways:

 Replacement of fossil fuels

 Reducing or eliminating the energy footprint of waste treatment plants
 Reducing methane emission from landfills
 Displacing industrially produced chemical fertilizers
 Reducing vehicle movements
 Reducing electrical grid transportation losses
 Reducing usage of LP Gas for cooking
 An important component of the Zero Waste initiatives.

Fermentation
It is a series of chemical reactions that convert sugars to ethanol. The basic
fermentation process involves the conversion of a plant's glucose (or carbohydrate) into an
alcohol or acid. Yeast or bacteria are added to the biomass material, which feed on the sugars to
produce ethanol (an alcohol) and carbon dioxide.
Fermentation is a metabolic process that consumes sugar in the absence of oxygen. The
products are organic acids, gases, or alcohol. It occurs in yeast and bacteria, and also in oxygen-
starved muscle cells, as in the case of lactic acid fermentation.
How is biomass converted to ethanol?

Ethanol (CH3CH2OH) is a renewable fuel that can be made from various plant materials,
collectively known as ―biomass”. The common method for converting biomass into ethanol is
called fermentation. During fermentation, microorganisms (e.g., bacteria and yeast) metabolize
plant sugars and produce ethanol.
Production of ethanol from corn will be discussed in the next section; this section will
focus on sugarcane ethanol production. So, what needs to be done to get the sugar from
sugarcane?
The first step is sugarcane harvesting. Much of the harvesting is done with manual labor,
particularly in many tropical regions. Some harvesting is done mechanically. The material is then
quickly transported by truck to reduce losses.
The cane is then cut and milled with water. This produces a juice with 10-15% solids
from which the sucrose is extracted. The juice contains undesired organic compounds that could
cause what is called sugar inversion (hydrolysis of sugar into fructose and glucose). This leads to
the clarification step in order to prevent sugar inversion.
In the clarification step, the juice is heated to 115°C and treated with lime and sulfuric acid,
which precipitates unwanted inorganics.
The next step for ethanol production is the fermentation step, where juice and molasses
are mixed so that a 10-20% sucrose solution is obtained. The fermentation is exothermic;
therefore, cooling is needed to keep the reaction under fermentation conditions. Yeast is added
along with nutrients (nitrogen and trace elements) to keep yeast growing. Fermentation can take
place in both batch and continuous reactors, though Brazil primarily uses continuous reactors.
Figure 7.4 shows a schematic of one process for ethanol production along with the option to
produce refined sugar as well. Sugarcane contains the following: water (73-76%), soluble solids
(10-16%), and dry fiber or bagasse (11-16%). It takes a series of physical and chemical processes
that occur in 7 steps to make the two main products, ethanol and sugar.
 Transesterification:
The process is the reaction of a triglyceride (fat/oil) with an alcohol to form esters and
glycerol. In most production, methanol or ethanol is the alcohol used (methanol produces methyl
esters, ethanol produces ethyl esters) and is base catalyzed by either potassium or sodium
hydroxide.

 Economics of biomass power generation,

Energy is the most vital factor of economic development and social transformation for all
developed and developing countries. Energy in one form or other enters practically every single
economic activity and its availability and costs determine the economic features and well being
of the nation as well as the quality of life of its people. Energy is at the root of civilization and
we cannot live without energy. We need energy to cook our food, to light our homes at night and
to run irrigation pumps in the field. Industrial plants need power to run machinery that produce
goods.

Renewable energy is derived from natural processes that are replenished continuously. In
its various forms, it derives directly from the sun, or from heat generated deep within the earth.
Included in the definition are electricity and heat generated from solar, wind, ocean, hydropower,
biomass, geothermal resources, and bio fuels and hydrogen derived from renewable resources.

Electricity is a basic necessity for both developed and developing economies. But most of the
electricity is produced from non-renewable fossil fuels, confronting human community with
imminent shortage and exhaustion of these feed stocks. That apart, the use of these fuels is fast
leading to the worst kind of pollution, greenhouse gasses, climate change, and global warming.
But biomass power generation is CO2 neutral, since only a minimal amount of carbon is emitted
during combustion. Government of India supports renewable energy generation like biomass
power since carbon emissions are low from such operations and they reduce dependence on
nonrenewable resources.

Biomass power programme is implemented with the main objective of promoting

technologies for optimum use of country‘s biomass resources for grid power generation. 14
Biomass power production gives social, economic and environmental benefits to the community,
particularly where agricultural waste like paddy husk, top ends of sugarcane stalks, pulse husk,
ground nut shells, side branches of orchard plantations, maize cobs, palm oil bunches, coconut
fiber, chilly/cotton plant stocks, soya husk, de-oiled cakes, coffee waste, jute wastes, saw dust
and any other agricultural and forest waste collected after the main produce harvest are
abundantly available.

The current availability of biomass in India is estimated at about 500 million metric tons
per year. Studies sponsored by the Ministry have estimated surplus biomass availability at about
120 – 150 million metric tons per annum covering agricultural and forestry residues
corresponding to a potential of about 18,000 MW.

The economics of biomass power generation includes the following points

1. Biomass power generation technology cost

2. Operation and maintenance expenditure
3. Cost reduction potentials for biomass electricity generation
4. Costing of bio energy

Advantages of Biomass Energy

1) It‘s a renewable source of energy.

2) It‘s a comparatively lesser pollution generating energy.
3) Biomass energy helps in cleanliness in villages and cities.
4) It provides manure for the agriculture and gardens.
5) There is tremendous potential to generate biogas energy.
6) Biomass energy is relatively cheaper and reliable.
7) It can be generated from everyday human and animal wastes, vegetable and agriculture left-
over etc.
8) Recycling of waste reduces pollution and spread of diseases.
9) Heat energy that one gets from biogas is 3.5 times the heat from burning wood.
10) Because of more heat produced the time required for cooking is lesser.
11) Pressure on the surrounding forest and scrubs can be reduced when biogas is used as
cooking fuel.
12) It is a more cost effective means of acquiring energy as compared to oil supplies. As oil
supplies are getting depleted day by day, it is becoming a costly commodity.
13) Growing biomass crops use up carbon dioxide and produces oxygen.

Disadvantages of Biomass Energy

1) Cost of construction of biogas plant is high, so only rich people can use it.
2) Continuous supply of biomass is required to generate biomass energy.
3) Some people don‘t like to cook food on biogas produced from sewage waste.
4) Biogas plant requires space and produces dirty smell.
5) Due to improper construction many biogas plants are working inefficiently.
6) It is difficult to store biogas in cylinders.
7) Transportation of biogas through pipe over long distances is difficult.
8) Many easily grown grains like corn, wheat are being used to make ethanol. This can have bad
consequences if too much of food crop is diverted for use as fuel.
9) Crops which are used to produce biomass energy are seasonal and are not available over
whole year.
 MODULE V
Syllabus:-

 Geo thermal
 Tidal
 Wave
 MHD generation
 Small, mini and micro hydro power plants
 Fuel cell
 Hydrogen energy

 Geo thermal

• The word geothermal comes from the Greek words geo (earth) and therme (heat).
• Geothermal energy is heat within the earth.
• People can use this heat as steam or as hot water to heat buildings or to generate
electricity.
• Geothermal energy is a renewable energy source because heat is continuously produced
inside the earth.
• The most promising of these is in Puga valley of Ladakh.
• The estimated potential for geothermal energy in India is about 10000 MW.
• There are seven geothermal provinces in India :
• Puga Valley (J&K)
• Tatapani (Chhattisgarh)
• Godavari Basin Manikaran (Himachal Pradesh)
• Bakreshwar (West Bengal)
• Tuwa (Gujarat)
• Unai (Maharashtra)
• Jalgaon (Maharashtra)

Geothermal sources
1. Hydrothermal
a. Vapour dominated or dry steam fields
b. Liquid dominated system
c. Hot – water fields
2. Geopressured
3. Hot dry rock or petro thermal
4. Magma resources
5. Volcanoes

1. Hydrothermal
- contain super heated water, steam or both
- temperature above 2400c
- deep drilling
2. Geopressured
- hot water / brine trapped at depth of 2.5 km to 9 km @ 1500c, 1000 bar
- cost
 - brine with methane for generate electricity
3. Hot dry rock
- high temp rocks ranging from 900c to 1500c
- rock fractured and water circulated through the rock
4. Molten Magma
- Molten Magma present in volcanic vent @ 7000c to 16000c
- no technology exists

Geothermal energy use can be divided into three categories:

1. direct-use applications,
2. geothermal heat pumps (GHPs),
3. electric power generation.

Direct use of geothermal energy

Working principle (direct use)

1. Sending water down to a well and heated
2. Heat pump is used to take the heat from under ground
3. Cold water is injected back to ground
 • Direct use of heated water from the ground without the need for any specialized
equipment.
• Range between about 50 and 150 °c .
• Such low-temperature geothermal water and steam have been used to warm single
buildings, as well as whole districts where numerous buildings are heated from a central
supply source.
• Swimming pools, balneological (therapeutic) facilities at spas, greenhouses,
and aquaculture ponds.
• Cooking, industrial applications (such as drying fruit, vegetables, and timber),
milk pasteurization, and large-scale snow melting.
• For many of those activities, hot water is often used directly in the heating system, or it
may be used in conjunction with a heat exchanger, which transfers heat when there are
problematic minerals and gases such as hydrogen sulfide mixed in with the fluid.

Geothermal heat pumps

• Geothermal heat pumps (GHPs) take advantage of the relatively stable moderate
temperature conditions that occur within the first 300m of the surface to heat buildings in
the winter and cool them in the summer.
• In that part of the lithosphere, rocks and groundwater occur at temperatures between 5
and 30 °C. At shallower depths, where most GHPs are found, such as within 6 m of
Earth‘s surface, the temperature of the ground maintains a near-constant temperature of
10 to 16 °C.
• Consequently, that heat can be used to help warm buildings during the colder months of
the year when the air temperature falls below that of the ground. Similarly, during the
warmer months of the year, warm air can be drawn from a building and circulated
underground, where it loses much of its heat and is returned.
Electric power generation
Depending upon the temperature and the fluid (steam) flow, geothermal energy can be used to
generate electricity

Geothermal Dry Steam Power Plants

This type of geothermal power plant was named dry steam since water water that is extracted
from the underground reservoirs has to be in its gaseous form (water-vapor).

Geothermal steam of at least 150°C (300°F) is extracted from the reservoirs through the
production wells (as we would do with all geothermal power plant types), but is then sent
directly to the turbine. Geothermal reservoirs that can be exploited by geothermal dry steam
power plants are rare.

Dry steam is the oldest geothermal power plant type. The first one was constructed in Larderello,
Italy, in 1904. The Geysers, 22 geothermal power plants located in California, is the only
example of geothermal dry steam power plants in the United States.

Geothermal Flash Steam Power Plants

Geothermal flash steam power plants uses water at temperatures of at least 182°C (360°F). The
term flash steam refers the process where high-pressure hot water is flashed (vaporized) into
steam inside a flash tank by lowering the pressure. This steam is then used to drive around
turbines.

Flash steam is today‘s most common power plant type. The first geothermal power plant that
used flash steam technology was the Wairakei Power station in New Zealand, which was built
already in 1958:
Geothermal Binary Cycle Power Plants

The binary cycle power plant has one major advantage over flash steam and dry steam power
plants: The water-temperature can be as low as 57°C (135°F).

By using a working fluid (binary fluid) with a much lower boiling temperature than water,
thermal energy in the reservoir water flashes the working fluid into steam, which then is used to
generate electricity with the turbine. The water coming from the geothermal reservoirs through
the production wells is never in direct contact with the working fluid. After the some of its
thermal energy is transferred to the working fluid with a heat exchanger, the water is sent back to
the reservoir through the injection wells where it regains it‘s thermal energy.

These power plants have a thermal efficiency rate of only 10-13%. However, geothermal binary
cycle power plants enable us, through lowering temperature requirements, to harness geothermal
energy from reservoirs that with a dry- or a flash steam power plant wouldn‘t be possible.

First successful geothermal binary cycle project took place in Russia in 1967.
Characteristics of geothermal energy

• The general characteristics of geothermal energy that make it of significant importance

for both electricity production and direct use include:
• Extensive global distribution; it is accessible to both developed and developing
countries.
• Environmentally friendly nature; it has low emission of sulphur, CO2 and other
greenhouse gases.
• Indigenous nature; it is independent of external supply and demand effects and
fluctuations in exchange rates.
• Independence of weather and season.
• Contribution to the development of diversified power sources.

Geothermal Energy Advantages

• Environmentally friendly – There are a few polluting aspects to harnessing geothermal

energy, and the carbon footprint of a geothermal power plant is seen as minimal. An
average geothermal power plant releases the equivalent of 122 kg CO2 for every
megawatt-hour (MWh) of electricity it generates – one-eighth of the CO2 emissions
associated with typical coal power plants.
• A renewable resource – Geothermal reservoirs are naturally replenished. According to
some scientists, the energy in our geothermal reservoirs will last billions of years. While
fossil fuels have an expiry date, renewable sources like geothermal energy is not going to
expire anytime soon.
• A stable resource – The power output of a geothermal plant can be accurately
predicted. Not subject to the same low-energy fluctuations as with solar or wind.
• Great for Heating/Cooling – There is significant growth in the number of homeowners
utilizing geothermal heating/cooling over the last couple of years.
• No fuel required – After installation, no mining or transportation activity is necessary.
• Small land footprint – Smallest land footprint of any major power source.
• Stable resource – Can provide base load or peak power.
• Economic factors – Cost-competitive in some areas.
• Renewable – Geothermal energy is extracted from earth‘s core and will be available as
long as earth exists. It is therefore renewable and can be used for roughly another 4-5
billion years.
• Abundant Supply – With geothermal energy, there are no shortages or other sorts of
problems which sometimes occur with other types of power.
• Significant Savings for Home Owners – the homeowners want to utilize geothermal
energy for heating and cooling purposes. The result is that less energy is used for heating
homes and offices which results in significant savings. After the initial expense, a 30-
60% savings on heating and 25-50% savings on cooling can cover that cost within few
years
 Geothermal Energy Disadvantages

• Potential emissions – Greenhouse gas below Earth‘s surface can potentially migrate to
the surface and into the atmosphere. Such emissions tend to be higher near geothermal
power plants, which are associated with sulfur dioxide and silica emissions. Also, and the
reservoirs can contain traces of toxic heavy metals including mercury, arsenic and boron.
• Surface Instability – Construction of geothermal power plants can affect the stability of
land. The construction of a geothermal power plant may triggered an earthquake.
• High cost for electricity – Total costs usually end up somewhere between $2 – 7 million
for a 1 MW geothermal power plant.
• High up-front costs for heating and cooling systems – While there is a predictable
ROI, it will not happen quickly.For an average sized home, installation of geothermal
heat pumps costs between $10,000 – $20,000 which can pay off itself in another 5-10
years down the line.
• Location Specific – Good geothermal reservoirs are hard to come by. Iceland and
Philippines meet nearly one-third of their electricity demand with geothermal
energy. Prime sites are often far from population centers.
• Distribution costs – If geothermal energy is transported long
• Sustainability questions – Some studies show that reservoirs can be depleted if the fluid
is removed faster than replaced. This is not an issue for residential geothermal heating
and cooling, where geothermal energy is being used differently than in geothermal power
plants.
• Cost of Powering the Pump – Geothermal heat pumps need a power source.
• May Run Out of Steam: Mind must be taken to watch the heat and not to abuse it,
because if the heat is not taken care of properly, it can cause a meltdown or other issues
where the energy is not properly distributed or used.

 Tidal energy
Tidal power or tidal energy is a form of hydropower that converts the energy obtained
from tides into useful forms of power, mainly electricity.
Tidal energy has potential for future electricity generation. Tides are more predictable
than the wind
The world's first large-scale tidal power plant was the Rance Tidal Power Station in
France, which became operational in 1966.
The largest tidal power station - South Korea in August 2011. The Sihwa station uses sea
wall defense barriers complete with 10 turbines generating 254 MW

• Spring tides are especially strong tides . They occur when the Earth, the Sun, and the
Moon are in a line. The gravitational forces of the Moon and the Sun both contribute to
the tides. Spring tides occur during the full moon and the new moon
• Neap tide - A tide just after the first or third quarters of the moon (7 days) when there is
least difference between high and low water.
• "neaps occur at 6 a.m. and 6 p.m."
Advantages of Tidal Energy
• Tidal energy is a renewable energy resource because the energy it produces is free and
clean as no fuel is needed and no waste bi-products are produced.
• Tidal energy has the potential to produce a great deal of free and green energy.
• Tidal energy is not expensive to operate and maintain compared to other forms of
renewable energies.
• Low visual impact as the tidal turbines are mainly if not totally submerged beneath the
water.
• Low noise pollution as any sound generated is transmitted through the water.
• High predictability as high and low tides can be predicted years in advance, unlike wind.
• Tidal barrages provide protection against flooding and land damage.
• Large tidal reservoirs have multiple uses and can create recreational lakes and areas
where before there were none.

Disadvantages of Tidal Energy

• Tidal energy is not always a constant energy source as it depends on the strength and
flow of the tides which themselves are effected by the gravitational effects of the moon
and the sun.
• Tidal Energy requires a suitable site, where the tides and tidal streams are consistently
strong.
• Must be able to withstand forces of nature resulting in high capital, construction and
maintenance costs.
• High power distribution costs to send the generated power from the submerged devices to
the land using long underwater cables.
• Intermittent power generation, only generates power ten hours a day during the ebb and
flow of the tides
• Changes to estuary ecosystem and an increase in coastal erosion where the tides are
concentrated.
• Build up of silt, sediments and pollutants within the tidal barrage from rivers and streams
flowing into basin as it is unable to flow out into the sea.
• Danger to fish and other sea-life as they get stuck in the barrage or sucked through the
tidal turbine blades
Types of tidal energy techniques
• Tidal power can be classified into four generating methods:
– Tidal stream generator.
– Tidal barrage.
– Dynamic tidal power.
– Tidal lagoon

1. Tidal Turbines
Tidal turbines utilize the same technology to wind turbines. The only difference is that the blades
of tidal turbines are way stronger and shorter. So, the best way to compare tidal turbines is
underwater windmills. Ideally, the water currents turn the turbine. The turbine is connected to a
generator through a shaft. So, when the turbine turns, the shaft also turns. The turning shaft
activates a generator, which generates electricity. The initial cost of setting up this tidal stream
system is quite on the higher side, not to mention the difficulty in maintenance. However, it
remains a cheaper alternative and doesn‘t cause environmental degradation compare to other
tidal technologies.

2. Tidal Barrages
Tidal Barrages are the most efficient tidal energy technologies. They resemble dams used in
hydropower plants. The difference is they are a lot bigger since they are constructed across a Bay
or an Estuary. For the barrage to be able to produce power, the tidal range, which is the
difference between low and high tide, has to be more than 5 meters. As the tide enters the
system, ocean or sea water flows via the dam into the basin. When the tides subside, the system‘s
gates close, trapping the water in the estuary or basin. When the tides start to move out, the gates
in the dam that consist of turbines, open up, and water begins to flow out hitting the turbines,
which eventually turn to produce energy. Construction of tidal barrages involves high upfront
capital costs, plus they have devastating effects on the local environment.
 3. Tidal lagoon
A new tidal energy design option is to construct circular retaining walls embedded with turbines
that can capture the potential energy of tides. The created reservoirs are similar to those of tidal
barrages, except that the location is artificial and does not contain a pre-existing
ecosystem.[10]The lagoons can also be in double (or triple) format without pumping or with
pumping[14] that will flatten out the power output. The pumping power could be provided by
excess to grid demand renewable energy from for example wind turbines or solar photovoltaic
arrays. Excess renewable energy rather than being curtailed could be used and stored for a later
period of time. Geographically dispersed tidal lagoons with a time delay between peak
production would also flatten out peak production providing near base load production though at
a higher cost than some other alternatives such as district heating renewable energy storage. The
cancelled Tidal Lagoon Swansea Bay in Wales, United Kingdom would have been the first tidal
power station of this type once built.

4. Dynamic tidal power

It is a technology that uses the difference between the potential energy and kinetic
energy of tides. Long dams are built from coasts straight out into the sea or ocean - meaning that
the tides in the areas where these systems might be implemented usually flow parallel to their
respective coasts. During the movement of tides, water on one side of the dam is at a higher level
than the other side. As this water flows through the dam it drives a series of turbines installed
within the dam and generates electricity. Furthermore, these dams are designed with bi-
directional turbines, which flip 180o after each tide in order to generate power both when the tide
comes in and goes out. The added output from having bi-directional turbines is a huge advantage
for these types of systems, they allow the power output to basically double.
  Wave Energy

Wave Energy also known as Ocean Wave Energy, is another type of ocean based
renewable energy source that uses the power of the waves to generate electricity.
A generator converts this mechanical energy into useful electricity. The point absorber
consists of a series of long unit, floating on the surface of the water following the movements of
the wave. It is this movement that is harnessed and converted to electricity in the point absorber.

Difference between wave energy & tide energy

• Tidal energy uses the gravitational pull of the Earth and moon to generate energy.
• The tides at shorelines of oceans will rise and fall about twice a day. ...
• Wave energy uses the kinetic force of waves to produce energy. A object inside buoys,
booms, or other floating objects will shake as each wave passes

Wave Energy Advantages

• Wave energy is an abundant and renewable energy resource as the waves are generated
by the wind.
• Pollution free as wave energy generates little or no pollution to the environment
compared to other green energies.
• Reduces dependency on fossil fuels as wave energy consumes no fossil fuels during
operation.
• Wave energy is relatively consistent and predictable as waves can be accurately forecast
several days in advance.
• Wave energy devices are modular and easily sited with additional wave energy devices
added as needed.
• Dissipates the waves energy protecting the shoreline from coastal erosion.
• Presents no barriers or difficulty to migrating fish and aquatic animals.

Wave Energy Disadvantages

• Visual impact of wave energy conversion devices on the shoreline and offshore floating
buoys or platforms.
• Wave energy conversion devices are location dependent requiring suitable sites were the
waves are consistently strong.
• Intermittent power generation as the waves come in intervals and does not generate
power during calm periods.
 • Offshore wave energy devices can be a threat to navigation that cannot see or detect them
by radar.
• High power distribution costs to send the generated power from offshore devices to the
land using long underwater cables.
• They must be able to withstand forces of nature resulting in high capital, construction and
maintenance costs.

Advantages of Wave Energy

It’s highly predictable
The wave arrival pattern is highly predictable. They arrive day and night and harbor more
energy than other renewable sources like wind and solar. Wind energy and solar energy, on the
other hand, are highly unpredictable. Wind speeds die down unexpectedly, which affects the
generation of electricity. Solar energy depends upon exposure from the sun, which means cloud
coverage and night hours significantly reduce this exposure leading to less efficiency.
It’s a renewable form of energy
Renewable means it‘s an endless resource. It does not need man‘s intervention to
continue existing. No one has dared to suggest that the oceans and seas will disappear some day.
Humans will continue harnessing it to the very end. This aspect makes wave energy a reliable
and efficient energy resource.
Wave energy is eco-friendly
Wave energy is a completely clean energy source, which means, it does not emit
dangerous greenhouse gasses to the atmosphere. Fossil fuels, for instance, oil, coal and natural
gas contribute mightily to environmental pollution because they release dangerous greenhouse
gasses including carbon dioxide, nitrous oxide, methane, and ozone to the atmosphere.
Creation of green jobs
Communities living in remote areas and declining industries like the ship building
industry bear the biggest brunt of unemployment and economic unsustainability due to lack of
electricity. The wave energy sector has the potential to create numerous green opportunities to
remote and urban population alike because remote areas that are not able to be reached by
conventional electricity supply are well catered by wave power.
Exponential growth of remote areas
The wave energy harnessed can to channeled to remote locations, and this means
springing up of industries and businesses. These remote areas will witness strong economic
growth moving forward.
Security of energy supply
Setting up a strong wave energy infrastructure can enormously help a country from
overdependence on fossil fuels. The fossil fuel market is largely volatile and could hurt a
country‘s economy if shortage occurs. Wave energy is the surefire way to bridge this volatility
gap since it‘s cheap, reliable and efficient.
Land remains undamaged
Wave energy plants can be situated offshore alleviating any risk that comes along with
these plants situated onshore like soil pollution. Also, the land remains in its natural state unlike
fossil fuel extraction, which requires high levels of excavation that leaves land heavily damaged.

Disadvantages of Wave Energy

High upfront capital costs
Construction of wave energy plants requires huge capital outlay. Energy plant
maintenance, connection to power grid, wave resources, expected drop in energy costs once the
infrastructure is up and running and shelf life of the technology are just some of the variables
driving up the cost of wave energy. Determination of actual cost is also difficult since wave
energy is in its early stage of development.
Variability in wave magnitude can damage equipment
The wave magnitude is so unpredictable in the seas. Sometimes it comes with a
vengeance and could cause heavy wear and tear to the wave energy generation turbines. Damage
to these equipment can be costly in terms of repair. It would also mean stalling of electricity
supply.
Damage to sea life ecosystem
Offshore wave energy projects are a lot more sophisticated than onshore ones. The
projects include platforms, cables, turbines, interconnections, dredging and much more. From
ecological standpoint, shallow waters are fertile breeding and resting grounds for most marine
life. So, activities from construction and operation of the wave energy plant greatly affect marine
ecosystem. Accidental leaks or spills emanating from hydraulic fluids in the plants could
potentially pollute the water resulting in marine life deaths.
Disadvantage of location
The downside to wave energy is the location. Individuals or towns in proximity to oceans
and seas will enjoy the fruits of wave energy. Because the source of wave energy is restricted to
oceans and seas, it can‘t be relied upon to serve the entire population of a country. This means
that towns, cities, and countries not close to such water bodies don‘t get to enjoy the fruits of
wave energy.
Environmental concerns
Although wave energy is a clean energy source, the sound produced by the plant
generators could prove unbearable to some local residents. The plants also interfere with the
natural aesthetic look of the ocean. However, the noise of the waves, in most occasions,
equalizes the noise produced by the generators.

Wave energy harvesting techniques

In order to harness wave energy and make it create and energy output for us, we have to
go where the waves are. Successful and profitable use of wave energy on a large scale only
occurs in a few regions around the world. The places include the states of Washington, Oregon
and California and other areas along North America‘s west coast. This also includes the coasts of
Scotland Africa and Australia.
Wave energy is, essentially, a condensed form of solar power produced by the wind
action blowing across ocean water surface, which can then be utilized as an energy source. When
the intense sun rays hit the atmosphere, they get it warmed up. The intensity of sun rays hitting
the earth‘s atmosphere varies considerably in different parts of the world. This disparity of
atmospheric temperature around the world causes the atmospheric air to travel from hotter to
cooler regions, giving rise to winds.
As the wind glides over the ocean surface, a fraction of the kinetic energy from the wind
is shifted to the water beneath, resulting in waves. As a matter of fact, the ocean could be seen as
a gigantic energy storehouse collector conveyed by the sun rays to the oceans, with the waves
transporting the conveyed kinetic energy across the ocean surface. With that in mind, we can
safely conclude that waves are a form of energy and it‘s the same energy, not water that glides
over the surface of the ocean.
These waves are able to travel throughout the expansive oceans without losing a lot of
energy. However, when they reach the shoreline, where the depth of water is considerable
shallow, their speed reduces, while their size significantly increase. Ultimately, the waves strike
the shoreline, discharging huge quantities of kinetic energy.
The Wave Energy Converter (WEC)
The Wave energy hitting the shore is converted into electricity using a wave energy
converter (WEC), essentially, a power station. The operating principle of this power station is
both simple and ingenious. It‘s an enclosed chamber with an opening under the sea, which
allows strong sea waves to flow into the chamber and back.
The water level in the chamber rises and falls with the rhythm of the wave, and so air is
forced forwards and backward via the turbines joined to an upper opening in the chamber. The
compressed and decompressed air has enough power to propel the turbines. The turbine is
propelled in the same direction by the back and forth airflow through the turbine. The propelling
turbine turns a shaft connected to a generator.
The generator produces electricity, which is transported to electrical grids and later supplied to
demand centers and distribution lines that connect individual homes and industries.
The advantage of this wave energy converter is that even considerably low wave motions can
produce sufficient airflow to maintain the movement of the turbine to generate energy.

Terminator: Wave energy devices oriented perpendicular to the direction of the wave, are
known as terminators. These terminators include a stationary component and a component that
moves in response to the wave. The "stationary" part could be fixed to the sea floor or shore. It
must remain still, in contrast to the movable part. The moving part works kind of like a piston
in car -- moving up and down. This motion pressurizes air or oil to drive a turbine.

An oscillating water column (OWC), shown in the image above, is a terminator. OWCs have
two openings -- one on the bottom that allows water to enter the column and one narrow passage
above to let air in and out. As waves come and fill the column with water, this pressurizes the air
inside, which forces the air through the opening above. The air encounters and drives a turbine.
Then, as waves pull away, water rushes out, which sucks more air back down through the top,
driving the turbine again.

Another terminator, an overtopping device, includes a wall that collects the water from rising
waves in a reservoir. The water can escape through an opening, but while passing through, drives
a turbine. The most famous kind of terminator, however, is truly the Schwarzenegger of
WECs. Salter's Duck includes a bobbing, cam-shaped (tear-shaped) head that drives a turbine.
Though not fully realized, theoretically, this device would be the most efficient WEC.
In this diagram, you can see how an overtopping device works. After waves topple over a wall
into a reservoir, the water drains out of an outlet, where it drives a turbine.

The following points highlight the four devices used for conversion of wave energy. The devices
are: 1. Hydraulic Accumulator Wave Machine 2. High Level Reservoir Wave Machine 3. The
Dolphin Type Wave Power Machine 4. Dam-Atoll Wave Machine.

1. Hydraulic Accumulator Wave Machine:

The machine consists of the following main components:
i. Pressure Amplifier:
The waves enter the cylinder of pressure amplifier at the bottom and move the main piston. The
pressure of the closed loop fluid is amplified to about 5 bars.
ii. Hydraulic Accumulator:
The high pressure fluid is conducted through a one-way up valve to a hydraulic accumulator. The
accumulator has air cushions on the top which assists in maintaining a constant pressure.
iii. Pelton Turbine:
Part of high pressure fluid flows through a Pelton wheel or Francis hydraulic turbine that drives
an electrical generator.

On the trough of the wave, the composite piston is pushed downward by the high fluid pressure.
The exhaust water is sucked via return valve. The capacity of hydraulic accumulator is large
enough to permit continuous turbine operation though the waves are cyclic.

2. High Level Reservoir Wave Machine:

It also consists of pressure amplifier which sends high pressure water to a high level reservoir on
a shore line. The potential energy of water in the reservoir is used to run a water turbine coupled
to an electrical generator.
3. The Dolphin Type Wave Power Machine:
The major components of the system are a dolphin, a float, a connecting rod and two electrical
generators (Fig. 7.54).

The float has two motions. The rolling motion about its own fulcrum with the connecting rod is
amplified and converted into continuous rotary motion with the help of gears. The electrical
generator is driven. The other vertical motion is also amplified and converted into rotary motion
to drive the gears.

4. Dam-Atoll Wave Machine:

The waves wrap themselves around the atolls (small volcanic islands) from all sides, producing a
spiral in the centre. A turbine is driven when water is discharged radially outward.

WAVE DRAGON
Attenuator: These devices are oriented parallel to the direction of the wave. One of the most
well-known examples of this is the Pelamis, a series of long cylindrical floating devices
connected to each other with hinges and anchored to the seabed. The cylindrical parts drive
hydraulic rams in the connecting sections and those in turn drive an electric generator. The
devices send the electricity through cables to the sea floor where it then travels through a cable to
shore.
PELAMIS WAVE POWER LTD
Point absorber: These devices aren't oriented a particular way toward the waves, but rather can
"absorb" the energy from waves that come from every which way. One such device is called
the Aquabuoy, developed by Finavera. In a vertical tube below the water, waves rush in and
drive a piston, a buoyant disk connected to hose pumps, up and down to pressurize seawater
inside. The pressurized water then drives a built-in turbine connected to an electrical generator
[source: Finavera]. Many Aquabuoys can send electricity to a central point. From that point,
electricity is sent down to the seafloor and then to shore via a cable.

Devices that Harness the Energy of the Waves

We have seen previously that Wave Energy is a non-polluting and renewable source of energy,
created by natural transfer of wind energy above the oceans, which itself is created by the effects
of the suns solar energy. As the wind blows across the oceans surface, moving air particles
transfer their energy to the water molecules that they touch.
As the wind continues to blow more and more of its kinetic energy is transferred to the oceans
surface and the waves grow bigger. These larger waves are called gravity waves because their
potential energy is due to the gravitational force of the Earth. There is a lot of potential energy in
the waves generated by the wind, to the point were large storm waves can lift ships high out of
the water.
As an ocean wave passes a stationary position the surface of the sea changes in height, water
near the surface moves as it losses its kinetic and potential energy, which affects the pressure
under the surface. The periodic or oscillatory nature of ocean waves means that we can use a
variety of different Wave Energy Devices to harness the energy produced by the oceans waves.
The problem lies in that the oscillatory frequency of an ocean wave is relatively slow and is
much less than the hundreds of revolutions per minute required for electric power generation.
Then a great variety of wave energy devices and designs are available to convert these slow-
acting, reversing wave forces into the high speed, unidirectional rotation of a generator shaft.
There are three fundamental but very different wave energy devices used in converting wave
power into electric power, and these are:
 1. Wave Profile Devices These are wave energy devices which turn the oscillating
height of the oceans surface into mechanical energy.
 2. Oscillating Water Columns These are wave energy devices which convert the
energy of the waves into air pressure.
 3. Wave Capture Devices These are wave energy devices which convert the energy of
the waves into potential energy.

Wave Profile Devices

Wave profile devices are a class of wave energy device which floats on or near to the sea surface
and moves in response to the shape of the incident wave or, for submersible devices, it moves up
and down under the influence of the variations in underwater pressure as a wave moves by.
Most types of wave profile devices float on the surface absorbing the wave energy in all
directions by following the movements of waves at or near the sea surface, just like a float. The
only wave energy devices that use wave profiling have been in practical use for some time,
although on a fairly small-scale, are those used for powering navigation buoys.
If the physical size of the wave profile device is very small compared to the periodic length of
the wave, this type of wave energy device is called a ―point absorber‖. If the size of the device is
larger or longer than the typical periodic wavelength, it is called a ―linear absorber‖, but more
commonly they are collectively known as ―wave attenuators‖.
The main difference between the two wave energy devices is how the oscillating system converts
the wave energy between the absorber and a reaction point. This energy absorption can be
achieved either by a floating body, an oscillating solid member or oscillating water within a
buoys structure itself.
The waves energy is absorbed using vertical motion (heave), horizontal motion in the direction
of wave travel (surge), angular motion about a central axis parallel to the wave crests (pitch) or
angular motion about a vertical axis (yaw) or a combination of all four with the energy being
generated by reacting these different movements against some kind of fixed resistance called
a reaction point.
To make efficient use of the force generated by the wave, we need some kind of force reaction.
In other words, we want the waves force on the float to react against another rigid or semi-rigid
body. Reaction points can be inertial masses such as heavy suspended ballast plates, sea-floor
anchors or a fixed dead-weight or pile as shown.

Wave Profile Devices

The pitching and heaving of the waves causes a relative motion between an absorber and
reaction point. The left hand wave energy device above, uses a heavy ballast plate suspended
below the floating buoy. The buoy is prevented from floating away by a mooring line attached to
a sea-floor anchor. This mooring line allows the point absorber to operate offshore in deeper
waters.
As the buoy bobs up-and-down in the waves, a oscillatory mutual force reaction is generated
between the freely moving absorber and the heavy plate causing a hydraulic pump in between to
rotate a generator producing electricity. The middle wave energy device operates in a similar
manner to the previous floating buoy device. The difference this time is that the freely heaving
buoy reacts against a fixed reaction point such as a fixed dead-weight on the ocean floor. As this
type of point absorber is bottom mounted, it is operated in shallower near shore locations.
The third device is an example of a linear absorber (wave attenuator) which floats on the surface
of the water. It to is tethered to the ocean floor so that it can swing perpendicularly towards the
incoming waves. As the waves pass along the length of this snake like wave energy device, they
cause the long cylindrical body to sag downwards into the troughs of the waves and arch
upwards when the waves crest is passing. Connecting joints along the body of the device flex in
the waves exerting a great deal of force which is used to power a hydraulic ram at each joint. The
hydraulic ram drives oil through a hydraulic motor which drives a generator, producing the
electricity.

The Pelamis Wave Energy Converter

This method of wave energy conversion is currently being used by a device called the Pelamis
Wave Energy Converterdeveloped by the ―Pelamis Wave Power‖ company (please watch the
video for more information). One advantage of the Pelamis design is that several offshore
devices can be connected together and linked to the shoreline through a single submersible
underwater cable.

Oscillating Water Column

The Oscillating Water Column, (OWC) is a popular shoreline wave energy device normally
positioned onto or near to rocks or cliffs which are next to a deep sea bottom. They consist of a
partly submerged hollow chamber fixed directly at the shoreline which converts wave energy
into air pressure.
The structure used to capture the waves energy could be a natural cave with a blow hole or a man
made chamber or duct with a wind turbine generator located at the top well above the waters
surface. Either way, the structure is built perpendicular to the waves with part of the ocean
surface trapped inside the chamber which itself is open to the sea below the water line. The
constant ebbing and flowing motion of the waves forces the trapped water inside the chamber to
oscillate in the vertical up-down direction.

Oscillating Wave Column

As the incident waves outside enter and exit the chamber, changes in wave movement on the
opening cause the water level within the enclosure to oscillate up and down acting like a giant
piston on the air above the surface of the water, pushing it back and forth. This air is compressed
and decompressed by this movement every cycle. The air is channelled through a wind turbine
generator to produce electricity as shown.
The type of wind turbine generator used in an oscillating water column design is the key element
to its conversion efficiency. The air inside the chamber is constantly reversing direction with
every up-and-down movement of the sea water producing a sucking and blowing effect through
the turbine. If a conventional turbine was used to drive the attached generator, this too would be
constantly changing direction in unison with the air flow. To overcome this problem the type of
wind turbine used in oscillating water column schemes is called a Wells Turbine.
The Wells turbine has the remarkable property of rotating in the same direction regardless of the
direction of air flow in the column. The kinetic energy is extracted from the reversing air flow by
the Wells turbine and is used to drive an electrical induction generator. The speed of the air flow
through the wells turbine can be enhanced by making the cross-sectional area of the wave
turbines duct much less than that of the sea column.
As with other wave energy converters, oscillating wave column technology produces no
greenhouse gas emissions making it a non-polluting and renewable source of energy, created by
natural transfer of wind energy through a wells turbine. The advantage of this shoreline scheme
is that the main moving part, the turbine can be easily removed for repair or maintenance
because it is on land. The disadvantage though is that, as with the previous wave energy devices,
the oscillating wave columns output is dependent on the level of wave energy, which varies day
by day according to the season.

Wave Capture Device

A Wave Capture Device also known as a Overtopping Wave Power Device, is a shoreline to
near shore wave energy device that captures the movements of the tides and waves and converts
it into potential energy. Wave energy is converted into potential energy by lifting the water up
onto a higher level. The wave capture device, or more commonly an overtopping device, elevates
ocean waves to a holding reservoir above sea level.
The overtopping wave energy converter works in much the same way as an impoundment type
hydroelectric dam works. Sea water is captured and impounded at a height above sea level
creating a low head situation which is then drained out through a reaction turbine, usually
a Kaplan Turbine generating electricity as shown.

Wave Capture Device

The basic impoundment structure can be either fixed or a floating structure tethered to the sea
bed. The wave overtopping device uses a ramp design on the device to elevate part of the
incoming waves above their natural height.
As the waves hit the structure they flow up a ramp and over the top (hence the name
―overtopping‖), into a raised water impoundment reservoir on the device in order to fill it. Once
captured, the potential energy of the trapped water in the reservoir is extracted using gravity as
the water returns to the sea via a low-head Kaplan turbine generator located at the bottom of the
wave capture device.
Other such wave capture devices are located at the shoreline were the waves are channelled
along a horizontal man made channel. This channel is funnel shaped which is wide towards the
sea where the waves enter and gradually narrows towards an impoundment reservoir at the other
end. As the waves propagate along the narrowing channel, the wave height is lifted due to the
funnelling effect to a level exceeding the horizontal upper edge of the channel wall, excess water
from the wave is allowed to spill into a confined basin above the normal sea level. As the water
is now at a height above the sea level, the potential energy of the water trapped in the basin is
then extracted by draining the water back to the sea through a low-head Kaplan turbine as before.
We now know how wave energy works and one of the main advantages of ―wave energy
devices‖, is that besides the generating turbine there are no moving parts. Unfortunately,
shoreline overtopping schemes have a relatively low power output due to their low head and are
only suitable for sites where there is a deep water shoreline and a low tidal range of less than
about a metre. To overcome some of these limitations, floating offshore capture devices have
been developed, but they too require sufficient wave power to fill the impoundment reservoir.

 Magneto hydrodynamic generator

A magneto hydrodynamic generator (MHD generator) is a magneto hydrodynamic
converter that transforms thermal energy and kinetic energy into electricity. MHD generators are
different from traditional electric generators in that they operate at high temperatures
without moving parts. MHD was developed because the hot exhaust gas of an MHD generator
can heat the boilers of a steam power plant, increasing overall efficiency.

Magnetohydrodynamic power generation provides a way of generating electricity directly

from a fast moving stream of ionised gases without the need for any moving mechanical parts -
no turbines and no rotary generators. Several MHD projects were initiated in the 1960s but
overcoming the technical challenges of making a practical system proved very expensive.
Interest consequently waned in favour of nuclear power which since that time has seemed a more
attractive option.

MHD power generation has also been studied as a method for extracting electrical power from
nuclear reactors and also from more conventional fuel combustion systems

Working Principle
The MHD generator can be considered to be a fluid dynamo. This is similar to a
mechanical dynamo in which the motion of a metal conductor through a magnetic field creates a
current in the conductor except that in the MHD generator the metal conductor is replaced by a
conducting gas plasma.
When a conductor moves through a magnetic field it creates an electrical field perpendicular to
the magnetic field and the direction of movement of the conductor. This is the principle,
discovered by Michael Faraday, behind the conventional rotary electricity generator. Dutch
physicist Antoon Lorentzprovided the mathematical theory to quantify its effects.
The flow (motion) of the conducting plasma through a magnetic field causes a voltage to be
generated (and an associated current to flow) across the plasma , perpendicular to both the
plasma flow and the magnetic field according to Fleming's Right Hand Rule

Advantages and Limitations of MHD Power Generation:

MHD power generation offers several advantages over other conventional methods of power
generation.
(i) Since high temperatures are involved, operation efficiency is high. MHD system is normally
designed to be a topping power system to a conventional steam power plant. At present, the
conversion efficiency of an MHD system is around 50% which can be increased to 60% with the
improvements in experience and technology.
(ii) No moving part, so more reliable.
(iii) Conceptually such generators are much simpler.
(iv) As there is no limitation to the size of the duct, so high capacity generators are possible.
(v) The walls can be cooled below temperature of working gas.
(vi) Direct conversion of heat into electrical energy results in elimination of the gas turbine
(compared with a gas turbine power plant) and both the boiler and the turbine (compared with a
conventional steam power plant) and thus in reduction of energy losses.
(vii) Ability of reaching the full power level instantly.
(viii) The more efficient heat utilisation reduces the amount of heat discharged to environments
and thus the cooling water requirements are reduced.
(ix) The MHD process is industrially attractive because of the reduced cooling water
requirements and atmospheric pollution.
(x) MHD power generation process is applicable to all kinds of heat sources such as oil, coal,
gas, nuclear, solar and thermonuclear fusion.
(xi) MHD power generation offers the flexibility of operation in different modes such as base
load, peak load or semi-peak load.
(xii) The capital costs of the MHD plants are estimated to be competitive with those of coal fired
steam power plants.
(xiii) The overall costs of the MHD power generation are also estimated to be lower (roughly
20%) than those of conventional power plants. This is because of higher efficiency of MHD
power generation.
(xiv) The reduced fuel consumption that is obtained because of higher efficiency or better fuel
utilisation, offer additional economic and social benefits and also lead to conservation of energy
sources.

Limitations of MHD system:

1. The efficiencies attained so far have been relatively low.
2. The power output of MHD generator is proportional to the square of the magnetic field
density. The electromagnets need very large power for creating strong magnetic fields. The
MHD technology is waiting for development of superconducting materials which will need very
little power even at ambient temperatures.
3. The combustor, MHD duct, electrodes, and air preheaters are exposed to very corrosive
combustion gases at very high temperatures. So, the life of these equipments has been reduced.
4. The ash (or slag) residue from the burning coal is carried over with the combustion gases and
tends to cause erosion of exposed surfaces. However, deposition of the slag on such surfaces
may also provide some protection.
5. There is a serious problem of separation of seed material from the fly ash and reconversion of
potassium sulphate to potassium carbonate.
6. Special fuel gas and preheating of air are required to provide adequate working fluid
temperatures.
7. There are serious problems associated with the fabrication of MHD duct, high temperature and
high pressure heat exchangers and reactors.

Types of MHD power generation

1. Open cycle MHD Open Cycle MBD - In open cycle MHD, the products of
combustion with preheated air are seeded with 1 % potassium and it is entered in the
MHD duct at about 2500-3000K where some part of internal energy is converted to
electricity. The exhaust from the MHD duct is used to preheat the steam and air.
2. Closed cycle MHD
Closed Cycle MI-ID - In closed cycle, helium (or argon) gas is seeded with cesium and it
is heated in a nuclear reactor and then it is passed into the MHD duct. After that it is
passed into the steam generating system. The duct wall material used in MHD generator
is strontium zirconate, magnesium oxide, and hafnium. The Tungsten or Carbon
electrodes are used. www.vidyarthiplus.com www.vidyarthi

Open Cycle MHD System

In open cycle MHD system, atmospheric air at very high temperature and pressure is
passed through the strong magnetic field. Coal is first processed and burnet in the combustor at a
high temperature of about 2700oC and pressure about 12 ATP with pre-heated air from the
plasma. Then a seeding material such as potassium carbonate is injected to the plasma to increase
the electrical conductivity. The resulting mixture having an electrical conductivity of about 10
Siemens/m is expanded through a nozzle, so as to have a high velocity and then passed through
the magnetic field of MHD generator. During the expansion of the gas at high temperature, the
positive and negative ions move to the electrodes and thus constitute an electric current. The gas
is then made to exhaust through the generator. Since the same air cannot be reused again hence it
forms an open cycle and thus is named as open cycle MHD.
Closed Cycle MHD System
As the name suggests the working fluid in a closed cycle MHD is circulated in a closed
loop. Hence, in this case inert gas or liquid metal is used as the working fluid to transfer the heat.
The liquid metal has typically the advantage of high electrical conductivity, hence the heat
provided by the combustion material need not be too high. Contrary to the open loop system
there is no inlet and outlet for the atmospheric air. Hence, the process is simplified to a great
extent, as the same fluid is circulated time and again for effective heat transfer.

Advantages of MHD Generation

The advantages of MHD generation over the other conventional methods of generation
are given below.
1) The conversion efficiency of a MHD system can be 50% as compared to less than 40 percent
for the most efficient steam plants.
2) Large amount of power is generated.
3) It has no moving parts, so more reliable and mechanically elegant.
4) It has ability to reach the full power level as soon as started.
5) Because of higher efficiency, the overall generation cost of an MHD plant will be less.
6) The more efficient heat utilization would decreases the amount of heat discharged to
environment and the cooling water requirements would also be lower.
7) The higher efficiency means better fuel utilization. The reduce fuel consumption would offer
additional economic and social benefits.
8) The Closed cycle system produces power free of pollution.

Disadvantages of MHD
2. The power output of MHD generator is proportional to the square of the magnetic field
density. The electromagnets need very large power for creating strong magnetic fields. The
MHD technology is waiting for development of superconducting materials which will need very
little power even at ambient temperatures.
3. The combustor, MHD duct, electrodes, and air preheaters are exposed to very corrosive
combustion gases at very high temperatures. So, the life of these equipments has been reduced.
4. The ash (or slag) residue from the burning coal is carried over with the combustion gases and
tends to cause erosion of exposed surfaces. However, deposition of the slag on such surfaces
may also provide some protection.
5. There is a serious problem of separation of seed material from the fly ash and reconversion of
potassium sulphate to potassium carbonate.
6. Special fuel gas and preheating of air are required to provide adequate working fluid
temperatures.
7. There are serious problems associated with the fabrication of MHD duct, high temperature and
high pressure heat exchangers and reactors

Differentiate open cycle & closed cycle

 Hydropower generation
There are 3 types of hydropower energy generation
• Small hydropower generation
• Mini hydropower generation
• Micro hydropower generation
• Small Scale Hydro Power: is a scheme that generates electrical power of
between 100kW (kilo-watts) and 1MW (mega-watts) feeding this generated
power directly into the utility grid or as part of a large stand alone scheme
powering more than one household.
• Mini Scale Hydro Power: is a scheme that generates power between 5kW
and 100 kW, feeding it directly into the utility grid or as part of a battery
charging or AC powered stand alone system.
• Micro Scale Hydro Power: is usually the classification given to a small
home made run-of-river type scheme that use DC generator designs to
produce electrical power between a few hundred watts up to 5kW as part of
a battery charging stand alone system

 Fuel cell

• A fuel cell is an electrochemical cell that converts the chemical energy from a fuel into
electricity through an electrochemical reaction of hydrogen fuel with oxygen or another
oxidizing agent.
• The first fuel cells were invented in 1838
• Fuel cells are unique in terms of the variety of their potential applications; they can
provide power for systems as large as a utility power station and as small as a laptop
computer.
• A fuel cell is composed of an anode, a cathode, and an electrolyte membrane. A fuel cell
works by passing hydrogen through the anode of a fuel cell and oxygen through the
cathode. At the anode site, the hydrogen molecules are split into electrons and protons.
The protons pass through the electrolyte membrane, while the electrons are forced
through a circuit, generating an electric current and excess heat. At the cathode, the
protons, electrons, and oxygen combine to produce water molecules.
• Due to their high efficiency, fuel cells are very clean, with their only by-products being
electricity, excess heat, and water. In addition, as fuel cells do not have any moving
parts, they operate near-silently

Parts of fuel cell

 There are a components in fuel cell. They are

1. Anode
2. Cathode
3. Catalyst

Electrolyte Anode :-

 The anode is the negative post of the fuel cell.

 It is the electrode where oxidation takes place.
 It conducts the electrons that are freed from the hydrogen molecules so that they can be
used in an external circuit.
 It has channels attached into it that disperse the
hydrogen gas equally over the surface of the catalyst.

Cathode:-

 The cathode is the positive post of the fuel cell.

 It has channels etched into it that distribute the oxygen to the surface of the catalyst.
 It also conducts the electrons back from the external circuit to the catalyst, where they
can recombine with the hydrogen ions and oxygen to form water.

Catalyst;-
 It is a chemical substance which increases the rate of reaction.
 The catalyst is a special material that facilitates the reaction of oxygen and hydrogen.
 It is usually made of platinum powder very thinly coated onto carbon paper or cloth. The
catalyst is rough and porous so that the maximum surface area of the platinum can be
exposed to the hydrogen or oxygen.

Electrolyte:-

 A substance that conducts charged ions from one electrode to the other in a fuel cell.
 The electrolyte is also known as the proton exchange membrane.
 This is a specially treated material that only conducts positively charged ions.
 The membrane blocks electrons

Working principle

• A fuel cell is composed of an anode, a cathode, and an electrolyte membrane.

• A fuel cell works by passing hydrogen through the anode of a fuel cell and oxygen
through the cathode.
• At the anode site, the hydrogen molecules are split into electrons and protons.
• The protons pass through the electrolyte membrane, while the electrons are forced
through a circuit, generating an electric current and excess heat.
• At the cathode, the protons, electrons, and oxygen combine to produce water molecules.
There are five types of fuel cells available:
Polymer Electrolyte Membrane Fuel Cell (PEMFC) - A PEMFC fuel cell employs a solid
organic polymer polyperfluorsulfonic acid electrolyte membrane and operates at temperatures of
60-100° C. PEMFC applications include electric utilities, portable power, and transportation. Its
main advantages are that the solid electrolyte reduces corrosion, operates at low temperatures,
and delivers quick start-up. Its disadvantages are that the cell requires expensive catalysts and the
cell has high sensitivity to fuel impurities.

Alkaline Fuel Cell (AFC) - An AFC employs an aqueous solution of potassium hydroxide
soaked in a matrix electrolyte, and operates at temperatures of 90-100°C. AFC applications
include military and space, and it is the technology that has been used by NASA for more than
25 years. Its main advantage is that cathode reaction is faster in the alkaline electrolyte, resulting
in high performance. Its disadvantage is the requirement for pure hydrogen, requiring expensive
CO2 removal from fuel and air streams.

Phosphoric Acid Fuel Cell (PAFC) - A PAFC employs a matrix soaked with liquid phosphoric
acid. It operates at temperatures of 175-200° C. PAFC applications include electric utility and
transportation. Its main advantages are that it has up to 85% efficiency when used in
cogeneration of electricity and heat, and it can use impure hydrogen as fuel. Its main
disadvantages are that it requires a platinum catalyst, has low current and power, and requires a
large size and weight.

Molten Carbonate Fuel Cell (MCFC) - An MCFC employs a liquid solution of lithium,
sodium, and/or potassium carbonates soaked in a matrix. It operates at 600-1000° C. The main
MCFC applications are for electric utilities. Its advantages are its high efficiency, fuel flexibility
and its ability to use a variety of catalysts. Its disadvantage is that the high temperature enhances
corrosion and breakdown of cell components.

Solid Oxide Fuel Cell (SOFC) - An SOFC employs a solid zirconium oxide to which a small
amount of yttria is added. It operates at 600-1000° C. Its main advantages are its high efficiency,
fuel flexibility, ability to use a variety of catalysts and reduced corrosion. Its main disadvantage
is that the high temperature spurs breakdown of cell components. For transportation applications,
the three key fuel cell challenges are cost (less than $50/kW of engine power), durability (at least
5,000 hours) and rapid start-up (less than 30 seconds).

Advantages:
• More detailed information is available in the applications section, which offers
information specific to each industry.
• High Efficiency- when utilizing co-generation, fuel cells can attain over 80% energy
efficiency
• Good reliability- quality of power provided does not degrade over time.
• Noise- offers a much more silent and smooth alternative to conventional energy
production.
• Environmentally beneficial- greatly reduces CO2 and harmful pollutant emissions.
• Size reduction- fuel cells are significantly lighter and more compact
Disadvantages
• Expensive to manufacture due the high cost of catalysts (platinum)
• Lack of infrastructure to support the distribution of hydrogen
• A lot of the currently available fuel cell technology is in the prototype stage and not yet
validated.
• Hydrogen is expensive to produce and not widely available

Application of fuel cell

• Stationary Applications
• Telecommunications
• Landfills, Wastewater Treatment Plants and Breweries
• Transportation
– Cars
– Buses
– Scooters
– Forklifts and Materials Handling Trains
– Planes
– Boats
– Consumer Electronics

 Hydrogen energy conversion

Conversion of hydrogen into electricity. The most effective way to convert

hydrogen into oxygen is using a fuel cell. A fuel cell converts chemical energy into
electrical energy. A fuel cell enables hydrogenand oxygen to blend in an electrochemical
reaction. The result is production of electricity, water, and heat.

Production
Hydrogen can be produced from diverse, domestic resources including fossil fuels,
biomass, and water electrolysis with electricity. The environmental impact and energy efficiency
of hydrogen depends on how it is produced. Some projects are under way to decrease costs
associated with hydrogen production.

There are a number of ways to produce hydrogen:

  Natural Gas Reforming/Gasification: Synthesis gas, a mixture of hydrogen, carbon
monoxide, and a small amount of carbon dioxide, is created by reacting natural gas with
high-temperature steam. The carbon monoxide is reacted with water to produce additional
hydrogen. This method is the cheapest, most efficient, and most common. Natural gas
reforming using steam accounts for the majority of hydrogen produced in the United States
annually.
A synthesis gas can also be created by reacting coal or biomass with high-temperature
steam and oxygen in a pressurized gasifier, which is converted into gaseous components—a
process called gasification. The resulting synthesis gas contains hydrogen and carbon
monoxide, which is reacted with steam to separate the hydrogen.
 Electrolysis: An electric current splits water into hydrogen and oxygen. If the electricity is
produced by renewable sources, such as solar or wind, the resulting hydrogen will be
considered renewable as well, and has numerous emissions benefits. Power-to-hydrogen
projects are taking off, where excess renewable electricity, when it's available, is used to
make hydrogen through electrolysis.
 Renewable Liquid Reforming: Renewable liquid fuels, such as ethanol, are reacted with
high-temperature steam to produce hydrogen near the point of end use.
 Fermentation: Biomass is converted into sugar-rich feedstocks that can be fermented to
produce hydrogen.
A number of hydrogen production methods are in development:
 High-Temperature Water Splitting: High temperatures generated by solar concentrators
or nuclear reactors drive chemical reactions that split water to produce hydrogen.
 Photobiological Water Splitting: Microbes, such as green algae, consume water in the
presence of sunlight, producing hydrogen as a byproduct.
 Photoelectrochemical Water Splitting: Photoelectrochemical systems produce hydrogen
from water using special semiconductors and energy from sunlight.

The major hydrogen-producing states are California, Louisiana, and Texas. Today,
almost all of the hydrogen produced in the United States is used for refining petroleum, treating
metals, producing fertilizer, and processing foods.
The primary challenge for hydrogen production is reducing the cost of production
technologies to make the resulting hydrogen cost competitive with conventional transportation
fuels. Government and industry research and development projects are reducing the cost as well
as the environmental impacts of hydrogen production technologies. Learn more about hydrogen
production from the Fuel Cell Technologies Office.
Hydrogen can be produced using a number of different processes. Thermochemical
processes use heat and chemical reactions to release hydrogen from organic materials such as
fossil fuels and biomass. Water (H2O) can be split into hydrogen (H2) and oxygen (O2) using
electrolysis or solar energy. Microorganisms such as bacteria and algae can produce hydrogen
through biological processes.
Electrolytic Processes
Electrolyzers use electricity to split water into hydrogen and oxygen. This technology is
well developed and available commercially, and systems that can efficiently use intermittent
renewable power are being developed. Learn more about electrolysis.

Direct Solar Water Splitting Processes

Direct solar water splitting, or photolytic, processes use light energy to split water into
hydrogen and oxygen. These processes are currently in the very early stages of research but offer
long-term potential for sustainable hydrogen production with low environmental impact. Learn
more about the following solar water splitting processes:
 HYDROGEN IS TRANSPORTED
Today, hydrogen is transported from the point of production to the point of use via
pipeline, over the road in cryogenic liquid tanker trucks or gaseous tube trailers, or by rail or
barge. ... Hydrogen used in fuel cell electric vehicles (FCEVs) is dispensed very much the way
gasoline is.
Hydrogen not only needs to be produced, but it also needs to be transported and stored in
the place of consumption. Such activities are particularly difficult due to the characteristics of
hydrogen. It is flammable, has a low density and is easily dispersed into the air. Preservation and
transport still make a widespread use of hydrogen quite difficult. In the last few years different
storage systems have become more and more efficient and suitable for many applications.
Hydrogen can be built-up and transported in gaseous, liquid state or absorbed by special
materials. Each way has some pros and cons. Anyhow it is necessary to make significant
progress in terms of R&D in order to make hydrogen more reliable and economically
competitive (i.e. to build a suitable network for car supply.
The most common hydrogen transportation means, covering the needs of the different
hydrogen markets, are:
 Compressed gas cylinders or Cryogenic liquid tankers
 Pipelines
 Blending with natural gas

Compressed gas cylinders or Cryogenic liquid tankers

Compressed Gas Containers
Gaseous hydrogen can be transported in small to medium quantities in compressed gas
containers by lorry. For transporting larger volumes, several pressurized gas cylinders or tubes
are bundled together on so-called CGH 2 tube trailers. The large tubes are bundled together
inside a protective frame.
 The tubes are usually made of steel and have a high net weight. This can lead to mass-
related transport restrictions. The newest pressurized storage systems use lighter composite
storage containers for lorry transport.
The low density of hydrogen also has an impact on its transport: under standard conditions
(1.013 bar and 0°C), hydrogen has a density of 0.0899 kg per cubic meter (m3), also called
normal cubic meter (Nm3 ). If hydrogen is compressed to 200 bar, the density under standard
conditions increases to 15.6 kg hydrogen per cubic meter, and at 500 bar it would reach
33 kg H 2 /m3.
A tube trailer cannot store compressed gas as compactly as a tanker for liquid fuels
(petrol or diesel fuel). This means that the available tank volume for hydrogen per tanker is
lower. Single tube trailers carry approximately 500 kg of hydrogen, depending on the pressure
and container material.
The largest tank volumes for gaseous hydrogen transport are currently 26 cubic meters.
Taking account of the low hydrogen density factor at 500 bar, this results in a load of around
1,100 kg hydrogen per lorry. This figure extrapolates to approximately 12,000 normal cubic
meters of hydrogen. At 250 bar both the weight of hydrogen and its transport volume in Nm 3
would be roughly halved.

Liquid Transport
As an alternative, hydrogen can be transported in liquid form in lorries or other means of
transport. In comparison to pressure gas vessels, more hydrogen can be carried with an LH 2
trailer, as the density of liquid hydrogen is higher than that of gaseous hydrogen. Since the
density even of liquid hydrogen is well below that of liquid fuels, at approx. 800 kg/m 3 , in this
case too only relatively moderate masses of hydrogen are transported. At a density of 70.8 kg/m3
, around 3,500 kg of liquid hydrogen or almost 40,000 Nm 3 can be carried at a loading volume
of 50 m3. Over longer distances it is usually more cost-effective to transport hydrogen in liquid
form, since a liquid hydrogen tank can hold substantially more hydrogen than a pressurized gas
tank. For the purposes of liquid transport the hydrogen is loaded into insulated cryogenic tanks.
LH 2 trailers have a range of approximately 4,000 km. Over the journey time the cryogenic
hydrogen heats up, causing the pressure in the container to rise.
Similarly, to lorry transport, LH 2 can also be transported by ship or by rail, provided that
suitable waterways, railway lines and loading terminals are available.

Pipelines
A pipeline network would be the best option for the comprehensive and largescale use of
hydrogen as an energy source. However, pipelines require high levels of initial investment,
which may pay off, but only with correspondingly large volumes of hydrogen. Nevertheless, one
possibility for developing pipeline networks for hydrogen distribution is local or regional
networks, known as micro-networks. These could subsequently be combined into transregional
networks.

Storage in carbon nanostructures

An extremely recent experimental technology for hydrogen accumulation consists of
using carbon nanostructures (carbon nanotubes and nanofibres), i.e. microscopic structures made
of carbon fibres inside which it is possible to store a certain quantity of hydrogen. Discovered at
the beginning of the ‗90s, they are showing a good capacity to absorb hydrogen, with sometimes
impressive results. Several research groups are working on these materials, but the results
obtained so far are still contrasting and difficult to compare, since the tests were made on
samples of different materials, at very different pressure and temperature conditions. Storage in
crystal micro-spheres A new promising technology to store hydrogen is based on the use of
crystal micro-spheres with 25-500 micron diameter (a micron corresponds to a thousandth of a
millimetre) and with walls that are a micron thick. When heated up to 400°C, the crystal wall of
the micro-spheres becomes permeable to hydrogen. In this way it is possible to ―trap‖ the gas
inside them and transport it as fine dust in low-pressure micro-spheres. The extraction of
hydrogen is obtained by heating the micro-spheres that, after being emptied, can be filled again.
Hydrogen can be released also by breaking the spheres, although in this case they could not be
recycled.

Hydrogen Storage

Hydrogen may be a prospective source or energy carrier for the future because it is clean and
sustainable. Hydrogen can be produced from a variety of feedstock. These include fossil
resources, such as natural gas and coal, as well as renewable resources, such as biomass and
water, when we use the energy input from renewable energy sources (e.g. solar, wind, hydro-
power, etc.). Many process technologies like chemical, biological, electrolytic, photolytic, and
thermo-chemical may be used for the hydrogen production. Each technology is in a different
stage of development, and each offers unique opportunities, benefits and challenges.

Local availability of feedstock, the maturity of the technology, market applications and
demand, policy issues, and costs may influence the choice and timing of the various options for
hydrogen production. Several technologies are already available commercially for the industrial
production of hydrogen.

However, major problem with hydrogen is its efficient storage system. The most common
method to store hydrogen in gaseous form is in steel tanks, although lightweight composite
tanks designed to endure higher pressures are also becoming popular. Gaseous hydrogen cooled
to near cryogenic temperatures is another alternative that can be used to increase the volumetric
energy density of gaseous hydrogen.

In this course, we will discuss about a few of the techniques in which the hydrogen can be
stored. The major techniques are shown below,

1. Composite tanks
2. Cryogenic liquid hydrogen (LH2)
3. Chemical hydrides
4. Carbon based materials
5. Metal hydrides

Composite tanks

There are several advantages with composite tanks. Their low weight meets key targets and the
tanks are already commercially available, well-engineered and safety-tested, since extensive
prototyping experience exists. Standard size tanks are available worldwide with specific code
for pressures in the range of 350-700 bar. Composite tanks does not require internal heat
exchanger and may be used for cryogas with extra fittings. Their main disadvantages are the
large physical volume required, the fact that the ideal cylindrical shape makes it difficult to
conform storage to available space, their high cost (500-600 USD/kg H2), and the energy
penalties associated with compressing the gas to very high pressures. Figure in the next slide
show a representative sketch of a composite tank.
There are also some safety issues that still have not been resolved, such as the problem of rapid
loss of H2 in an accident. The long-term effect of hydrogen on the materials under cyclic or
cold conditions is also not fully understood. Hence, there is still need for more research and
development specifically:
  Research on material embrittlement, using new ad hoc fracture mechanics techniques.
 Development of stronger and lower-cost construction materials, especially carbon
fibers.
 Development of an efficient and clean (i.e. without oils) 1000-bar compressor.
 The consideration of hydride-type compressors utilizing waste heat or solar energy.
 Development of techniques that recover the compression energy during vehicle
operation.

Cryogenic liquid hydrogen (LH2)

Cryogenic hydrogen, usually simply referred to as liquid hydrogen (LH2), has a density of 70.8
kg/m3 at normal boiling point (–253°C). (Critical pressure is 13 bar and critical temperature is
–240°C.) The theoretical gravimetric density of liquid H2 is 100%, but only 20 wt.% H2 can be
achieved in practical hydrogen systems as of today. On a volumetric basis, the respective values
are 80 kg/m3 and 30 kg/m3. This means that liquid hydrogen has a much better energy density
than the pressurized gas solutions mentioned above.

However, it is important to recall that about 30-40% of the energy is lost when liquid H2 is
produced. The other main disadvantage with liquid H2 is the boil-off loss during dormancy,
plus the fact that super-insulated cryogenic containers are needed. The main advantage with
liquid H2 is the high storage density that can be reached at relatively low pressures. Liquid
hydrogen has been demonstrated in commercial vehicles (particularly by BMW), and in the
future it could also be co-utilized as aircraft fuel, since it provides the best weight advantage of
any H2 storage.

Further research needed in this area is as follows:

 Efficient liquefaction processes (hydride compressors, magnetic and acoustic cooling,

etc.).
 Developing systems that automatically capture the boil-off (e.g. via hydrides) and re-
liquefying the fuel.
 Minimizing costs and improving the insulated containers.

Chemical hydride

Some of the chemicals may be used to store the hydrogen gas. For example, Sodium
borohydride (NaBH4) can be used to store the hydrogen gas. In order to release the hydrogen,
the sodium borohydride solution can be catalytically hydrolyzed as per the reaction shown
below,

NaBH4 (liq.) + 2H2O (liq.) ---------> 4H2 (gas) + NaBO2 (solid)

The theoretical maximum hydrogen energy storage density for this reaction is 10.9 wt.% H2.
The main advantage with using NaBH4 solutions is that it allows for safe and controllable
onboard generation of H2. The main disadvantage is that the reaction product NaBO2 must be
regenerated back to NaBH4 off-board.

The use of NaBH4 solutions in vehicles may be prohibitively expensive. The required cost
reduction is unlikely because of the unfavorable thermodynamics. However, NaBH4 solutions
may be used in high-value portable and stationary applications.
Further research required as follows:

 Approaching the ideal energy density (10.9 wt.% H2) by optimizing the H2O needed in
the reaction and management of H2O in the fuel cell system.
 NaBO2 removal, regeneration, and replacement methods.

Carbon based materials

Carbon-based materials have received a lot of attention in the research community over the last
decade. Carbon based materials mainly include graphene, fullerenes, and carbon nano-tubes.
H2 is stored on these carbon allotropes by molecular physisorption. However, it is useful only
at cryogenic temperatures. Pure H-chemisorptions has been demonstrated to be stored upto
8wt.% H2with catalyst, but the covalent-bound H is liberated only at impractically high
temperatures (above 400°C with catalyst). Room temperature adsorption up to a few wt.%
H2 is occasionally reported, but has not been reproducible. This requires a new bonding
mechanism with energies between physisorption and strong covalent chemisorption.
Hence, the potential for H2 storage in carbon-based materials is yet to be established
practically; therefore further research may be emphasized on,

 Theoretical modeling studies of H on carbon nanostructures and in bulk phase.

 New C-H bonding mechanism has to be explored and, if theoretically so, how to
achieve it in practice.
 Study on carbon-metal composites capable of catalysing H2 dissociation and so-called
―spill over‖.
 Minimizing production costs for promising carbons (e.g. graphene, graphite nanofibers
and nanotubes).
 Measuring H2 uptake and release from carbon samples has to be standardized.

5. Metal hydride

The chemically bound hydrogen storage material is metal hydrides. Many metals and alloys
will reversibly react with hydrogen to form a hydride. A generic reaction is given in the figure
on next slide. The regeneration of the metal can be accomplished either by increasing the
temperature or by reducing the pressure. To understand this behavior it is helpful to consider
the pressure–composition isotherm (PCI) for a metal hydride.

The PCI figure in the next slide shows that as the pressure increases the hydrogen uptake
increases. The PCI plot also shows that there is a plateau above which pressure the metal will
hydride and in a closed system will continue to hydride until the pressure of the system decreases
down to that of the plateau pressure. The stored hydrogen can be released by reducing the
pressure of the system to a level below that of the plateau pressure. The plateau pressure is also
temperature dependent, and increases with temperature. Thus a hydride stable under a certain
temperature and pressure will decompose when the temperature is increased to a level where the
plateau pressure is now higher than the system pressure. The temperature needed for a 1 bar
plateau pressure, T(1 bar), is a useful characteristic of metal hydrides as this gives an indication
of the minimum working temperature for a store based on that material.
……
 Module 6
Syllabus
 Environmental impact of energy conservation
 Ozone layer depletion
 Global warming
 Green house effect
 Loss of biodiversity
 Eutrophication
 Acid rain
 Air pollution
 Water pollution
 Land degradation
 Thermal pollution
 Sustainable energy
 Promising technologies
 Development pathways

 Environmental impact of energy conservation

All energy sources affect the environment. There is no such thing as a completely ―clean‖
energy source. Getting the energy we need affects our environment in many different ways.
Some energy sources have a greater impact than others. Energy is lost to the environment during
any energy transformation, usually as heat.

Biofuels: Biomass, Ethanol and Biodiesel

On the surface, biofuels look like an ideal energy solution. Since plants absorb carbon
dioxide as they grow, crops could counteract the carbon dioxide released by cars. They are also
renewable, and can be planted to replenish supplies. Fuels provide much of the energy in biofuels
production, so biofuels may not replace as much oil as they use.
Biomass creates harmful emissions like carbon dioxide and sulfur when it is burned, but
causes less pollution than fossil fuels. Even burning wood in a fireplace or stove can create
pollutants like carbon monoxide. Burning municipal solid waste, or garbage that would
otherwise go into a landfill, can also cause potentially dangerous emissions. Combustion of these
materials must be carefully controlled. Disposing of the resulting ash can also pose a problem, as
it may contain harmful metals like lead and cadmium.
Ethanol is often added to gasoline, and while these mixtures burn cleaner than pure
gasoline, they also have higher ―evaporative emissions‖ from dispensing equipment and fuel
tanks. These emissions contribute to ozone problems and smog. Burning ethanol also creates
carbon dioxide.
Biodiesel creates less sulfur oxides, particulate matter, carbon monoxide and
hydrocarbons when burned that traditional petroleum diesel. But biodiesel creates more nitrogen
oxide than petroleum diesel.

Coal
Coal mining has the potential to harm air, water and land quality if it is not done with
proper care. Acidic water may drain from abandoned mines underground, and the burning of coal
causes the emission of harmful materials including carbon dioxide, sulfur dioxide and mercury.
―Clean coal‖ technology is being developed to remove harmful materials before they can affect
the environment, and to make it more energy-efficient so less coal is burned.The coal industry
also restores mined land to or prepares it for more productive uses once surface mining is done.

Geothermal
Geothermal power plants have relatively little environmental impact—they burn no fuel
to create electricity. These plants do create small amounts of carbon dioxide and sulfur
compounds, but geothermal emissions are far smaller than those created by fossil fuel power
plants.

Hydropower
While hydropower does not cause water or air pollution, it does have an environmental
impact: Hydroelectric power plants may harm fish populations, change water temperature and
flow (disturbing plants and animals) and force the relocation of people and animals who live near
the dam site. Some fish, like salmon, may be prevented from swimming upstream to spawn.
Technologies like fish ladders help salmon go up over dams and enter upstream spawning areas,
but the presence of hydroelectric dams changes their migration patterns and hurts fish
populations. Hydropower plants can also cause low dissolved oxygen levels in the water, which
is harmful to river habitats. Reservoirs may also lead to the creation of methane, a harmful
greenhouse gas.

Petroleum (Oil and Gas)

Great strides have been made to ensure that oil and gas producers make as little impact as
possible on the natural environments in which they operate. These include drilling multiple wells
from a single location to minimize damages to the surface, using environmentally sound
chemicals to stimulate well production and restoring the surface as nearly as possible to pre-
drilling conditions.
Most oil spills occur primarily during transportation, mostly involving the tankers that are
used to move oil from where it is produced to where consumers need it. Another source of oil
spills during transportation is pipelines. Urban runoff and natural seeps are large sources of oil
pollution. Urban runoff comes from rain washing away oil drips from cars or machinery and
people pouring used oil into the gutter and using other improper disposal methods. When burned,
petroleum products emit carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide and other air toxins, all of which have
a negative effect on the environment.

Solar
Solar energy produces no air or water pollution or greenhouse gases. However, it has
some indirect impacts on the environment. For example, the manufacturing of photovoltaic cells
(PV) produces some toxic materials and chemicals.
Ecosystems can also be affected by solar systems. Water from underground wells may be
required to clean concentrators and receivers, and to cool the generator, which may harm the
ecosystem in dry climates.

Uranium (Nuclear Energy)

Nuclear power plants produce no air pollution or carbon dioxide, but they do produce
byproducts like nuclear waste and spent fuels. Most nuclear waste is low level (for example,
disposable items that have come into contact with small amounts of radioactive dust), and special
regulations are in place to prevent them from harming the environment. But some spent fuel is
highly radioactive and must be stored in specially designed facilities. In addition to the fuel
waste, much of the equipment in the nuclear power plants becomes contaminated with radiation
and will become radioactive waste after the plant is closed. These wastes will remain radioactive
for many thousands of years, which may not allow re-use of the contaminated land.
 Nuclear power plants use large quantities of water for steam production and for cooling,
affecting fish and other aquatic life. Likewise, heavy metals and salts can build up in the water
used in the nuclear power plant systems. When water is discharged from the power plant, these
pollutants can negatively affect water quality and aquatic life.

Wind
Wind is a clean energy source. It produces no air or water pollution because no fuel is
burned to generate electricity. The most serious environmental impact from wind energy may be
its effect on bird and bat mortality. Wind turbine design has changed dramatically in the last
couple of decades to reduce this impact. Turbine blades are now solid, so there are no lattice
structures that entice birds to perch. Also, the blades‘ surface area is much larger, so they don‘t
have to spin as fast to generate power. Slower-moving blades mean fewer bird collisions.

 Ozone Layer Depletion

What is ozone?
Ozone is a gas made up of molecules that are formed by three oxygen atoms. Its molecule
formula is O3. Ozone is formed when the sunlight hits oxygen molecules (O2) and breaks them
up into individual atoms. These individual atoms then join up with O2 molecules and make O3, or
ozone.

What is the ozone layer?

Way up high in the Earth's atmosphere, called the stratosphere, there is a fairly high
concentration of ozone molecules that are formed when the sun hits oxygen molecules. This part
of the atmosphere is called the ozone layer.

Ozone is formed in the atmosphere from oxygen molecules

Why is the ozone layer important

Ozone molecules in the atmosphere provide us with important protection from the rays of
the sun. Specifically, these molecules are good at absorbing certain ultraviolet rays that can cause
sunburn and skin cancer.

How is the ozone layer getting damaged

It turns out that certain types of molecules can cause a chemical reaction when they come
in contact with ozone molecules. This causes the ozone to break up and become unable to absorb
ultraviolet light. The main molecules that are destroying the ozone layer are called
chlorofluorocarbons or CFCs.

Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs)
Chlorofluorocarbons are a group of chemicals which are made up of only chlorine,
fluorine, carbon, and hydrogen. They were first used as refrigerants to keep things cold. A lot of
people considered CFCs miracle chemicals. Eventually they were used in a variety of products
including air conditioners, spray cans, fire extinguishers, and in manufacturing foams.
Unfortunately, CFCs can eventually find their way into the Earth's atmosphere and the
ozone layer. Once they get there they destroy ozone molecules and cause the ozone layer to
become depleted or thinner.

CFCs Get Banned

In 1974 scientists Sherry Rowland and Mario Molina discovered the link between the
depletion of the ozone layer and CFCs. CFCs became somewhat regulated, but it wasn't until
1987 that a treaty was formed called Montreal Protocol to try and stop the manufacture and use
of CFCs throughout the world. CFCs were to be banned and completely eliminated in developing
countries by the year 2000.

A hole in the ozone over the Antarctic

Effects on Health
Because CFCs last so long, the ozone layer will likely continue to thin for some time in
the future. This will cause an increase risk of sunburn and skin cancer. Skin cancer can be very
dangerous. For this reason you should always wear sunscreen to protect your skin when you are
outside in the sun for a long time. Strong ultraviolet rays can also damage your eyes. You can
protect them by wearing sunglasses.

What can we do about it?

There isn't much we can do about the CFCs that were released prior to the ban, but there are
some things we can do:
 Old refrigerators - If you have a refrigerator made before 1995 it probably uses
refrigerant made from CFCs. Get a new refrigerator and be sure to have the old one
disposed of properly.
  Air conditioning - Old air conditioners, made before 1994, typically used a CFC called
Freon. If you still have one of these, it's time to get rid of it and buy a new one. Even
newer air conditioners use chemicals called HCFCs. Even though HCFCs are better for
the ozone, they still contribute to the depletion, so try and use as little air conditioning as
possible.
 Foam - A lot of foam products contain CFCs. Try and use different packing materials
such as crumpled old newspapers.

Facts About the Ozone Layer

 The word "ozone" means smelly in Greek because the gas has a strong odor.
 CFC molecules are highly stable and can last for up to 100 years. Unfortunately, this
gives them plenty of time to find their way to the ozone layer.
 One chlorine molecule from a CFC can destroy up to 100,000 ozone molecules.
 Ultraviolet rays can also have bad effects on nature. They can kill plankton, which is a
major source of food in the ocean's food chain.
 The ozone layer over Antarctica is very thin. It is sometimes called the "hole" in the
ozone layer.

 Global Warming
What is global warming?
Global warming is the term used to describe the rising of the average temperature on
Earth. It has to do with the overall climate of the Earth rather than the weather on any given day.

History of Global Temperatures

The Earth has gone through changes in temperature before. The Earth has even gone
through several ice ages, when the temperature dropped significantly and a lot of the world was
covered in ice glaciers. Each time the planet eventually warmed up and melted the ice.

Why is global warming important?

Even small variations of the planet's average temperature can have a large impact on the
environment. For example, the ice ages that occurred generally involved a reduction in the global
temperature of around 5°C.

Here are few of the things that scientists think may happen as the temperature rises. Some of
them are already happening:

 Glaciers melting - Many glaciers are already melting and shrinking throughout the
world. If the temperature increases they will continue to melt.
 Ocean levels will rise - As the glaciers melt, the ocean levels will rise. This could cause
flooding in cities located near the coast.
 Migration of animals - Animals will migrate to cooler spots as their old habitats get too
warm. This could upset the food chain and put some species in danger of extinction.
 Extreme weather - Some scientists think that warming will fuel more powerful
hurricanes as well as more droughts and flooding in different areas of the world.
 Change in ecosystems - cold weather biomes such as the tundra will shrink, while
desserts will continue to expand.
 Greenhouse gases like CO2 heat the Earth

What causes global warming?

Global warming is a very complex subject. Some scientists disagree as to what caused the
rise in temperatures that occurred during the end of the 20th century. Things that can have an
impact on global warming include the natural temperature fluctuations of the planet, greenhouse
gases such as carbon dioxide, volcanic eruptions, and increased solar activity.

Natural Fluctuations
The average temperature of the Earth has changed throughout history. Some of this is due
to natural changes in temperature that occur over time due to a large number of variables. Even
slight changes in nutrient cycles such as the carbon cycle, the oxygen cycle, and the water
cycle likely have an impact on the climate over time. Some scientists think that the current
warming trend is just a part of the Earth's natural changes in temperature and it will eventually
start to cool again.

Greenhouse Gases
The reason the Earth isn't a ball of frozen ice is because of greenhouse gases. Greenhouse
gases act like insulation to keep the Earth warm. However, as more and more greenhouse gases
get into the atmosphere, the Earth will start to grow warmer. The main greenhouse gases that
keep the Earth warm are water vapor, carbon dioxide, and methane. In the past 100 years humans
have been the cause of a significant increase in greenhouse gases in the atmosphere, especially
carbon dioxide. Every time we drive our cars or use electricity, more carbon dioxide is released
into the air.

Sun Activity
Since all the energy and heat on the Earth comes from the sun, it follows that the sun's
activity will have some effect on the temperature of the Earth. The activity of the sun is actually
different over time, which can change how much energy actually hits the Earth.

Volcanoes
When volcanoes erupt they can change the temperature of the entire Earth for a short
period of time. This is because their eruptions send large amounts of ash and particles into the
atmosphere. This blocks some of the sun's rays from hitting the Earth and can cause the Earth to
cool. At the same time, volcanic eruptions emit large amounts of carbon dioxide into the
atmosphere.
What can we do about it
We can't do much about the Earth's natural fluctuations, volcanic eruptions, or the sun's
activity, but we can impact the amount of greenhouse gases that are emitted into the air. Many of
our everyday activities cause more carbon dioxide to be released into the atmosphere including
driving cars and using electricity. You can help by trying to cut down on the amount of
electricity you use as well as how much driving you (or your parents) do. Things like carpooling
to events and planting trees can help.

Carbon Footprint
One way to measure how much carbon dioxide you contribute to the atmosphere is by
calculating your carbon footprint. There are a lot of variables to consider including the gas
mileage of your family's car and how your local power plant generates its electricity. A lot of the
same activities that produce carbon dioxide also cause air pollution, so by lowering your carbon
footprint you can help the environment in many ways.

Facts About Global Warming

 It takes lots of data and many years to determine how the average temperature of the
Earth is changing. Even then, many scientists disagree on how to interpret the data.
 Since 1990, worldwide carbon dioxide emissions have risen by over 20 percent.
 The United Nations formed a group called the International Panel on Climate Change to
investigate global warming.
 One way to reduce carbon dioxide is to use clean renewable energy sources such as solar
energy and wind energy. These sources produce much less pollution as well.

 Green house effect

Greenhouse effect, a warming of Earth‘s surface and troposphere (the lowest layer of
the atmosphere) caused by the presence of water vapour, carbon dioxide, methane, and certain
other gases in the air. Of those gases, known as greenhouse gases, water vapour has the largest
effect.
The greenhouse effect is the process by which radiation from a planet's atmosphere
warms the planet's surface to a temperature above what it would be without its atmosphere.
Greenhouse gases include water vapour, carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, ozone and some
artificial chemicals such as chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs).The absorbed energy warms the
atmosphere and the surface of the Earth. This process maintains the Earth‘s temperature at
around 33 degrees Celsius warmer than it would otherwise be, allowing life on Earth to exist.

The exchange of incoming and outgoing radiation that warms the Earth is often referred
to as the greenhouse effect because a greenhouse works in much the same way. Incoming UV
radiation easily passes through the glass walls of a greenhouse and is absorbed by the plants and
hard surfaces inside. Weaker IR radiation, however, has difficulty passing through the glass
walls and is trapped inside, thus warming the greenhouse. This effect lets tropical plants thrive
inside a greenhouse, even during a cold winter. A similar phenomenon takes place in a car
parked outside on a cold, sunny day. Incoming solar radiation warms the car's interior, but
outgoing thermal radiation is trapped inside the car's closed windows.
 The problem we now face is that human activities – particularly burning fossil fuels
(coal, oil and natural gas), agriculture and land clearing – are increasing the concentrations of
greenhouse gases. This is the enhanced greenhouse effect, which is contributing to warming of
the Earth.

Greenhouse effect

Step 1: Solar radiation reaches the Earth's atmosphere - some of this is reflected back into space.
Step 2: The rest of the sun's energy is absorbed by the land and the oceans, heating the Earth.
Step 3: Heat radiates from Earth towards space.
Step 4: Some of this heat is trapped by greenhouse gases in the atmosphere, keeping the Earth
warm enough to sustain life.
Step 5: Human activities such as burning fossil fuels, agriculture and land clearing are increasing
the amount of greenhouse gases released into the atmosphere.

 Loss of biodiversity
Loss of biodiversity or biodiversity loss is the extinction of species (plant or animal)
worldwide, and also the local reduction or loss of species in a certain habitat. Ecological effects
of biodiversity are usually counteracted by its loss.

What is Biodiversity?
Biodiversity or Biological diversity is a term that describes the variety of living beings on
earth. In short, it is described as degree of variation of life. Biological diversity encompasses
microorganism, plants, animals and ecosystems such as coral reefs, forests, rainforests, deserts
etc.
Biodiversity also refers to the number, or abundance of different species living within a
particular region. It represents the wealth of biological resources available to us. It‘s all about the
sustaining the natural area made up of community of plants, animals, and other living things that
is begin reduced at a steady rate as we plan human activities that is being reduced by habitat
destruction.
Biodiversity has three essential elements:
 Genetic diversity,
 Eco system diversity and
 Species diversity

Why is Biodiversity Important?

Biodiversity has a number of functions on the Earth. These are as follows:
 Maintaining balance of the ecosystem: Recycling and storage of nutrients,
combating pollution, and stabilizing climate, protecting water resources, forming and
protecting soil and maintaining ecobalance.
 Provision of biological resources: Provision of medicines and pharmaceuticals, food
for the human population and animals, ornamental plants, wood products, breeding
stock and diversity of species, ecosystems and genes.
 Social benefits: Recreation and tourism, cultural value and education and research.
The role of biodiversity in the following areas will help make clear the importance of
biodiversity in human life:
Causes of the loss of biodiversity
The main cause of the loss of biodiversity can be attributed to the influence of human
beings on the world‘s ecosystem, In fact human beings have deeply altered the environment, and
have modified the territory, exploiting the species directly, for example by fishing and hunting,
changing the biogeochemical cycles and transferring species from one area to another of the
Planet.

The threats to biodiversity can be summarized in the following main points:

 Alteration and loss of the habitats: the transformation of the natural areas determines not
only the loss of the vegetable species, but also a decrease in the animal species associated
to them.
 Introduction of exotic species and genetically modified organisms: species originating
from a particular area, introduced into new natural environments can lead to different
forms of imbalance in the ecological equilibrium. Refer to, ―Introduction of exotic
species and genetically modified organisms‖.
 Pollution: human activity influences the natural environment producing negative, direct
or indirect, effects that alter the flow of energy, the chemical and physical constitution of
the environment and abundance of the species;
 Climate change: for example, heating of the Earth‘s surface affects biodiversity because
it endangers all the species that adapted to the cold due to the latitude (the Polar species)
or the altitude (mountain species).
 Overexploitation of resources: when the activities connected with capturing and
harvesting (hunting, fishing, farming) a renewable natural resource in a particular area is
excessively intense, the resource itself may become exhausted, as for example, is the case
of sardines, herrings, cod, tuna and many other species that man captures without leaving
enough time for the organisms to reproduce.
 Population Growth and Over-consumption: ...
  Illegal Wildlife Trade:
 Species extinction:

 Eutrophication

Eutrophication is a process of excessive richness of nutrients in a lake or other body of

water, frequently due to run-off from the land, which causes a dense growth of plant life.
Eutrophication, the gradual increase in the concentration of phosphorus, nitrogen, and
other plant nutrients in an aging aquatic ecosystem such as a lake. The productivity or fertility of
such an ecosystem increases as the amount of organic material that can be broken down into
nutrients increases. This material enters the ecosystem primarily by runoff from land that carries
debris and products of the reproduction and death of terrestrial organisms. Blooms, or great
concentrations of algae and microscopic organisms, often develop on the surface, preventing the
light penetration and oxygen absorption necessary for underwater life.
Cultural eutrophication occurs when man speeds up the aging process by allowing
excessive amounts of nutrients in such forms as sewage, detergents, and fertilizers to enter the
ecosystem.
Algae grow in the sea feeding on nutrients in the water. Algae grow better when more
nutrients (nitrates and phosphates) are present in the water column. A small increase
in algalbiomass has no adverse effects on the ecosystem and can even lead to an increase of
certainfish populations. An overgrowth however can lead to an algal bloom which may disturb
the water. The algae may keep out the light and when they eventually die, they are decomposed
by bacteria which consume oxygen in this process so that the water may become temporarily
anoxic (hypoxia) which may be toxic to aquatic life. An enrichment by or excess of nutrients to
the water is called eutrophication and may result in an explosive growth of algae. Depending on
the environment (quiet bay or rough seas) and the type of algae (microscopic or macroscopic), a
'bloom' can be observed in different forms: foam or a green tide on the beach.

Eutrophication is one of the causes of the deterioration of water quality. In the North Sea
and the English Channel, this is mainly due to human activities. Nutrients can have a natural or
anthropogenic origin and come from:

 Domestic wastewater
 Industrial waste
 Agriculture (fertilizer use)Atmospheric deposition of nitrogen (livestock and gases)

The overload of nitrogen, phosphorus and other organic material can result in a
series of 'side effects'.
 The main effects of eutrophication are:

 Increasing biomass of phytoplankton resulting in 'algal blooms'.

 Hypoxia (reduced dissolved oxygen content of a body of water).
 An increasing number of incidents of fish kills.
 The water can have a bad taste, color and odeur which has a negative impact on tourism.
Governments have to invest more in waste water treatment.
 Decline or loss of species biodiversity (commercially important species may disappear).
 Some phytoplankton species produce toxins that cause severe symptoms such as diarrhea,
memory loss, paralysis and in severe causes death.
 Abundance of particulate substances (phytoplankton, zooplankton, bacteria, fungi and
debris) that determine the turbidity and colouration of the water;
 Abundance of inorganic chemicals such ammonia, nitrites, hydrogen sulphide etc.
That in the drinking water treatment plants induce the formation of harmful
substances such as nitrosamines suspected of mutagenicity;
 Abundance of organic substances that give the water disagreeable odours or tastes, barely
water purifier inlet tubes, accelerating corrosion and limiting the flow rate;
 The water acquires disagreeable odours or tastes (of earth, of rotten fish, of cloves, of
watermelon, etc.) Due to the presence of particular algae;
 Disappearance or significant reduction of quality fish with very negative effects on
fishing (instead of quality species such as trout undesirable ones such as carp become
established);
 Possible affirmation of toxic algae with potential damage to the population and animals
drinking the affected water;
 Prohibition of touristic use of the lake and bathing, due to both the foul odour on the
shores caused by the presence of certain algae, as well as the turbidity and anything but
clean and attractive appearance of the water; bathing is dangerous because certain algae
cause skin irritation;
 Reduction of oxygen concentration, especially in the deeper layers of the lake at the end
of summer and in autumn.

 Acid rain
Acid rain, or acid deposition, is a broad term that includes any form of precipitation with
acidic components, such as sulfuric or nitric acid that fall to the ground from the atmosphere in
wet or dry forms. This can include rain, snow, fog, hail or even dust that is acidic.
Acid rain results when sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOX) are emitted into
the atmosphere and transported by wind and air currents. The SO2 and NOX react with water,
oxygen and other chemicals to form sulfuric and nitric acids. These then mix with water and
other materials before falling to the ground.
While a small portion of the SO2 and NOX that cause acid rain is from natural sources such as
volcanoes, most of it comes from the burning of fossil fuels. The major sources of SO2 and
NOX in the atmosphere are:
 Burning of fossil fuels to generate electricity. Two thirds of SO2 and one fourth of NOX in the
atmosphere come from electric power generators.
 Vehicles and heavy equipment.
 Manufacturing, oil refineries and other industries.
Winds can blow SO2 and NOX over long distances and across borders making acid rain a
problem for everyone and not just those who live close to these sources.

Forms of Acid Deposition:-

There are two type of acid deposition. They are

Wet Deposition
Wet deposition is what we most commonly think of as acid rain. The sulfuric and nitric
acids formed in the atmosphere fall to the ground mixed with rain, snow, fog, or hail.
Dry Deposition
Acidic particles and gases can also deposit from the atmosphere in the absence of
moisture as dry deposition

Causes of Acid Rain

Both natural and man-made sources are known to play a role in the formation of acid
rain. But, it is mainly caused by combustion of fossil fuels which results in emissions of sulfur
dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx). there are mainly two causes for acid rain
1. Natural Sources
2. Man-made sources

1. Natural Sources
The major natural causal agent for acid rain is volcanic emissions. Volcanoes emit
acid producing gases to create higher than normal amounts of acid rain or any other form of
precipitation such as fog and snow to an extent of affecting vegetation cover and health of
residents within the surrounding. Decaying vegetation, wildfires and biological processes within
the environment also generate the acid rain forming gases. Dimethly sulfide is a typical example
of a major biological contributor to sulfur containing elements into the atmosphere. Lighting
strikes also naturally produces nitric oxides that react with water molecules via electrical activity
to produce nitric acid, thereby forming acid rain.

 Volcanic eruptions: The main natural causal agent for acid rain is volcanic emissions.
Volcanoes emit acid-producing gases, mainly sulfur, to create higher than normal
 amounts of acid rain or any other form of precipitation such as fog or snow to an extent
of affecting vegetation cover and health of residents within the surrounding.
 Decaying vegetation, wildfires, and biological processes: Decaying vegetation,
wildfires, and biological processes within the environment also generate the acid rain
forming gases. Dimethyl sulfide is a typical example of a major biological contributor to
sulfur-containing elements into the atmosphere.
 Lightning: Lightning strikes naturally produce nitric oxides that react with water
molecules via electrical activity to produce nitric acid, thereby forming acid rain.
Lightning is the major natural source of NOx.

2. Man-made sources
Human activities leading to chemical gas emissions such as sulfur and nitrogen are the
primary contributors to acid rain. The main man made sources are
1. Combustion of coal and oil
2. Power plants and manufacturing industries
3. Automobiles and other vehicles

The activities include air pollution sources emitting sulfur and nitrogen gases like
factories, power generations facilities, and automobiles. In particular, use of coal for electrical
power generation is the biggest contributor to gaseous emissions leading to acid rain.
Automobiles and factories also release high scores of gaseous emissions on daily basis into the
air, especially in highly industrialized areas and urban regions with large numbers of car traffic.
These gases react in the atmosphere with water, oxygen, and other chemicals to form various
acidic compounds such as sulfuric acid, ammonium nitrate, and nitric acid. As a result, these
areas experience exceedingly high amounts of acid rain.

Effects of acid rain:-

1. Soil Degradation
Acid rain highly affects soil chemistry and biology. The soil microbes, biological activity, and
soil chemical compositions such as the soil pH are usually damaged or altered due to the effects
of acid rain. The soil needs to maintain an optimum pH value for biological activities to flourish.
So, whenever acid rain seeps into the soil, it alters the optimum pH level that reverses the
chemical and biological activities.
Sensitive soil microorganisms that cannot adapt to the changes in pH are thus killed while
at the same time enzymes for soil microbes are denatured. High acidity levels can also leach
away vital minerals and nutrients such calcium and magnesium. Consequently, the soil loses its
quality and composition which incapacitates its ability to support plant life or soil
microorganisms.

2. Damage to Trees and Vegetation Cover

Acid rain penetrates into the soil and dissolves the most vital nutrients needed by trees. Acid rain
also discharges lots of aluminum into the soil around the trees that renders them incapable of
taking up water. Thus, the trees and vegetation become highly vulnerable to disease and pest
attack. Besides, acid rain has lead to stunted growth and even death of some trees and vegetation.
For instance, the damaging effects of acid rain on soil and elevated levels of acidic dry
depositions have ceaselessly damaged high altitude trees and vegetation cover since most of
them are encircled by acidic fogs and clouds. In Germany, there is an area called black forest
which acquired the name because acid rain made the trees shed all their leaves and are now only
black stems and branches.

3. Effects on Aquatic Life-Forms

Acid rain has a tendency of altering the pH and aluminum concentrations, in turn, greatly
affecting the pH concentration in surface waters and in consequence, fish and other aquatic life-
forms are hugely affected. At pH levels below 5, most fish eggs cannot hatch.
Lower pHs can also kill adult fish. Hence, the aquatic biodiversity in rivers, streams,
lakes and oceans are significantly affected by acid rain runoff from catchment areas as more and
more water become acidic. High aquatic acidity creates intolerable survival conditions, which
has reduced or even killed species such as fish, plant life, insects, and aquatic birds among other
aquatic life forms.
Some rivers and brooks have also been reduced while some completely eliminated owing
to excess acid rain. In Scandinavia, for instance, thousands of lakes and rivers have no more
aquatic life-forms in them because they have been receiving high levels of acid rains for many
years.

4. Health Implications
Acid rain may not have direct effects on human health. However, the dry depositions in
the air that form acid rain can negatively impact human health by causing respiratory problems
and difficulty in breathing when inhaled. Children and those who already have respiratory health
conditions such as asthma are adversely affected.
Headaches and irritations of the nose, throat and eyes are some of the mild implications.
Intensified levels of the acidic depositions are linked to risks of developing heart and lung
problems such as asthma and bronchitis, and even cancer. When we drink tap water
contaminated with acid rain, it can damage our brains.

5. Acidification of Surface Waters

Acidification of surface waters is the immediate effect of acid rain. Rivers, brooks, lakes,
and oceans have greatly become acidic as a result of acid rain when it precipitates over these
surface waters. Due to high acidity levels in these surface waters, fish and other aquatic life
forms have been adversely affected.Some lakes, rivers and streams in China, North America, and
Europe have become highly acidic to an extent that they cannot support any life forms, creating
what is termed as ―dead zones.‖

6. Corrosive Effects
Acid rain has corrosive effects because it eats into metals and stone. As a result, it has led to
weathering of buildings, corrosion of metals, and peeling of paints on surfaces. Building
structures made of marble and limestone are mostly affected by acid rain as the acid eats the
calcium compounds in the structures. This effect has damaged buildings, gravestones, statues
and historic monuments. Metals like steel, bronze, copper, and iron are also corroded by acid
rain.

 Air pollution
In general, any substance introduced by the people into the atmosphere which has a
damaging effect on the living organisms as well as on the environment is considered as air
pollution.
Another perspective of looking at air pollution could be through the gases or substances
that hold the potential to hinder the atmosphere or the well-being of the living beings surviving
in it. The sustainability of all living organisms is due to a combination of gases that collectively
form the atmosphere, and hence the imbalance caused by the change in the percentage of these
gases or substances can be harmful to survival.
 Types of Pollutants
They are separated into two categories:
Outdoor :
The pollutants outside the built environment fall under this category.
Examples include:
 Fine particles produced by the burning of fossil fuels (i.e. the coal and petroleum used in traffic
and energy production)
 Noxious gases (sulfur dioxide, nitrogen oxides, carbon monoxide, chemical vapours, etc.)
 Ground-level ozone (a reactive form of oxygen and a primary component of urban smog)
 Tobacco smoke
Indoor :
The particulates, carbon oxides and other pollutants carried by the indoor air or dust fall under
this category.
Examples include:
 Gases (carbon monoxide, radon etc.)
 Household products and chemicals
 Building materials (asbestos, formaldehyde, lead etc.)
 Outdoor indoor allergens (cockroach and mouse dropping, etc.)
 Tobacco smoke
 Mould and pollens

Causes of Air Pollution

In order to understand the contributing causes of air pollution, we first need to understand
the nature of pollutants swirling around us. Where do these air pollutants come from?
Air pollutants can either be the primary sources or the secondary sources. The pollutants
that are a direct result of various processes are referred to as primary pollutants. A few
examples of primary pollutants are the carbon-dioxide gas emitted from vehicle exhaust, and the
sulfur dioxide emitted from factories. Secondary pollutants are the ones which result from the
intermingling and reactions of the aforementioned primary pollutants. For instance, the smog
created when the crackers are burst in excess or when there is too much vehicle exhaust due to
traffic is known to be as a secondary pollutant.

Major contributors to air pollution:

1. Burning of Fossil Fuels: Sulfur dioxide emitted from the combustion of fossil fuels like coal,
petroleum and other factory combustibles are one of the major cause of air pollution. Pollutants
emitted from vehicles further contribute to the degradation of the environment. Carbon
Monoxide produced by the incomplete combustion of fuel is another major pollutant along with
the Nitrogen Oxides that are produced from both natural and man-made processes.
2. Agricultural Activities: Ammonia is a very common byproduct of the agriculture-related
activities and is one of the most hazardous gases in the atmosphere. The use of insecticides,
pesticides and fertilizers in agriculture also leads to the emission of harmful chemicals causing
pollution.
3. Exhaust from Factories and Industries: Manufacturing industries and petroleum refineries
release a large amount of carbon monoxide, hydrocarbons, organic compounds and chemicals
into the air thereby depleting the quality of air.
4. Mining Operations: During the process of mining, huge volumes of dust and other chemicals
are released into the air causing massive air pollution and leading to deteriorating health
conditions of mining workers and nearby residents.
5. Indoor Air Pollution: Household cleaning products, painting supplies etc. emit toxic chemicals
in the air while causing air pollution.
6. Suspended Particulate Matter: Popular by its acronym SPM, it is another cause of air
pollution. While referring to the particles afloat in the air, the SPM is usually caused by dust,
combustion etc.

Effects of Air Pollution

Effects on Human Health

Air pollution can severely harm the health of people and animals, damage plants or stop
them from growing properly. Some of the major health issues caused by air pollution are:
 respiratory diseases (including asthma and changes in lung function)
 cardiovascular diseases
 adverse pregnancy outcomes (such as preterm birth)
 even death in some cases
In 2013, the World Health Organization even concluded that outdoor air pollution is
carcinogenic to humans. Several million are known to have died due to direct or indirect effects
of air pollution. Children in areas exposed to air pollutants are said to commonly suffer from
pneumonia and asthma.

Effects on Earth
The air pollution has a number of repercussions, mentioned as follows:
1. Global Warming: With increased temperatures worldwide, the resulting increase in sea levels
and the melting of ice from the colder regions and icebergs, or the loss of habitat have already
signalled an impending disaster if actions for preservation and normalization aren‘t undertaken
soon.
2. Acid Rain: Harmful gases like the nitrogen oxides and sulfur oxides released into the
atmosphere during the burning of fossil fuels combine with water droplets during rain forming
acids and leading to acid rain. Acid rain can cause great damage to living organisms, plants and
monuments.
3. Eutrophication: It is a condition where a high amount of nitrogen present in pollutants gets
accumulated on the surface of a water body, leading to the deposition of green algae. Reducing
the amount of sunlight entering and the dissolved oxygen in the water, it really affects the
aquatic life.
4. Effect on Wildlife: Toxic chemicals present in the air affect wildlife and force it to move to new
places and change habitats leading to an imbalance in the flora and fauna of a particular area.
5. Depletion of Ozone layer: Ozone exists in the Earth‘s stratosphere and is responsible for
protecting the mankind from harmful ultraviolet (UV) rays. The Ozone layer is getting depleted
due to the presence of chlorofluorocarbon and hydrochlorofluorocarbons in the atmosphere
resulting in an increased effect of UV rays causing skin and eye diseases.

How to Reduce Air Pollution?

A very effective and promising approach to reduce air pollution is by transitioning
towards renewable energy.
On a larger scale, the governments of the various nation-states are taking measures to
limit the emissions of carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases. The Paris Agreement, a
voluntary agreement among 118 nations ratified on November 4, 2016, was one similar effort
which was enacted on a global scale to combat climate change. As a part of the agreement, each
country agreed to take measures to combat climate change, with the ultimate goal of keeping the
post-industrial global temperature rise below the target of two degrees Celsius.

Several other methods to curb air pollution are listed as follows:

1. Using Public Mode of Transportation: Encourage people to use more and more public modes
of transportation to reduce pollution. Also, try to make use of carpooling which is indeed a good
option to save energy and money.
2. Conserving Energy: Switch off fans and lights when you are going out. A large number of
fossil fuels are burnt to produce electricity. Switching off fans and lights while going out can
reduce the amount of fuel being used.
3. Understanding the Concept of Reduce, Reuse and Recycle: Do not throw away the items that
are no longer of any use but reuse them. For instance, use the old jars to store cereals or pulses.
Use items that are biodegradable and can be recycled.
5. Emphasizing on Clean Energy Resources: Clean energy technologies like solar, wind and
geothermal energy are on high these days. Governments of various countries have been
providing grants to consumers who are interested in installing solar panels for their homes and
offices.
6. Using Energy Efficient Devices: The CFL lights consume less electricity as compared to their
counterparts. They last longer, consume less electricity, lower the electricity bills and also help
you to reduce pollution by consuming less energy.

Alternatives to pollution
There are practical alternatives to the principal causes of air pollution:
 According to a NASA led 2017 study, aviation biofuel mixed in with jet fuel at a 50/50 ratio can
reduce jet derived cruise altitude particulate emissions by 50-70%.
 Ship propulsion and idling can be switched to cleaner fuels like natural gas.
 Ground source heat pumps and seasonal thermal energy storage can be used for space heating.
 Electric power generation from burning fossil fuels can be replaced by power generation from
nuclear and renewables.
 Motor vehicles can be replaced by electric vehicles. However, even in emission-free electric
vehicles, rubber tires produce significant amounts of air pollution themselves.
 Reducing travel in vehicles can curb pollution.
 Biodigesters can be utilized in poor nations where slash and burn are prevalent, turning a useless
commodity into a source of income.
 Induced humidity and ventilation both can greatly dampen air pollution in enclosed spaces.

 Water pollution

Water pollution is defined as the presence in groundwater of toxic chemicals and

biological agents that exceed what is naturally found in the water and may pose a threat to
human health and/or the environment. Additionally, water pollution may consist of chemicals
introduced into the water bodies as a result of various human activities. Any amount of those
chemicals pollutes the water, regardless of the harm they may pose to human health and the
environment.
Types of Water Pollution
There are various types of water pollution based on the various causes of water
pollution. Various classifications can be made, based on various water pollution causes:
The type of the water pollutants – based on this classification criteria, water pollution
can be:

1. Chemical – when various chemicals are the water pollution causes. The following
chemicals are the most common water pollutants:

 Crude oil and various petroleum products (including gasoline, diesel fuel, kerosene,
motor and lubricating oils, jet fuel). These compounds are lighter than water and thus
always sit on top of water forming sheens of ―free product‖. However, part of these
compounds dissolve in water and, even in small amounts may be harmful and at the same
time may remain unnoticeable by the eye.
  Fertilizers (including nitrates and phosphates) – while small amounts are useful to life,
higher amounts of nitrates and phosphates in water are only beneficial to algae and
harmful microorganisms and are poisonous to human and aquatic life. These
contaminants cannot be seen themselves in water (as they do not form sheens or color the
water), but their effects can. The typical effect of water pollution by fertilizers (usually
through agricultural runoff) is the fast and abundant water growth.
 Chlorinated solvents (including TCE, PCE, 1,1,1-TCA, carbon tetrachloride, Freons)
which sink in water (are denser than water) and are quite persistent and toxic. These
compounds thus, cannot be seen by the eye, in contrast with petroleum products that are
easily seen as sheens on top of water surface.
 Petroleum solvents (including benzene, toluene, xylenes, ethylbenzene)
 Other organic solvents and chemicals (such as acetone, methyl ethyl ketone, alcohols
such as ethanol, isopropanol; or oxygenate compounds such as MTBE)
 Antibiotics and other pharmaceutical products;
 Perchlorate – perchlorate salts are used in rocket fuels, as well as many other
applications such as fireworks, explosives, road flares, inflation bags, etc. This
contaminant is usually associated with military bases, construction sites (when explosives
are used). However, natural formation in arid areas may account for perchlorate in water,
too (e.g., in Chile, Texas or California where natural formation of perchlorate has been
observed)
 Trihalomethanes – these are usually byproducts of water chlorination and may pollute
groundwater and surface water via leaking sewer lines and discharges. Examples of such
compounds are: chloroform, bromoform, dichlorobromomethane;
 Metals and their compounds – of higher health risk are the organo-metal compounds
which may form when metals from water react with organic compounds from water.
Common examples include Hg, As, and Cr poisoning of water. Thus, if water is polluted
with both metals and organic compounds the health risk is higher. And so is the effect of
water pollution on aquatic life.
 Pesticides/insecticides/herbicides – comprise a large number of individual chemicals
that get into water due to agricultural activities directly (by spraying over large areas) or
indirectly with agriculture runoff. The insecticide DDT is a typical example of such type
of water pollutant.
 PCBs – in spite of their recent ban, their ubiquitous environmental presence makes these
contaminants usually associated with urban runoffs.

2. Radiological – when radioactive materials are the water pollutant causes.

3. Biological – when various microorganisms (e.g., bacterial species and viruses), worms,
and/or algae occurring in a large number are the water pollution causes. This type of
pollution is caused by decaying organic material in water, animal wastes, as well as
improper disposal of human wastes.

Sources of Water Pollution

The main sources of pollution are all resulted from the disposal of chemical substances
coming from medical, industrial and household waste, chaotic agricultural fertilizers disposal
and accidental oil spills that pollute the water to a large extent.

1. Natural Causes of Water Pollution

Sometimes water pollution can occur through natural causes like volcanoes, algae
blooms, animal waste, and silt from storms and floods.
2. Human Causes of Water Pollution
 A lot of water pollution comes from human activity. Some human causes include
sewage, pesticides and fertilizers from farms, waste water and chemicals from factories,
silt from construction sites, and trash from people littering.
3. Oil Spills
Some of the most famous incidents of water pollution have been oil spills. One
was the Exxon Valdez oil spill which occurred when an oil tanker hit a reef off the coast
of Alaska and over 11 million gallons of oil spilled into the ocean. Another bad oil spill
was the Deepwater Horizon oil spill when an explosion at an oil well caused over 200
million gallons to spill into the Gulf of Mexico.
4. Acid Rain
Air pollution can also have a direct effect on water pollution. When particles
like sulfur dioxide get high into the air they can combine with rain to produce acid rain.
Acid rain can turn lakes acidic, killing fishes and other animals.

Examples of major water pollutants that affect the health of humans are:
 The numerous infectious agents (bacteria, viruses, and parasites) that contaminate the
water through sewage, human waste, and animal excreta
 Radioactive waste that contains highly toxic materials such as uranium, thorium, and
radon. This waste is a major water pollutant resulted from mining activities, power plants
or natural sources
 The chemical substances that contaminate the water. These chemicals can be either
organic - pesticides, plastic, oil, detergents, etc. - coming from domestic, industrial or
agricultural waste, or inorganic - acids, metals, salts - domestic and industrial effluents.

Examples of major water pollutants that affect the ecosystem only are the following:
 plant nutrients like phosphates and nitrates that form various chemical fertilizers, sewage,
and manure
 oxygen-demanding manures and agricultural waste resulted from sewage and agricultural
run-offs
 sediments in the soil (silt) following soil erosion, and heated waters used in several
industries and power plants.

Effects of Pollution of Water

Water pollution may cause a large variety of diseases and poses a serious problem for
human health. This is mainly because we may get exposed to polluted water in various ways,
including, but not necessarily limited to:
 Drinking polluted water
 Bathing or showering in polluted water
 Swimming in polluted water
 Breathing the vapors of a polluted water while sitting next to a polluted water source
 Consuming polluted food (meat and/or vegetables) affected by polluted water
 Consuming meat from animals fed with polluted water of food affected by polluted
water (e.g. vegetables irrigated with polluted water or grown in an area with polluted
groundwater)
• Diseases: In humans, drinking or consuming polluted water in any way has many
disastrous effects on our health. It causes typhoid, cholera, hepatitis and various other
diseases.
• Destruction of Ecosystems: Ecosystems are extremely dynamic and respond to even
small changes in the environment. Water pollution can cause an entire ecosystem to
collapse if left unchecked.
 • Eutrophication: Chemicals in a water body, encourage the growth of algae. These
algae form a layer on top of the pond or lake. Bacteria feed on this algae and this
decreases the amount of oxygen in the water body, severely affecting the aquatic life
there.
• Effects the food chain: Disruption in food chains happens when toxins and pollutants in
the water are consumed by aquatic animals (fish, shellfish etc) which are then consumed
by humans.

 Land degradation
Land degradation is a process in which the value of the biophysical environment is
affected by a combination of human-induced processes acting upon the land.

Land degradation means:

1. Loss of natural fertility of soil because of loss of nutrients.

2. Less vegetation cover
3. Changes in the characteristic of soil.
4. Pollution of water resources from the contamination of soil through which water
sweeps into ground or runoff to the water bodies.
5. Changes in climatic conditions because of unbalanced created in the environment.

Causes of Land Degradation:

1. Deforestation:
Forests play an important role in maintaining fertility of soil by shedding their leaves
which contain many nutrients. Forests are also helpful in binding up of soil particles with the
help of roots of vegetation. Therefore, cutting о forests will affect the soil adversely.
2. Excessive Use of Fertilizers and Pesticides:
Fertilizers are indispensable for increasing food production but their excessive use has
occasioned much concern as a possible environmental threat. Excessive use of fertilizers is
causing an imbalance in the quantity of certain nutrients in the soil. This imbalance adversely
affects the vegetation.
3. Overgrazing:
Increase in livestock population results in overexploitation of pastures. Due to this, grass
and other types of vegetation are unable to survive and grow in the area, and lack of vegetation
cover leads to soil erosion. Millions of people in Africa and Asia raise animals on pastures and
rangelands that have low carrying capacity because of poor quality or unreliable rainfall
Pastoralists and their rangelands are threatened by overgrazing.

4. Salination:
Increase in the concentration of soluble salts in the soil is called salination. India has
about six million hectares of saline land.
The origin of saline soil depends on the following factors:
1. Quality of Irrigation Water:
The ground water of arid regions are generally saline in nature. The irrigation water may be itself
rich in soluble water and add to salinity of soils.
ADVERTISEMENTS:
2. Excess Use of Fertilizers:
Excess use of alkaline fertilizers like sodium nitrate, basic slag, etc. may develop alkalinity in
soils.
3. Capillary Action:
Salts from the lower layers move up by capillary action during summer season and are deposited
on the surface of the soil.
4. Poor Drainage of Soil:
Salts dissolved In Irrigation water accumulate on the soil surface due to inadequate drainage,
especially during flood.
5. Salts Blown by Wind:
In arid region near the sea, lot of salt is blown by wind and gets deposited on the lands.
5. Water-logging:
Excessive irrigation and improper drainage facility in the fields cause rise in the ground water
level. This ground water mixes with surface water used for irrigation and creates a situation
called water-logging. Ground water brings the salts of soil in dissolved state up to the surface
where they form a layer or sheet of salt after evaporation. The term salinity is used for such a
situation.

6. Desertification:
Desertification is a widespread process of land degradation in arid, semi- arid, and dry
sub-humid areas resulting from various factors, including climatic variations and human
activities. The UNO Conference on Desertification (1977) has defined desertification as the
―diminution or destruction of the biological potential of land, and can lead ultimately to desert
like conditions.‖
The major causes of desertification are mismanagement of forests, overgrazing, mining and
quarrying.
(a) Degradation of vegetative cover;
(b) Water erosion;
(c) Wind erosion;
(d) Salinization;
(e) Reduction in soil organic matter; and
(f) Excess of toxic substances.

7. Soil erosion:
Accelerated soil erosion by water and wind is the major land degradation process and this
is a consequence of changed relationship between environmental factors which occur as a result
of human interventions. Adverse changes in physical, chemical or biological characteristics of
the soil result in reduced fertility and soil erosion. Other kinds of land degradation are as water-
logging, chemical contamination, acidification, salinity and alkalinity etc.
Land degradation results from the combined effects of processes such as loss of
biological diversity and vegetative cover, soil loss nutrient imbalance, decline in soil organic
matter and decrease of infiltration and water retention capacity. Soil erosion means the removal
of top fertile layer of the soil. Soil erosion by wind and water is the most common and extensive.
(i) Wind Erosion:
At places where there is no vegetation and soil is sandy, strong winds blow the loose and coarse
soil particles and dust to long distances. The depletion of forests lead to loosening of soil
particles due to lack of roots and moisture in soil. These loosened particles are more prone to soil
erosion by winds.
(ii) Water Erosion:
Deforestation, overgrazing and mining, all are equally responsible for an increase in the
rate of erosion by water. Water erosion is caused either by water in motion or by the beating
action of rain drops. Water during heavy rains may remove the thin soil cover over large areas
more or less uniformly.
It is called sheet erosion. If the erosion continues unchecked, numerous finger-shaped grooves
may develop all over the area as a result of the silt-laden run off. This is called rill erosion. Gully
erosion is an advanced stage of rill erosion because the unattended rills begin to attain the form
of gullies, increasing their width, depth and length.
Soil erosion due to water is the most serious land degradation problem in India. It causes land
degradation through huge loss of top fertile soil along with plant nutrients through runoff water.
It reduces the depth of soil where it takes place, depletes the ground water table, limits the
moisture storage capacity and feeding zones of the crops, deteriorates the soil organic matter,
destroys soil structure and impairs fertility due to nutrient losses.
Many factors contribute to water-logging. These include inadequate drainage, improved
balance in the use of ground and surface water, planning crops not suited to specific soils. Water-
logging is most the serious problem in Haryana, Punjab, West Bengal, Andhra Pradesh and
Maharashtra.

8. Wasteland:
Wastelands are the lands which are economically unproductive, ecologically unsuitable
and subject to environmental deterioration. Estimates show that wastelands in India form about
half of our country.
Wastelands are of two types:
(a) Culturable; and
(b) Unculturable.
The culturable wastelands include ravinous land, waterlogged land, marsh and saline lands,
forest land, degraded land, strip land, mining and industrial wastelands. On the other hand,
unculturable wastelands include barren rocky areas, steep slopes, snow-capped mountains and
glaciers.

9. Landslides:
The sudden movement of the soil and the weathered rock material down the slope due to
the force of gravity is called a landslide. Lad-slides are common in mountainous regions
especially those which are situated along the river banks or near the coastline.
The flow of water continuously goes on doing the eroding work which results in landslides
sooner or later. Especially when the rivers are in flood they greatly add to landslides. In India,
landslides are common in the mountainous regions of the north and north-eastern parts. Human
induced activities are also responsible for landslides.
They are:
(a) Deforestation in hilly areas;
(b) Excessive mining in hilly areas;
(c) Construction of dams;
(d) Infrastructure; and
(e) Means of transport, especially construction of roads.

Prevention and Control Measures for Land Degradation:

Following are some practices for controlling land degradation:
1. Strip farming:
It is & practice in which cultivated crops are sown in alternative strips to prevent water
movement.
2. Crop Rotation:
It is one of the agricultural practice in which different crops are grown in same area
following a rotation system which helps in replenishment of the soil.
3. Ridge and Furrow Formation:
Soil erosion is one of the factors responsible for lad degradation. It can be prevented by
formation of ridge and furrow during irrigation which lessens run off.
4. Construction of Dams:
This usually checks or reduces the velocity of run off so that soil support vegetation.
5. Contour Farming:
This type of farming is usually practiced across the hill side and is useful in collecting
and diverting the run off to avoid erosion.

 Thermal Pollution

• Thermal pollution is the degradation of water quality by any process that changes
ambient water temperature.
• A common cause of thermal pollution is the use of water as a coolant by power plants
and industrial manufacturers.
Thermal pollution comes from hot water or cold water being dumped into a body of
water. Bodies of water naturally tend to dissipate the heat gained from warm currents,
underwater hot springs, and from the sun. Thermal pollution is called that because it overwhelms
the natural temperature control mechanisms that work in the water. The sudden temperature
change poses a health risk to a wide range of aquatic and amphibious creatures.
Thermal pollution is usually a product of dumping hot water into cooler water, but cold
water in a warm body of water can also cause problems. This article focuses on the sources of
hot water and the consequences of introducing it into bodies of water.

The Effects of Thermal Pollution:

The effects of thermal pollution are diverse, but in short, thermal pollution damages
water ecosystems and reduces animal populations. Plant species, algae, bacteria, and multi-
celled animals all respond differently to significant temperature changes.

1. Decreased Dissolved Oxygen:

Warm water holds less oxygen than cool water. If the oxygen level drops animals that
cannot move to another area may begin to die. In deeper bodies of water, the injection of warm
water can keep oxygen from dispersing into deep water, which is potentially good for bacteria
but dangerous for aquatic animals. The decreased oxygen can cause algae blooms that pose a
threat to aquatic plants and animals. This algae bloom problem is probably the most common and
best-known side effect of thermal pollution.
2. Migration:
Fish and amphibians may move away from the warm water to a more-suitable location,
disrupting the ecosystem for animals that remain. Birds may also be forced to leave in search of
areas with more food. Plants and certain animals will be stuck in the area, which can lead to huge
losses. Migration away from the polluted area contributes to a dramatic loss of biodiversity at
sites where thermal pollution happens.
3. Increased Toxins:
Toxins in the water are more a side effect of dumping waste water than a direct effect of
thermal pollution. Chemical pollution is an almost inevitable side effect of using water for
cooling. Solvents, fuel oil, and dissolved heavy metals end up in the lake or river where the
cooling water gets dumped. Nuclear power plants can also release slightly radioactive cooling
water. The chemicals may have a range of toxic effects on plants and animals, from fatal
poisoning to mutations and sterilization.
4. Loss of Biodiversity:
The sudden heating can kill off vulnerable organisms or drive them away. This is one of
many serious issues for threatened and endangered animal species. This loss can come from
organisms dying from the hot water, being unable to reproduce as effectively as before, or
simply leaving the area. We usually think of animals as casualties of water pollution, but multi-
celled aquatic plants are also at risk when thermal pollution changes the local aquatic ecosystem.
5. Ecological Impacts:
The local aquatic ecosystem can be damaged by thermal pollution, especially if it is
dramatic, as in copious amounts of warm water being dumped into a chilly pond or bay or river.
―Thermal shock‖ can kill off insects, fish, and amphibians. This sudden loss of life causes further
issues with the ecosystem. Key food sources are no longer adequate. A threatened or endangered
local population may be wiped out or put under even more pressure. Coral reef bleaching has
also been observed when a power plant or factory is dumped into coastal water. Coral bleaching
happens when the coral organisms die.
6. Reproductive Effects:
A significant temperature increase in the water can cause reproductive problems. Warmer
water can reduce the fertility of some organisms. Other species may suffer birth defects or lay
deformed eggs because of chemical changes in the body caused by warmer water. Defective eggs
and birth defects hurt the overall reproductive fitness of the animal population and can reduce the
population. Thermal pollution can change the biology of aquatic organisms in a variety of ways.
7. Increased Metabolic Rate:
Warmer water may be good for cold-blooded fish and amphibians, but only for a limited
time. One of many real problems that warm water may cause is faster metabolism, which means
animals need more food. The local ecosystem may not be able to support a significant increase in
food consumption. Worse still, the warmer water gives an advantage to certain organisms while
it puts stress on others. The more-adaptable organisms may unbalance the ecosystem simply by
out-competing other organisms and by eating them or driving them to starvation.

Causes of Thermal Pollution

1. Water as Cooling Agent in Power, Manufacturing and Industrial plants:
Production and Manufacturing plants are biggest source of thermal pollution. These plants draw
water from nearby source to keep machines cool and then release back to the source with higher
temperature. When heated water returns to the river or ocean, the water temperature rises
sharply. When oxygen levels are altered in the water, this can also degrade the quality and
longevity of life in wildlife that lives underwater. This process can also wipe away streamside
vegetation, which constantly depends on constant levels of oxygen and temperature. By altering
these natural environments, industries are essentially helping decrease the quality of life for these
marines based life forms and can ultimately destroy habitats if they are not controlled and careful
about their practices.
2. Soil Erosion: Soil erosion is another major factor that causes thermal pollution.
Consistent soil erosion causes water bodies to rise, making them more exposed to sunlight. The
high temperature could prove fatal for aquatic biomes as it may give rise to anaerobic conditions.
3. Deforestation: Trees and plants prevent sunlight from falling directly on lakes, ponds
or rivers. When deforestation takes place, these water bodies are directly exposed to sunlight,
thus absorbing more heat and raising its temperature. Deforestation is also a main cause of the
higher concentrations of greenhouse gases i.e. global warming in the atmosphere.
4. Runoff from Paved Surfaces: Urban runoff discharged to surface waters from paved
surfaces like roads and parking lots can make water warmer. During summer seasons, the
pavement gets quite hot, which creates warm runoff that gets into the sewer systems and water
bodies.
5. Natural Causes: Natural causes like volcanoes and geothermal activity under the
oceans and seas can trigger warm lava to raise the temperature of water bodies. Lightening can
also introduce massive amount of heat into the oceans. This means that the overall temperature
of the water source will rise, having significant impacts on the environment.
  What is Sustainable Energy?
Sustainable energy is a form of energy that meet our today‘s demand of energy without
putting them in danger of getting expired or depleted and can be used over and over again.
Sustainable energy should be widely encouraged as it do not cause any harm to the environment
and is available widely free of cost. All renewable energy
sources like solar, wind, geothermal, hydropower and ocean energy are sustainable as
they are stable and available in plenty.

Need for Sustainable Energy

During ancient times, wood, timber and waste products were the only major energy
sources. In short, biomass was the only way to get energy. When more technology was
developed, fossil fuels like coal, oil and natural gas were discovered. Fossil fuels proved boom to
the mankind as they were widely available and could be harnessed easily. When these fossil fuels
were started using extensively by all the countries across the globe, they led to degradation of
environment. Coal and oil are two of the major sources that produce large amount of carbon
dioxide in the air. This led to increase in global warming.
Also, few countries have hold on these valuable products which led to the rise in prices of
these fuels. Now, with rising prices, increasing air pollution and risk of getting expired soon
forced scientists to look out for some alternative or renewable energy sources. The need of the
hour was to look for resources that are available widely, cause no pollution and are
replenishable. Sustainable Energy, at that time came into the picture as it could meet our today‘s
increasing demand of energy and also provide us with an option to make use of them in future
also.

Types of Sustainable Energy

Sustainable energy are not just a part of renewable energy sources, they are also the
sources of energy that can best be used to power homes and industries without any harmful
effects being experienced. This is the sole reason why many people advice the use of these forms
of energy in everyday life. It is because its effects to the environment are purely beneficial.
Solar Energy
Solar energy is the best form of sustainable energy. This energy manifests itself in tow
forms. There is the light and the heat. Both of these forms are equally important to us in our day
to day living and other forms of life. For instance, the plants need the light to grow and generate
food while man needs the heat energy to maintain body temperature and power their homes and
industries. This means that it is the greatest form of sustainable energy. It can be used two folds
with greater results as needed. This only serves to generate confidence and ensure that we live
the way we intended without causing further harm to the environment.
According to activists, it is the future of energy. Evidence of intensive use of this
alternative energy source can be seen everywhere. There are many companies that are making
solar panels to tap this energy for use at home or in the industries. Consequently, the energy is
also being tapped for commercial purposes in many fields like powering of homes in power
grids. All that one needs to do is to get hold of the solar panel and install it in the homes or
commercial property. During the summer periods, you can cut down on your energy costs.
Wind Energy
Wind is a sustainable energy source. It is available naturally and can be tapped to produce
vast amounts of power that can be used in many ways and places. For instance, sailors tap this
energy to help the ship propel through its various directions to distant shores for trading.
Nowadays, this energy sources is being commercialized. There are many companies that have
invested heavily on power grids and windmills to tap into this energy source. The energy
generated can be sold to other people to power their homes and industries. In the near future,
sustainable energy like wind power will be a big industry and the fossil fuels exploration will
have halted and no longer being used.
Geothermal Energy
Geothermal energy allows us fetch the energy from beneath the earth. This occurs by
installing geothermal power stations that can use heat coming out from inside the earth and use it
to generate electricity. The temperature below the earth around 10,000 meters is so high that it
can used to boil water. Geothermal energy cannot be harnessed everywhere as high temperature
is needed to produce steam that could move turbines. It can be harnessed in those areas that have
high seismic activity and are prone to volcanoes. They are environment friendly and can produce
energy throughout the day but their ability to produce energy at suitable regions restricts us from
using it on a much wider scale.
Ocean Energy
There is massive size of oceans in this world. About 70% of the earth is covered with
water. The potential that ocean energy has to generate power is much higher than any other
source of energy. This sustainable energy allows us to harness it in 3 ways i.e. wave, tidal or
ocean thermal energy conversion (OTEC). Tides have immense power which when effectively
tapped can generate a lot of energy and can be used to power millions of homes. Waves
produced at the oceans can be used by ocean thermal plants to convert the kinetic energy in
waves to mechanical energy of turbines which can again converted to electrical energy through
generators. Setting up of big plants at ocean may cause ecological imbalance and disturb aquatic
life.
Biomass Energy
Biomass energy is produced by burning of wood, timber, landfills and municipal and
agricultural waste. It is completely renewable and does not produce harmful gases like carbon
dioxide which is primarily responsible for increase in global warming. Although, carbon dioxide
is produced by burning these products but that is equally compensated when plants take this
carbon dioxide and produce oxygen. It also helps to reduce landfills but are not as effective as
fossil fuels.
Hydroelectric Power
On the other hand, there are the rivers or waterfalls whose energy of the moving water is
captured that can turn turbines to generate power. This is commonly known as hydroelectric
power. It is very common nowadays and it is powering most parts of the world and one of the
biggest form of alternative energy currently being used. There are many companies and countries
that are exporting this energy to other countries who unable to harness it on their own due to lack
of the necessary resources or conditions. The energy is commonly transported in form of power
lines to various parts of the country and even outside the country.
These are the three best case examples of sustainable energy forms that are projected to
run the world in the near future. They are very sustainable and so not cause any environmental
effects. Their inability to be depleted and lack of effect to the environmental makes them a
perfect candidate to future energy needs.

 Promising technologies
Concentrating solar power technology
Concentrating Solar Power (CSP) technology involving the use of mirrors to focus
sunlight onto a receiver that captures and converts the solar energy into heat for electricity
generation has been in use since 1980s. The CSP technology has, however, re-emerged as a
promising new green power technology during recent years with new innovations in different
CSP systems and the invention of new solar thermal storage solutions such as molten salt
technology.
The CSP systems currently in use are broadly of three types namely, the trough system,
power tower system and the dish/engine system. The trough system comprises of U-shaped
reflectors focussing sunlight onto oil-filled pipes running along their centre with the hot oil
boiling water to generate steam for electricity generation. The power tower CSP system uses
large flat mirrors called heliostats to focus sunrays onto a receiver sitting atop a tower in which
fluid such as molten salt can absorb the heat to make steam for immediate electricity generation
or store it for later use.
The dish/engine systems use mirrored dishes to focus and concentrate sunlight onto a
receiver mounted at the focal point of the dish. The receiver is integrated with an external
combustion engine which generates electricity as the concentrated sun light heats up expanding
hydrogen or helium gas contained in its thin tubes driving the piston of the engine.
Global CSP installed capacity at the beginning of 2013 stood at 2.5GW with the United States
followed by Spain accounting for the majority of it. The recently opened 320MW Ivanpah solar
energy project based on the power tower system in California‘s Mojave Desert in the US is the
world‘s biggest CSP plant. The 280MW Solana solar project located in Arizona, United States,
entered into service in October 2013 becoming the world‘s biggest trough system-based CSP
plant. The Solana facility also offers six hours of molten storage capacity to produce electricity
during evening.
Many more CSP plants are currently under development across the world. The long term
probability of success of the CSP technology is evident from the use of improved thermal energy
storage solutions to avoid solar power‘s most common problem of intermittency and the fact that
the equipment used for conventional fossil fuelled power plants can be used for large scale CSP
plants.

Floating wind turbines

The commercial operation of floating wind turbines could hold the key to unlocking the
offshore wind power potential of deeper waters where winds are often stronger and steadier.
Unlike conventional offshore wind turbines that require erection of concrete bases in the seabed,
floating wind turbines, based on floating oil and gas offshore platform technology, are anchored
into the seabed with the use of just a few cables at sites as deep as 700m. Deeper waters also
offer the advantage of less obtrusive installations.
The successful demonstration of several prototype floating wind turbines since 2009, has
generated interest for commercial deployment floating wind turbines. Some of the best examples
include the Dutch floating-turbine developer Blue H Technologies‘ test turbine off the coast of
southern Italy, the oil and gas company Statoil‘s experimental floating wind turbine Hywind off
the coast of Norway, and the Fukushima prototype floating wind turbine off the coast of Japan.
Interest for wind power generation from floating turbines is especially noticeable in countries
like Japan which has been striving for alternate power following the nuclear disaster in 2011 .

Printable and flexible solar cells could revolutionise photovoltaic solar power generation using
semiconducting inks printed directly onto flexible stretchable thin plastic or steel, that will not
only reduce the cost of solar cells but also open up a myriad of new installation options.
These extremely light weight organic solar cells can be laminated onto building walls or any
other irregular surfaces exposed to sun light as well as be built into construction materials
directly. Solar cells comprised of plastic polymers are also considered to perform better in low
light conditions.
A group of Australian scientists produced paper-thin solar cells the size of an A3 piece of
paper using a purpose-built printing machine installed at Australia‘s national scientific research
agency CSIRO in the beginning of 2014. The solar cell printer could produce up to ten metres of
solar panel per minute. One square metre of the solar panel is expected to produce 10 to 50 watts.
The ultra low cost printable solar cell technology complemented with a range of other related
technologies, currently in research phase, to improve the power output of printable photovoltaic
cells – such as dye-sensitised solar cell (DSC) technology and the use of dye-coated plastic can
to absorb light coming from different angles – holds the promise of raising the economy and
efficiency of photovoltaic solar power generation to the next level.
Biomass gasification technology for power generation
Converting biomass into combustible gas and using it for power generation has emerged
as means of converting abundantly available biomass wastes into clean and efficient electrical
energy.
An advanced biomass gasification power plant typically involves a gasifier system
converting solid biomass into clean combustible gas by thermo-chemical processes involving the
stages of drying, pyrolysis and gasification. The non-combustible ash produced in the process
migrates to the grate at the base of the gasifier and is removed from time to time with grate-
shaking mechanism.
The produced syngas is burned in the oxidiser at temperature up to 700°F with the
produced hot flue gas passing through a boiler to produce high-pressure steam that drives the
turbine for producing electricity. Electrostatic precipitators are used to capture the remaining
particulates present in the flue gas released into air.

Tidal energy technologies

Tidal power generation technology is at a nascent stage compared to other renewable
power technologies but the rate of innovation and new demonstrations of technology is a good
that tidal energy could emerge as a viable commercial scale green power technology in the long
term.
A range of devices including offshore floats, buoys or pitching devices, oscillating water
column (OWC) devices and under water turbines have been developed to produce electricity
from waves and tides of the ocean. An innovative under water floating device called Deep Green
equipped with hydrodynamic wing and a gearless turbine anchored to the ocean bed with a tether
was developed by the Swedish marine energy technology company Minesto in 2013 to harness
low velocity tidal current for power generation.
While many different devices have been tested, the use of underwater tidal turbines has
emerged as the most promising model of tidal power generation. The world‘s first commercial-
scale tidal turbine was commissioned in Northern Ireland‘s Strangford Lough in July 2008. Other
notable tidal power projects using under water tidal turbines include the Sound of Islay and West
Islay wind farms being developed off the coast of Scotland.
Tidal lagoons are also emerging as another promising model for tidal power generation.
The world‘s first tidal lagoon power project has been proposed at Swansea Bay in the UK. The
project scheduled for ground breaking in 2015 and commissioning in 2018 will involve the
construction of a 9.5km-long sea wall or breakwater facility to create a harbour like structure
cordoning off 11.5km2 of sea area.
As the sea level outside the wall rises, the sluice gates are opened to allow the water to pass
through installed bulb hydro turbines to generate electricity. Similarly when the outside sea level
falls, water is released from the lagoon again driving the turbines. The six megawatt
demonstration phase of the proposed 320MW Swansea Bay project is targeted for completion by
2016.

Microbial Fuel Cell (MFC) technology

Microbial Fuel Cell (MFC) technology has the potential to generate power from a range
of organic waste materials including waste water and human urine. The technology uses bacteria
to generate electricity from waste by converting chemical energy into electrical energy by the
catalytic reaction of microorganisms. The technology also simultaneously helps sanitise the
waste material used.
The MFC technology utilises naturally-abundant microbes in the anode compartment of
the cell that work as a bio-catalyst. When the organic waste is fed into the cell the microbes
generate electrons by consuming the waste as part of their natural metabolic process. When
connected to the cathode, electricity is generated with the movement of electrodes.
 In a separate development, researchers at the Georgia Institute of Technology, in the
beginning of 2014, developed a hybrid fuel cell that can directly convert a wide range of soluble
biomass to electricity with the use of a catalyst that can be activated by solar or thermal energy.
Biomass is ground up and mixed with a photochemical and thermochemical catalyst called
polyoxometalate (POM) in solution.
The POM oxidises the biomass under photo or thermal irradiation and carries charge to
the cathode. The technology combines the photochemical and solar-thermal biomass degradation
in a single chemical process to generate electricity without using expensive metal catalysts. The
POM catalyst can also be re-used without further treatment.