VARIABLES AND STRUCTURES
1. Camel casing - is the convention in which the
DECLARING AND USING VARIABLES
Variables - are named memory locations whose contents
can vary or differ over time.
Broad Data Types:
1. Numeric – describes data that consists of
number
2. String – Describes data that is nonnumeric
3. Integer – whole number
4. Floating-point – fractional numeric values that
contain a decimal point (real numbers)
5. Numeric Constant – (Literal Numeric Constant) A
specific numeric value because it does not
change
6. String constant - (Literal string constant) A
specific text value, or string of characters, such
as “Amanda”.
Data item’s data type- is a classification that describes
the following:
–What values can be held by the item
–How the item is stored in computer memory
–What operations can be performed on the data item.
Before writing a program:
–Have a thorough understanding of the problem
– Carefully plan an approach for solving it
While writing a program:
– Know what “building blocks” are available
–Use good programming principles
Declaration - is a statement that provides a data type
and an identifier for a variable.
Identifier - is a program component’s name
Initializing the variable - declaring a starting value
Example:
• num mySalary
• num yourSalary = 14.55
• string myName
• string yourName = "Juanita"
• Garbage - a variable’s unknown value.
Common Conventions on writing Variables:
variable starts with a lowercase letter and any
subsequent word begins with an uppercase
letter, such as hourlyWage.
2. Pascal casing - is a convention in which the first
letter of a variable name is uppercase, as in
HourlyWage.
3. Hungarian notation - is a convention in which a
variable’s data type is part of the identifier—for
example, numHourlyWage or stringLastName
ASSIGNING VALUES
1. Assignment statement - assigns a value from the
right of an assignment operator to the variable
or constant on the left of the assignment
operator.
2. Assignment Operator - is the equal sign; it is used
to assign a value to the variable or constant on
its left.
3. Binary operator - is an operator that requires
two operands—one on each side
set someNumber = 2
set someNumber = 3 + 7
set someOtherNumber = someNumber
set someOtherNumber = someNumber * 5
UNDERSTANDING THE DATA TYPES OF VARIABLES
1. Numeric variable - is one that can hold digits and
have mathematical operations performed on it.
2. String variable - can hold text, such as letters of
the alphabet, and other special characters, such
as punctuation marks
3. Type-safety - is the feature of programming
languages that prevents assigning values of an
incorrect data type.
Example:
• taxRate = 2.5
• inventoryItem = "monitor
UNDERSTANDING THE CONCEPTS OF MODULARZATION
1. Modules - are small program units that you can
use together to make a program. Programmers
also refer to modules as subroutines,
procedures, functions, or methods.
2. Modularization - the process of breaking down a
large program into modules is modularization;
 computer scientists also call it functional
decomposition
Reasons:
1. Modularization provides abstraction - they
enable a programmer to see the “big picture.”
Abstraction is the process of paying attention to
important properties while ignoring
nonessential details.
2. Modularization allows multiple programmers to
work on a problem – When you dissect any large
task into modules, you gain the ability to more
easily divide the task among various people.
3. Modularization allows you to reuse work more
easily - If a module is useful and well written, you
may want to use it more than once within a
program or in other programs.
MODULARIZING THE PROGRAM
When you create a module, you include the following:
• A header—The module header includes the module
identifier and possibly other necessary identifying
information.
• A body—The module body contains all the statements
in the module.
• A return statement—The module return statement
marks the end of the module and identifies the point at
which control returns to the program or module that
called the module.
UNDERSTANDING THE MOST COMMON
CONFIGURATION FOR MAINLINE LOGIC
1. Housekeeping tasks - include any steps you must
perform at the beginning of a program to get
ready for the rest of the program.
2. Detail loop tasks - do the core work of the
program. When a program processes many
records, detail loop tasks execute repeatedly for
each set of input data until there are no more
3. End-of-job tasks - are the steps you take at the
end of the program to finish the application
FEATURES OF A GOOD PROGRAM DESIGN
• Use program comments where appropriate.
• Choose identifiers thoughtfully.
• Strive to design clear statements within your programs
and modules.
• Write clear prompts and echo input.
• Continue to maintain good programming habits as you
develop your programming skills.
• Program comments - are written explanations that are
not part of the program logic but that serve as
documentation for readers of the program
UNDERSTANDING CONTROL STRUCTURES
1. Algorithms
• Computing problems – All can be solved by executing a
series of actions in a specific order
• Algorithm: procedure in terms of – Actions to be
executed – The order in which these actions are to be
executed
• Program control – Specify order in which statements
are to executed
2. Pseudocodes
Pseudocode
– Artificial, informal language that helps us develop
algorithms
– Similar to everyday English
– Not actually executed on computers
– Helps us “think out” a program before writing it
• Easy to convert into a corresponding C++
program
• Consists only of executable statements
Control Structures
• Sequential execution – Statements executed one after
the other in the order written
• Transfer of control
– When the next statement executed is not the next one
in sequence
– Overuse of goto statements led to many problems
• Flowchart
–Graphical representation of an algorithm
–Drawn using certain special-purpose symbols
connected by arrows called flowlines –Rectangle symbol
(action symbol):
•Indicates any type of action
–Oval symbol:
• Indicates the beginning or end of a program or
a section of code
• Single-entry/single-exit control structures – Connect
exit point of one control structure to entry point of the
next (control-structure stacking)
– Makes programs easy to build
The if Selection Structure
Selection structure:
– Used to choose among alternative courses of action
– Pseudocode:
If student’s grade is greater than or equal to 60
Print “Passed”

If condition true
– Print statement executed and program goes on to next
statement
– If false, print statement is ignored and the program
goes onto the next statement
– Indenting makes programs easier to read

The if Selection Structure

• if structure is a single-entry/single-exit structure true
false grade >= 60 print “Passed” A decision can be made
on any expression. zero - false nonzero - true Example: 3
- 4 is true

The if/else Selection Structure

• If – Only performs an action if the condition is true
• if/else – Specifies an action to be performed both when
the condition is true and when it is false
• Pseudocode:
If student’s grade is greater than or equal to 60
Print “Passed”
Else
Print “Failed”

Nested if/else structures

– Test for multiple cases by placing if/else selection
structures inside if/else selection structures
–Once condition is met, rest of statements skipped
–Deep indentation usually not used in practice
OVERVIEW OF COMPUTERS AND LOGIC
Computer System - a combination of all the components
required to process and store data using a computer.
Every computer system is composed of multiple pieces
of hardware and software.
Hardware – is the equipment, or the devices, associated
with a computer. For example, keyboards, mice,
speakers, and printers are all hardware.
Software - or programs, instructions that tell the
computer what to do
• Application Software – comprises all the
programs you apply to a task – word processing
programs, spreadsheets, payroll and inventory programs
and even games.
• System Software – comprises that programs
that you use to manage your computer – including
operating systems, such as Windows, LINUX
MAJOR OPERATIONS OF HARDWARE AND SOFTWARE
• Input
• Processing – data items that involves organizing,
checking for accuracy or performing mathematical
operations
• Output – e.g. printer or monitor
• Storage – holds the information for later retrieval
• Syntax – rules governing the word usage and
punctuation.
• Program Code - instructions you write using a
programming language.
• LOGIC – instruction in a specific sequence.
UNDERSTANDING THE PROGRAMMING PROCESS
1. Understanding the problem – the most difficult
aspects of programming. A good programmer is
often part counsellor, part detective
2. Planning the logic – the heart of the
programming process, the programmer plans
the steps of the program, deciding what steps to
include and how to order them.
Common Planning Tools
• Pseudocode - is an English-like representation of the
logical steps it takes to solve a problem.
– Pseudo is a prefix that means “false,” and to
code a program means to put it in a programming
language; therefore, pseudocode simply means “false
code,” or sentences that appear to have been written in
a computer programming language but do not
necessarily follow all the syntax rules of any specific
language.
- Involves writing down all the steps you will use
in a program
• Flowchart - is a pictorial representation of the logical
steps it takes to solve a problem.
• IPO (Input, Process, Output)
• TOE Charts (Tasks, Objects and Events)
• Desk-checking – the process of walking through a
program’s logic on paper before you actually write a
program.
• Algorithm - is the sequence of steps necessary to solve
any problem
3. Coding the program – despite differences among
programming languages-each can handle input
operations, arithmetic processing, output
operations, and other standard functions
4. Using software to translate the program into
machine language
Syntax error – misuse of a language’s grammar rules
(misspelling a word, using a word that doesn’t exist in the
language or using “illegal” grammar
Semantic Error – occurs when a correct word is used in
an incorrect context.
5. Testing the program – a program that is free of
syntax errors is not necessarily free of logical
error.
6. Putting the program into production – might
mean simply running the program once, if it was
written to satisfy a user’s request for a special
list.
UNDERSTANDING INTERACTIVE USER INPUT
Prompt – is a message that is displayed on a monitor,
asking the user for a response
Command prompt – is the location on your computer
screen at which you type entries to communicate with
the computer’s operating system using text.
Graphical User Interface or GUI – allows user to interact
with a program in graphical environment.
Data Hierarchy – data items stored for used on computer
systems.
1. Character – the smallest unit of data, can be letters,
numbers, and special symbols like “A”, “7”, and “&”.
2. Field – is a single data item, such as lastName,
streetAddress or annualSalary
3. Records – are groups of fields that go together for
some logical reason.
4. Files – are groups of records that go together some
logical reason.
5. Flat file – records that are stored in a file that is not
part of a database.

USING AND NAMING VARIABLES

Variables – are named memory locations, whose
contents can vary or differ overtime.
Naming Variables to be used:
• Variable must be one word – the name can contain
letters, digits, hyphens, underscores or any other
character you choose, with the exception of spaces.
• Variable names should have some appropriate
meaning

UNDERSTANDING THE EVOLUTION OF PROGRAMMING

TECHNIQUES
a. Procedural Programming – focuses on the procedures
that programmers create.
• Focus on the actions that are carried out-for example,
getting input data for an employee and writing the
calculations needed to produce a paycheck from the
data. Procedural programmers would approach the job
of producing a paycheck by breaking down the paycheck-
producing process into manageable subtasks.

b. Object-Oriented Programming – focuses on objects or

“things”, and describes their features, or attributes, and
their behaviors.
SYSTEM DEVELOPMENT LIFE CYCLE
The System Approach
1. Recognize and define a problem or opportunity using
systems thinking.
2. Develop and evaluate alternative system solutions.
3. Select the system solution that best meets your
requirements.
4. Design and selected system solution.
5. Implement and Evaluate the success of the designed
system.

The Systems Development Life Cycle

1. Systems Investigation (Product: Feasibility Study)
– Determine how to address business opportunities and
priorities.
– Conduct a feasibility study to determine whether a
new improved business system is a feasible solution.
– Develop a project management plan and obtain
management approval.

2. Systems Analysis (Product: Functional Requirements)

– Analyze the information needs of employees,
customers and other business stakeholders. – Develop
the functional requirements of a system that can meet
business priorities and the needs of all stakeholders.
– describes what a system should do to meet the
information needs of the users.
– an in-depth study of an end user information needs
that produces functional requirements that for the
design of a new information as the basis are used as the
basis for the design of a new information system. It
involves a detailed study of:
– The information needs of a company and end
users like yourself.
– The activities, resources, and products of one
or more of the present information systems being used.
– The information system capabilities required
to meet your information needs, and those of other
business stakeholders that may use the system.

3. Systems Design (Product: System Specifications)

– Develop specifications for the hardware, software,
people, network, and data resources, and the
information products that will satisfy the functional
requirements of the proposed business information
system
4. Systems Implementation (Product: Operational
System)
– Acquire (or develop) hardware and software.
– Test the system, and train people to operate and use it.
– Convert to the new business system.
– Manage the effects of system changes on end users.
5. Systems Maintenance (Product: Improved System)
–Use a post implementation review process to monitor,
evaluate, and modify the business system as needed
Starting the Systems Development Process
1. Feasibility Study
- Preliminary study where the information needs of
prospective users and the resource requirement, costs,
benefits, and feasibility of a proposed projects are
determined.
- The goal of the feasibility study is to evaluate
alternative solutions and to propose the most feasible
and desirable business applications for development.
A. Organizational Feasibility – the focus is on how
well a proposed system supports the strategic
business priorities of the organization.
B. Economic feasibility – is concerned with
whether expected cost savings, increased
revenue, increased profits, reductions in
required investment, and other types of
benefits will exceed the costs of developing
and operating of a proposed system.
C. Technical feasibility – can be demonstrated if
reliable hardware and software capable of
meeting the needs of a proposed system can
be acquired or developed by the business in
the required time.
D. Operational feasibility – is the willingness and
ability of the management, employees,
customers, suppliers, and others to operate,
use and support a proposed system.
Costs /Benefits Analysis
Tangible costs – costs and benefits are quantified. E.g.
costs of hardware and software, employee, salaries and
other quantifiable costs needed to develop and
implement an IS solution.
Intangible costs – are difficult to quantify; they include
the loss of customer goodwill or employee morale
caused by errors, and disruptions arising from the
installation of a new system.
Tangible benefits – are favourable results, such as
decrease in payroll costs caused by a reduction in
personnel or a decrease in inventory carrying costs
caused by reduction in inventory.
Intangible benefits – are harder to estimate. Such
benefits as better customer service or faster accurate
information for management fall into this category. 
Examples:
 Improved information availability – More timely and
accurate information
 Improved customer service – More timely service
response
 Improved business image – Progressive image as
perceived by customers, suppliers, and investors
A. Organizational Analysis – is an important first step in
system analysis. How can anyone improve an
information system if they know very little about the
organizational environment in which the system is
located? That’s why it is important to know about the
organization, management structure, its people, its
business activities, the environmental systems it must
deal with, its current information systems.
B. Analysis of the Present System – before designing a
new system, it is important to study the system that will
be improved or replaced. There is a need to analyze how
this system uses hardware, software, network, and
people resources to convert data resources, such as
transactions data, info information products, such as
reports and displays. Then you should document how the
information system activities of input, processing,
output, storage, and control are accomplished
C. Functional Requirements Analysis – this step is one of
the most difficult. There’s a need to work as a team with
IS analyst and other end users to determine he specific
business information needs.
Functional Requirement
Examples of Functional Requirements
• User Interface Requirements Automatic entry of
product data and easy-to-use data entry screens for Web
customers.
• Processing Requirements Fast, automatic calculation of
sales totals and shipping costs.
•Storage Requirements Fast retrieval and update of data
from product, pricing, and customer databases.
• Control Requirements Signals for data entry errors and
quick e-mail confirmation for customers.

3. Systems Design - specifies how the system will

accomplish the objectives. It consists of design activities
that produce system specifications satisfying the
functional requirements that were developed in the
system analysis process.

User Interface Design – focuses on supporting the

interactions between end users and their computer
based applications.
Systems Specification – formalize the design of an
application’s user interface methods and products,
database structures, and processing and control
procedures.

f. Documentation – Record and communicate detailed

system specifications, including procedures for end users
and IS personnel and examples of input screens and
output displays and reports.
g. Conversion – Convert from the use of a present system
to the operation of a new or improved system.

Parallel Conversion – both old and the new systems are

operating until the project development team and end
user management agree to switch completely over to the
new system.
Pilot Conversion – one department or other work site
serves as a test site
Phased Conversion – only parts of a new application or
only few departments, branch offices, or plant locations
at a time are converted.
Plunge Conversion - direct cutover to a newly developed
system