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UNIT 2: DISCOURSE AND PURPOSE

All discourse is both adaptive and strategic. All discourse is both a reaction to the world and an
intervention on it.
The process of discourse-building sometimes seems fairly automatic, and its results more or less
determined in advance.
Discourse analysts are interested in what is someone trying to accomplish by saying something.

1. FORM: It is the physical expression of language as a writing system in its written form or as a
phonetic system in its spoken form. It is the shape and structure of a linguistic unit as distinct from
its meaning. So a sentence –as form- is the largest linguistic unit that can be analyzed
grammatically. Sentences can be classified under two sets of criteria: syntactically and
functionally:

SYNTACTICALLY FUNCTIONALLY Function associated

Statement or declarative
It is used primarily to
 Osama Bin Laden is dead.
Simple sentence convey (=express)
 Carol will not recover from that illness.
information.
 That dog looks ferocious.
Question or interrogative
 Can you speak 5 languages? It is used to express
Compound
 You can speak 4 languages? lack of information on a
sentence
 What is the capital of Italy? specific point.
 What subjects do you need to study?
Command or imperative
 Don’t eat junk food. It is used to instruct
Complex sentence  Never say never somebody to do
 Just do it. something.
 Call 110 in case of an emergency.
Exclamation or exclamatory
 How cold is it!
Compound- It is used to express the
 How you have grown!
complex sentence speakers own feelings.
 What a nice voice she has!
 What a great singer Michael Jackson was!

2. DISCOURSE FUNCTION: It is the purpose for which an utterance or unit of language is used. The
function is the meaning or the communicative purpose that a linguistic form carries out. Further, it
is the wider social and communicative purpose of language.

Language functions are often described as categories of behavior for example: requests, apologies,
complaints, offers, compliments, commands, invitations, etc. The functional uses of language
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cannot be determined simply by studying the grammatical structure of the sentence. That is why
different sentences can have different functions even when these sentences have the same form.
For example:

Utterance FORM FUNCTION

 Please vacate immediately! Imperative Ordering
 Pass the jam Imperative Requesting
 Turn right at the corner. Imperative Instructing
 Try the smoked salmon. Imperative Suggesting
 Come round on Sunday. Imperative Inviting
 Shut up, will you? Imperative Ordering
 Would you like go to the zoo? Interrogative Inviting
 Can I come in? Interrogative Ask for permission
 A: I´d like some bananas. B: How many do you want? Interrogative Inquiring quantity
 Haven´t I told you to be careful with your money? Interrogative Scolding (=regañar)
 The top shelf it too high for me to reach Declarative Complaining
 If you don’t give up smoking, you´ll have lung cancer. Declarative Warning
 I´d really like to take a break now. Declarative Expressing a wish
 Carmen must have won the lottery. Declarative Express. supposition

 Athletes can’t argue with the judge´s decision Declarative Prohibiting

 I am absolutely certain that I hate it. Declarative Express. disagreement
 I will buy that beautiful red car. Declarative Express. decision

What kinds of rules enable people to infer the function of what is said from its literal
meaning?  THE LINGUISTIC CONTEXT

When we say something, we are doing something: talking is action on several levels. Speech acts can
be analyzed on three levels:

a) LOCUTIONARY ACT: the literal meaning, the performance of an utterance: the actual utterance
and its ostensible meaning, comprising phonetic and phatic acts corresponding to the verbal,
syntactic and semantic aspects of any meaningful utterance. Grammarians describe language at
this level.

b) ILLOCUTIONARY ACT: the real and intended meaning e.g. If there is a sign at the entrance of a
building which says “Smile, there are cameras” people who is going to read that sign are not
going to smile they are going to be careful, because that sign is a warning.
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c) PERLOCUTIONARY ACT: It is the actual effect on the hearer (addressee), or otherwise getting
someone to do or realize something, whether intended or not. What you will do.

Locutionary Illocutionary Perlocutionary

Context: this note was written at the
park near a main street “slow Command/ Warning to be I will reduce my
Imperative careful car´s speed
children at play”
Context: this note was written at the
entrance of a fancy restaurant Statement/ Pointing out a I will not
Declarative regulation discriminate
“Todos somos iguales ante la ley”
Context: this note was written on a
Green recycling container “Only E- Making a I will put only e-
Phrase
request trash
trash here, please”
Context: this note was written at the
airport “Unattended luggage will Statement/ I will not leave
Warning
Declarative my suitcase
be removed from this place”

3. CLASSIFICATION OF FUNCTIONS: Language is described as having three main functions:

a) DESCRIPTIVE FUNCTION OF LANGUAGE: It is to convey (=express) factual (=objective)

information. This is the type of information which can be stated (indicated) or denied and in
some cases even tested. E.g. It must be well below ten degrees outside.

b) EXPRESSIVE FUNCTION OF LANGUAGE: It is to supply (=provide) information about the

speaker, his/her feelings, preferences, prejudices, and past experiences. E.g. I´m not taking
syntax III again. This sentence shows that the speaker does not like syntax.

c) SOCIAL FUNCTION OF LANGUAGE: It signals a particular social relationship. E.g. Will that be
all, sir?

According to Cook (1989) the classification of functions has been made identifying, first, the elements
of communication which are:

⇒ The addresser: The person who originates the message.

⇒ The addressee: The person to whom the message is addressed.
⇒ The channel: The medium through which the message travels: sound waves, marks on paper,
telephone wires, word processor screens.
⇒ The message form: The particular lexical and grammatical choices of the message.
⇒ The topic: The information carried in the message.
⇒ The code: The language or dialect: English, Japanese, sign language, semaphore.
⇒ The setting: The social or physical context.
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3.1. THE MACRO-FUNCTIONS OF LANGUAGE: They are established, each focusing attention upon
one element of communication:

a) EMOTIVE FUNCTION  [The addresser]: Communicating the inner (=internal) states and
emotions of the addresser. E.g. Oh no! Fantastic, ugh, and swear words used as exclamations.

b) DIRECTIVE FUNCTION  [The addressee]: seeking to affect the behavior of the addressee. E.g.
please help me! Shut up! I’m warning you!

c) PHATIC FUNCTION  [The channel]: Opening the channel or checking that it is working, either
for social reasons as e.g. Hello, lovely weather, do you come often? Or for practical reasons as
e.g. can you hear me? Are you still there, can you read my handwriting?

d) POETIC FUNCTION  [The message form]: The particular form chosen is the essence of the
message. E.g. slogans

e) REFERENTIAL FUNCTION  [The topic]: Carrying information. Just informing.

f) METALINGUISTIC FUNCTION  [The code]: Focusing attention upon the code itself, to clarify it
or renegotiate it e.g. what does this word here mean? This bone is known as the femur, Will and
shall mean the same thing nowadays?

g) CONTEXTUAL FUNCTION  [The setting]: Creating a particular kind of communication e.g.

right, let’s start the lecture, it just a game.

Sentence Macro-function of language

I now declare you husband and wife
What does USAID stand for?
It is said, you´ve got heart decease.
Close your mouth!
It is cold, isn’t it? Are you from here?
Please, help me.
Dear Sir. Or madam:
This semester will be hard.
Stop shouting at me!
What does this mean?
Dam it! He ran away!
Workers of the world, Unite!
The court is now in session.
You make me sick.
Osama Bin Laden´s dead
 [The topic] Referential/[The setting] Contextual
 [The code] Metalinguistic
 [The topic] Referential
 [The addressee] Directive
 [The channel] Phatic
 [The addressee] Directive
 [The channel] Phatic
 [The addresser] Emotive
 [The addressee] Directive
 [The code] Metalinguistic
 [The addresser] Emotive/[The topic] Referential
 [The addressee] Directive/[The message form]Poetic
 [The topic] Referential/[The setting] Contextual
 [The addresser] Emotive
 [The topic] Referential
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3.2. THE MICRO-FUNCTIONS OF LANGUAGE: According to Hymes the macro-functions can be

subdivided into small number of micro-functions (delicate categories) for example:

Directive function
(Macro function of language)
Questions Orders Pleas Prayers Requests
(Micro- (Micro- (Micro- (Micro-
(Micro-function)
function) function) function) function)
 Requests for action
 Requests for information
 Requests for help
 Requests for sympathy