[CHAPTER – 01] INTRODUCTION 1

1 C HAP TE R

INTRODUCTION

1.1. Historical Background of NMR Spectroscopy

In 1946, NMR was co-discovered by F. Block, W.W Hansen and M.E Packard of
Stanford University and E.M Purcell, R.V Pound and H.C Torry Torrey of Harvard
University [1,2]. The first commercial instrument was Varian HR.30 which was installed
in 1952 at the Humble Oil Company in Baytown Texas. Three Nobel Prizes have been
awarded in the field of NMR. The first Nobel Prize was awarded in 1952 to two physicist
E. Purcell and F. Bloch, who discovered NMR effect in 1946. In 1991 R. Ernst and W.
Anderson was awarded the Nobel Prize for developing the pulsed FT-NMR and 2D-
NMR methods during 1960-1980 [3]. In 2002 Nobel Prize in chemistry was awarded to
K. Wuthrich for developing methodologies in NMR for 3D structure determination of
macromolecules in biological systems.

1.2. NMR Spectroscopy- A Unique Spectroscopic Tool

NMR spectroscopy is a unique spectroscopic tool due to its following
characteristics:
 NMR is non invasive and non destructive technique.
 Each atom in a molecule can be probed very easily in NMR spectroscopy.
 The system can be studied at varying conditions of pH, temperature, solvent and
pressure etc.
 NMR spectroscopy can be used for the accurate quantification of different
components in the mixture.
 All three states of matter; gas, liquid and solid are amenable to NMR
spectroscopy.
 In addition to structure determination, NMR spectroscopy can be used to study
dynamic processes over a wide range of time scales.
2 For B.S, M.Sc & M.Phil Students

Figure 1.1 shows the vast applications of NMR spectroscopy, but here we will discuss
only the applications concerned with structure determination in chemistry.

Figure 1.1 Applications of NMR in different fields

1.3. What Is Nuclear Magnetic Resonance?
Nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy is a technique wherein a sample placed in a
homogeneous (constant) magnetic field is irradiated with radiowaves of particular
frequency and a magnetic signal is detected. Photon bombardment of the sample causes
nuclei in the sample to undergo transitions (resonance) between different states.
Perturbing the equilibrium distribution of state populations is called excitation. The
excited nuclei emit a magnetic signal called free induction decay (FID) that we detect
with electronics and capture digitally. FID is the analog signal induced in the receiver
coil of the NMR instrument and is caused by the yʹ-component of the net magnetization.
[CHAPTER – 01] INTRODUCTION 3

The digitized FID(s) is (are) processed by using computational methods to (we hope)
reveal meaningful information about our sample [4,5].
What is meant by the acronym NMR?
N-Stands for Nucleus, which must possess the following two properties
i) Nuclear spin, i.e I≠0
ii) Nuclear magnetic moment
M-Stands for Magnetic Field strength; a nucleus with I≠0 is kept in the magnetic field
which brings about following two changes in it
i) Nuclei begin to precess under the influence of applied magnetic field
ii) The separation in the energy levels of nuclei occurs
R-Stands for Resonance, a condition that is achieved when the nucleus meets the right
magnetic field strength and radio waves of the appropriate frequency.
The acronym NMR simply means that the nuclear portions of specific atoms are affected
by magnetic fields and undergo resonance as a result.

1.4. Spin Quantum Numbers of Elements

Before we discuss the behavior of a magnetic dipole (of any kind of element) in a
magnetic field, we should consider the concept of electron spin. The spin quantum
numbers of an electron are +1/2 and - 1/2. These numbers indicate that an electron can
have only one of the two possible spin orientations. We usually show these orientations
by arrows pointing either up ↑ or down ↑. Like electrons, spinning nuclei have nuclear
spin quantum numbers because they are also charged species. Either a given element is
NMR active or inactive, it solely depends on the magnitude of its nuclear spin quantum
number “I”.
The actual value of the nuclear spin quantum number of any given nucleus depends on
the mass number and the atomic number. Consequently, the isotopes of an element have
different spin quantum numbers. However, the spin quantum numbers cannot be
determined using the numbers of protons and neutrons in the nuclei. There are some very
useful generalizations between the spin quantum numbers of nuclei and the numbers of
protons and neutrons. These can be summarized as follows in table 1.1.

Table 1.1 Relationships between Mass number, Charge Number and Spin quantum
number
Mass number Charge number Spin quantum number (I)
4 For B.S, M.Sc & M.Phil Students

Odd Odd or Even 1/2, 3/5, 5/2, 7/2, 9/2

Even Even 0

even Odd 1,2,3, 4,5

Such nuclei which whose spin quantum number is zero, are NMR inactive nuclei.
It is impossible to study these nuclei by NMR spectroscopy. For example 12C has I=0, so
we cannot take NMR spectrum of molecules based on carbon-12 [6].

1.5. Principle of NMR Spectroscopy

Principle of NMR is based on the nuclear spins of atomic nuclei. When spin
active nuclei are exposed to external magnetic field, they take up certain orientations of
variant energies depending upon their spin angular momentum and become liable to
absorption of energy for their transitions. Difference of energy between the nuclear
energy levels corresponds to radiofrequency of electromagnetic radiations. When the
energy gap ∆E between the nuclear energy levels matches with frequency of radiowaves,
the absorption of energy occurs and nuclei are said to be in a state of resonance. Hence
the name Nuclear Magnetic Resonance is given to this spectroscopic technique. In order
to represent this phenomena let us take the example of Proton (1H). Proton has spin half
integral (I=1/2) due to its spherical charge distribution and absence of neutron. Let us see
the pictorial representation of 1H nuclei under the influence of applied magnetic field Bo
(Figure 1.2) [7].
[CHAPTER – 01] INTRODUCTION 5

Figure 1.2 Pictorial representation of spinning nucleus under the influence of

applied magnetic field

1.6. Behavior of an Atomic Nucleus in Magnetic Field

The behavior of an atomic nucleus in a magnetic field can be studied by two well-
known models i.e the classical and quantum mechanical models.

1.6.1. The Classical Model

Many atoms (e.g., 1H, 13C, 15N, 31P) behave as if the positively charged nucleus
were spinning on an axis. The spinning charge, like an electric current, creates a tiny
magnetic field. When placed in a strong external magnetic field, the magnetic nucleus
tries to align with it like a compass needle in the earth’s magnetic field. As the nucleus is
spinning and has angular momentum, so the torque exerted by the external field results in
a circular motion called precession, just like a spinning top in the earth’s gravitational
field. The rate of this precession is proportional to the external magnetic field strength
and to the strength of the nuclear magnet (Figure 1.3). This resonant frequency is in the
radio frequency range of strong magnetic fields, and can be measured by applying a radio
frequency signal to the sample and varying the frequency until absorbance of energy is
detected [8-10].
6 For B.S, M.Sc & M.Phil Students

Figure 1.3 Classical picture to understand the behavior of a nucleus under the
influence the Magnetic field

1.6.2. The Quantum Model

The classical view of magnetic resonance in which the nucleus is treated as a
macroscopic object like a billiard ball, is insufficient to explain all aspects of the NMR
phenomenon. We must also consider the quantum mechanical picture of the nucleus in a
magnetic field. For the most useful nuclei, which are called “spin 1/2” nuclei, there are
two quantum states which can be visualized as having the spin axis pointing “up” or
“down”. In the absence of an external magnetic field, these two states have the same
energy and at thermal equilibrium exactly one-half of a large population of nuclei will be
in the “up” state and one half will be in the “down” state (Figure 1.4). In a magnetic field,
however, the “up” state, which is aligned with the magnetic field, is lower in energy than
the “down” state, which is opposes the applied magnetic field. Because this is a quantum
phenomenon, there are no possible states in between. This energy separation or “gap”
between the two quantum states is proportional to the strength of the external magnetic
field. This gap is increased increasing as the field strength is increased. When a large
population of nuclei is in thermal equilibrium, slightly more than half will reside in the
“up” (lower energy) state, and slightly less than half will reside in the “down” (higher
energy) state. As in all forms of spectroscopy, it is possible for a nucleus in the lower
energy state to absorb a photon of electromagnetic energy and be promoted to the higher
[CHAPTER – 01] INTRODUCTION 7

energy state [11]. The energy of the photon must exactly match the energy “gap” (DE)
between the two states, and this energy corresponds to a specific frequency of
electromagnetic radiation:

Figure 1.4 Quantum Mechanical picture to understand the behavior of a nucleus under the
influence the Magnetic field
The energy difference between two spin states is determined by the Planck's
Equation
ΔE = hν
Where h is Planck’s constant. The resonant frequency ν, is in the radio frequency region,
identical to the precession frequency predicted by the classical model.

1.7. The Relation between the Magnetic Moment and Angular

Momentum
We have already discussed the fact that nuclei of certain isotopes possess an
intrinsic spin, which is associated with the angular momentum. In classical mechanics,
the angular momentum can have any value. However, in quantum physics, angular
momentum is quantized, which means that angular momentum can have only certain
specific values. This fact cannot be explained by an argument based on classical
mechanics. This is the most important difference between classical and quantum
mechanics. In quantum mechanics, angular momentum is defined by the following
relation (equation 1.1):

where h is Planck's constant and m is the magnetic quantum number. According to this
equation, the angular momentum P of a given element depends directly on the magnetic
quantum number m. Therefore, to calculate the angular momentum of any element, we
8 For B.S, M.Sc & M.Phil Students

have to know the value of the magnetic quantum number m. These magnetic quantum
numbers are related to the nuclear spin quantum numbers I of the respective nucleus as
represented in equation 1.2.
m = (2I + 1) ---------------------------------- (1.2)
If we know the spin quantum number I, we can calculate the magnetic quantum number
m. For example, the spin quantum number of a proton is I = 1/2. When “I” is replaced by
I = 1/2 in equation 2, the value of m comes out 2 as shown below

Now we have to explain the meaning of this number '2'. This is not the magnetic quantum
number of the proton which is 2, but rather it means the proton has two different
magnetic quantum numbers. We have determined that the proton has two different
magnetic quantum numbers by employing the equation 1.2. The magnetic quantum
number can have any of the integral values from - I to +I, including zero which
determines that the magnetic quantum numbers for the proton as shown by equation 1.3
[12, 13].
m = - I , ( - I + l ) , (-I + 2 ) , . . . , 0 , . . . , (I, - l ) , + I --------------------------(1.3)
m = -1/2--------------+ 1/2 A proton has two magnetic quantum number values which are -
1/2 and +1/2 (m1 = -1/2, m2 = 1/2).
Let us determine the magnetic quantum numbers of an element whose spin quantum
number is I= 2. If I is equal to 2, then the magnetic quantum number m will be 5. The
magnetic quantum number “m” can have any value between m=-2 and + 2 as determined
by eq. 1.3
m= 0, ±1, ±2.
m1 = +2, m2 = +1, m3 = 0, m4 = -1, m5 = -2
As the spinning nucleus has magnetic moment associated with its spinning motion so
there exists a relationship between the magnetic moment μ and the magnetic quantum
number which can be studied with equations 1.4 and 1.5.

When the value of P is substituted in equation 1.4, a new equation is obtained (Equation
1.6), which indicates that the magnetic moment μ of a given nucleus depends only on the
magnetic quantum numbers m:
[CHAPTER – 01] INTRODUCTION 9

The symbol “γ” is called gyromagnetic ratio of a particular nucleus which is constant for
a given nucleus. Nuclear magnetic moment μ is also quantized and can only have certain
values. These values are determined by the magnetic quantum numbers m. Gyromagnetic
ratios of the some common nuclei are given in table 1.2.
Table 1.2 Spin quantum number, Natural Abundance and Gyromagnetic ratio of some
common Nuclei
Nucleus Spin Quantum Number I Natural Abundance Gyromagnetic ratio
γ (107 rad s-1 T-1
1
H 1/2 99.98 26.74
2
H 1 0.01 4.10
10
B 3 18.83 2.8747
11
B 3/2 81.17 8.5847
13
C 1/2 1.108 6.72
14
N 1 99.635 9.13
15
N 1/2 0.365 -2.71
17
O 5/2 0.037 -36.20
19
F 1/2 100 25.16
29
Si 3/2 4.70 -5.3190
31
P 1/2 100 10.83

1.8. The energy of a magnetic dipole in a magnetic field

When a magnetic dipole (of any nucleus) is placed in a static homogeneous
magnetic field (Bo), it has certain value of potential energy E which can be calculated by
equation 1.7
E = μBo ---------------------------------- (1.7)
where μ is the magnetic moment of the nucleus. On substitution of μ from equation 1.6
into 1.7, a new relationship is obtained between energy and external magnetic field which
is sketched in equation 1.8
10 For B.S, M.Sc & M.Phil Students

Let us attempt to explain the above energy formula. In a given magnetic field, the
strength of the magnetic field Bo is not varied. The other parameters, h and γ also have
constant values, which tell us that the energy of a magnetic dipole in a static magnetic
field depends only on the magnetic quantum numbers m. At this point, we can draw the
following important conclusion: the energy of a dipole in a static magnetic field is
quantized and it can only have certain values. If we know the magnetic quantum numbers
of a nucleus, we can calculate the different energies of a dipole in a magnetic field. Since
we will deal with the proton (1H) and carbon (13C) NMR spectroscopy, let us apply this
equation to the proton and carbon (13C) nuclei.
The spin quantum number of the proton and carbon (13C) nucleus is 1/2. The
corresponding magnetic quantum numbers are m1= +1/2 and m2 = -1/2 Since the proton
(or carbon) has two different magnetic quantum numbers, it has two different energy
states in the presence of a static magnetic field, i.e. two different alignments in the
magnetic field (Figure 1.5).

Figure 1.5 Energy level schemes of parallel and antiparallel alignment

These two different energy states can be calculated by substituting value of “m” in
equation 1.8. We can obtain the energies of the two different states which are as follows:

Now let us try to explain qualitatively the energy separation of the protons in the
presence of a magnetic field. In the absence of a strong external magnetic field, the
nuclear spins of protons are randomly oriented (Figure 1.6). When a sample containing
protons is placed in a static, homogeneous magnetic field, the magnetic moment μ of the
[CHAPTER – 01] INTRODUCTION 11

protons will interact with the external magnetic field, and the nuclei will adopt a specific
orientation, much as a compass needle orients itself in the earth's magnetic field. In short,
some of the nuclear spin will align parallel with the external magnetic field and some
antiparallel. The energy of the nuclear spins that are parallel oriented is lower than that of
those spins which are antiparallel oriented.

Figure 1.6 Orientation of nuclei in the presence and absence of applied magnetic field
Generally, the spin quantum numbers I of nuclei determine the number of different
energy states of a nucleus in a magnetic field. We have already explained the energy
separation of the nuclei whose spin quantum number I= 1/2. Let us predict the energy
levels of an element with the spin quantum number I = 1. For example, the spin quantum
number of deuterium, D, is 1. The magnetic quantum number of D is then 3. This means
that when deuterium is placed in a magnetic field, the energy will be split into three
different states, which are determined by the magnetic quantum numbers (Figure 1.7). In
other words, deuterium nuclei have three different orientations in a magnetic field.
12 For B.S, M.Sc & M.Phil Students

Figure 1.7 Energy level schemes for nuclei having spin number I= 1
1.9 Resonance phenomena and resonance condition
All nuclei with the spin quantum number I > 0 are split into different energy levels when
they are placed in a static and homogenous magnetic field. The energy difference
between two energy states (in the case of proton or carbon we have two different energy
states) is very important in NMR spectroscopy. If the oriented nuclei are now irradiated
with electromagnetic radiation of the proper frequency, energy absorption occurs, and the
lower energy state flips to the higher energy state. For that reason, in NMR spectroscopy,
we have to know the exact energy difference between these states:

The equation 1.9 provides us the exact energy difference between the two energy states.
As one can see from this equation, the energy separation of a given nucleus produced in
the presence of an external magnetic field is proportional only to the strength of the
applied magnetic field Bo, since h, π and γ are constants. The only variable parameter in
equation 1.9 is the magnetic field Bo which controls the energy between the spin states of
a nucleus (Figure 1.8).
[CHAPTER – 01] INTRODUCTION 13

Figure 1.8 Energy difference between two adjacent energy level as a function of applied
magnetic field.
Figure 1.8 illustrates the fact that the energy difference between the states increases with
the increased strength of the magnetic field. Increasing of the energy, ΔE will be reflected
in the sensitivity of the NMR instruments [12, 13].
If a nucleus is not placed in a magnetic field (Bo = 0), there will be no different energy
states. According to equation 1.9, ΔE will be equal to zero. The energy states will be
degenerated. The exact amount of energy is necessary for the resonance. Once the two
energy levels for the proton have been established, it is possible to introduce energy in
the form of radiofrequency (RF) radiation to effect the transition between these energy
levels in a static homogeneous magnetic field of a given strength Bo. The introduced
radiofrequency v is given in megahertz (MHz).
E = hν --------------------- (1.10)
If we combine equation 1.9 and 1.10, a new relationship equation 1.11 is obtained which
can be employed to calculate the exact frequency v at which the absorptions of
radiofrequency is obtained.

Modification of this equation gives the basic NMR equation:

14 For B.S, M.Sc & M.Phil Students

This equation shows us the necessary condition for the resonance in the NMR
experiments. Now let us summarize the NMR experiments on the basis of this equation.
When a sample containing protons is placed in an external homogeneous magnetic field,
the protons will have two orientations either parallel to or against the external field. The
two different orientations do not have the same energy. The parallel orientation is slightly
lower in energy. Energy is required to 'flip' the proton from the lower energy level to its
higher energy level. In the NMR spectrometer this energy is supplied by electromagnetic
radiation in the RF region. When the system is irradiated with the proper frequency,
energy absorption occurs. Absorption of energy results in the excitation of the nucleus to
the higher spin state. The amount of applied energy has to be exactly the same as the
energy difference between the two states. However, if a stronger magnetic field is
applied, higher energy is required in order to bring the nuclei into resonance (Figure 1.8).
To carry out an NMR experiment, the sample (containing a proton) is placed between the
poles of a strong magnet. The sample will then be irradiated. A radio frequency oscillator
or transmitter is used as the source of exciting radiation. Experimentally, there are two
different ways to achieve resonance. The NMR equation shows that there are two
variable parameters: (i) frequency and (ii) magnetic field. The most obvious way to
achieve resonance is to vary the frequency at a fixed magnetic field strength. This
technique is called the frequency sweep method (Figure 1.9a). Alternatively, the
oscillator frequency may be held constant as the magnetic field strength is varied. This
technique is called the field-sweep method (Figure 1.9b). Both methods are used, but the
field-sweep technique is preferred. Field-sweep spectrometers possess at the pole pieces
of the magnet special coils, which allow continuous variation of the magnetic field
strength. In both cases, the different protons (nuclei) are brought into resonance one by
one. Since in both techniques one parameter is kept constant while the other parameter is
varied, this mode is called continuous-wave (CW) spectrometry. The CW method was the
basis of all NMR instruments constructed up to about the end of the 1960s. CW is still
used in some lower resolution instruments. However, CW instruments have been entirely
superseded by pulsed Fourier transform (FT) instruments. For the interpretation of NMR
spectra it is not important whether the NMR spectrum is recorded by the CW or FT
technique.
[CHAPTER – 01] INTRODUCTION 15

Figure 1.9a Energy absorption and formation of an NMR peak by frequency-sweep

technique and (1.9b) field-sweep technique.
The pioneer commercial NMR spectrometer used permanent magnets with fields of 1.41,
1.87, 2.20 or 2.35 T corresponding to 60, 80, 90 or 100 MHz. When describing NMR
instruments we always state the frequency at which they operate. For example, if we talk
about a 60 MHz NMR instrument, it means that the strength of the magnetic field is 1.41
T (14,100 G). The demand for NMR instruments has resulted in the wide use of 200-950
MHz instruments [13].
1.10 Populations of the energy levels and Sensitivity of NMR Instruments
As we mentioned in the introduction, when a sample containing protons is placed in a
static magnetic field, the nuclei will adopt different orientations. The magnetic moments
of some nuclei will align parallel to the external magnetic field and some against. Now
the question is what are the factors which can influence this distribution of the nuclei?
Since the nuclei flip from the lower energy state to the higher energy state during the
resonance, the number of nuclei populating the lower energy level (parallel orientation)
has to be greater than the number populating the higher energy level (antiparallel
orientation) in order to obtain an NMR signal. According to the laws of thermodynamics,
if there are two different energy levels, the population of these levels has to be different.
Therefore, when the sample is placed in the magnetic field, the nuclei will distribute
themselves between the different energy states in thermal equilibrium. This distribution
of nuclei between two states is given by the Boltzmann relation:
16 For B.S, M.Sc & M.Phil Students

where Nβ is the number of nuclei at excited state, Nα is the number of nuclei at ground
state, ΔE is the energy difference between them, k is the Boltzmann constant, and T is the
temperature. When we replace the energy ΔE in equation 1.13, we obtain the following
equations 1.14 and 1.15.

The energy difference between the two energy states built up in a magnetic field is very
small. For example, we can calculate the energy difference ΔE between the different
levels of protons in a magnetic field of 14,100 G (1.41T) using equation 1.8. We obtain a
value of ΔE= 0.024 cal/mol, which shows a small separation of the energy states. In the
case of a magnetic field of 23,500 G, the energy gap is then increased to ΔE = 0.04
kcal/mol. The population excess can be determined using equation 1.15. For room
temperature (T = 25 °C), we obtain the following ratio:

Let us explain this number with a numerical example. When we assume that we have
400,003 molecules, 200,000 of them populate the excited state and 200,003 the ground
state. The population excess in the ground state is only 3 [13, 14]. Distribution of nuclei
in two spin states at room temperature at a given spectrophotometric frequency is given
below in Table 1.3
Table 1.3 The population difference between the energy states at 25 oC for a given
frequency of instrument
Frequency (MHz) Excess nuclei
20 3
40 6
60 9
80 12
100 16
[CHAPTER – 01] INTRODUCTION 17

200 32
300 48
600 96

This excess determines the probability of a transition and thereby the sensitivity of the
experiment. If the populations of the two levels were exactly the same (this does occur
under certain conditions and is referred to as saturation), the numbers would be equal and
there would be no net absorption of energy. In this case we do not observe an NMR
signal.
Irrespective of the measurement techniques (CW or FT) used, sensitivity (peak intensity)
is a very important aspect of NMR spectroscopy. Sensitivity specifications for NMR
spectrometers are a prime area of competition between the instrument manufacturers. In
order to interpret the NMR spectra better, the signal intensity has to be increased. As we
have discussed above, we have to increase the number of protons populating the lower
energy levels in order to obtain an intense signal. The sample concentration at a given
volume can increase the peak intensity. However, it is limited by limited solubility. In
other words, we have to attempt to change the population difference. Analysis of
equations 1.14 and 1.15, Boltzmann’s Law indicates that there are only two variable
parameters that can directly affect the population difference: temperature T and the
strength of the magnetic field Bo. Sensitivity can be slightly increased by lowering the
sample temperature, since T appears in the denominator of the exponent of the
Boltzmann function. By decreasing the temperature, the relative population of the lower
energy level will increase, which will then be reflected in the increase in signal intensity.
Care must be taken with temperature dependent spectra. There are two main reasons why
we do not use this low-temperature measurement to increase the sensitivity. The first is
the solubility of the sample, which will decrease at lower temperatures. The sample can
precipitate out of the solution. Furthermore, an increase in the viscosity of the solution
will cause line broadening in the signals. The second is that the freezing of some dynamic
processes within the compound Therefore, decreasing the temperature can never be used
in order to increase the peak intensity (sensitivity of the instruments) in NMR
spectroscopy. On the other hand, the NMR spectrum of a given sample can also be
recorded at higher temperatures. According to equation 1.15, the sensitivity of signals
will then be decreased. Temperature measurements in NMR spectroscopy are used only
to study the above-mentioned dynamic processes, and not to affect the sensitivity. The
remaining parameter affecting the population ratio is the strength of the magnetic field
Bo. When the magnetic field strength is increased, the energy gap between the two energy
18 For B.S, M.Sc & M.Phil Students

states will also increase. The increased energy gap will directly influence the population
difference, i.e. the number of protons populating the lower energy level will increase.
Consequently, resonance probability will increase. Finally, we will obtain a more intense
signal. We can conclude that the signal intensity can be achieved by increasing the
strength of the magnetic field. Therefore, researchers are always interested in buying
NMR instruments with higher magnetic fields. NMR instruments with higher magnetic
fields can also simplify the NMR spectra, as well as increase the sensitivity. In this case,
NMR spectra can be interpreted much more easily.
Example 1.1
Calculate the population difference between the α and β spin states of 1H at 20 oC when
Bo=4.19T.

Solution

Population difference, Nβ/Nα =e-ΔE/kT

Energy gap between two states, ΔE=γhBo/2π

Gyromagnetic Ratio, γ=2.6752 x 108 rad s-1 T-1, Planks Constant h=6.62 x 10-34J.s
Bo=4.19 T

2π=6.28rad T=20 oC=293K k=1.38 x 10-23J/K

ΔE=1.1859 x 10-25J.

ΔE/kT=0.4029228

Nβ/Nα =e-ΔE/kT = Nβ/Nα = e-0.4029228 =0.999967

Overall molecules= 1000000

Nα +Nβ=1000000

Nβ=0.999967Nα

Nα +Nβ=1000000

Nα +0.999967Nα =1000000

1.999967Nα=1000000
[CHAPTER – 01] INTRODUCTION 19

Nα=1000000/1.999967= 500008.25

Nβ=1000000-500008= 499,992

If Nβ=1000000

Then Nα=?

Nβ=0.999967Nα

1000000/0.999967= Nα

Nα= 1000033.

In the absence of applied magnetic field, there is a 50/50 distribution of nuclei in the
allowed spin states for nuclei having spin=1/2. When magnetic field is applied, the nuclei
are distributed in two spin states, with relative number of slightly more nuclei in the
lower spin states. The relative distribution of nuclei in the two spin states is called
Boltzmann equilibrium. When radio frequency is applied at resonance frequency, the
nuclei are excited. When Rf is switched off, nuclei lose their energy which is called
relaxation and it is a time taken by nuclei to maintain the original Boltzmann equilibrium.
When we irradiate the nuclei we can cross the limit of increasing the population of upper
spin state. All the nuclei donot absorbed the radiation, for excitation, this condition is
called awarded because we cannot get any signal during this condition. We rely on the
slight excess of nuclei to produce signal.

1.11 Rotating Frame of Reference

In order to understand how radiofrequency radiations cause the transition of spins from
ground state to upper state, an important concept in NMR is used which is called Rotating
Frame of Reference. Before studying the rotating frame of reference, let us first see how
RF can be visualized. RF is simply electromagnetic radiation whose intensity is along yʹ-
direction.
20 For B.S, M.Sc & M.Phil Students

Figure 1.10 Radiofrequency moving in circular manner and its correlation with rotating
frame of reference

Every electromagnetic radiation has two components, one is electric component and other
is magnetic component. This wave can also be visualized by circular manner. This is
what we use in Rotating frame of reference. B1 is amplitude and ωt is phase. When δ is
zero, y=100%, when δ is 90, then x-component is maximum and y is zero. In the frame of
circulating wave the spin will appear as static. This is called Rotating Frame of
Reference. In this frame of reference the nucleus sees the applied magnetic field as static,
external magnetic field and starts precessing around it. The angular frequency is ω o=γB1
equivalent to the precession of spin around Bo. We can think an analogy for this, for
example there is a train moving at speed 100Km/h, and you are standing outside the train,
train will be moving with respect to you. There is an another train which is also moving
at speed 100km/h, and you are travelling in this train, now the first train will be static
with respect to your frame of reference. We go into reference frame which spins are
actually moving; with respect to me these spins will be static. Spins are not actually
static, but appear to be static, because we have entered into a different frame of reference.
Spinning motion has been synchronized with the RF, so here ωo=0, which means external
magnetic field has become zero. We have essentially removed the external magnetic
field. This is very important concept in NMR. Bo is zero, what a remains is B1 spin start
moving around B1 and they cannot distinguish between Bo and B1. This is like a merry go
round. In laboratory frame both Bo and B1 are observed. B1 is applied along xʹ-axis, after
application of RF in the presence of B1, the bulk magnetization tilted toward yʹ-axis [14].
[CHAPTER – 01] INTRODUCTION 21

What is typically done, that B1 is applied for a short duration, short RF pulse applied, but
pulse is so strong that it can excite all the nuclei from ground state to excited state as
shown in figure 1.11.

Figure 1.11 Radio frequency applied pulse

How duration of pulse is decided? It is decided by the time during which pulse can attain
the required angle, either is 90o or 180o. About 99 % experiments are being done with 90o
and 180o, in few cases other pulse angles are applied. By applying the RF we have
created coherence. Let us see the effect of pulses of different angles on the net
magnetization vector.

Recall that Mo will presses around B1clockwise, through an angle determined by the
duration and power of the pulse. Let us see the effect on Mo=Mi orientation. Mi stands
for initial direction of vector and Mf stands for direction of vector affected by application
different pulses.

Table 1.4 Effect of Pulse directions on the net magnetization Mi

Mi Pulse Mf Mi Pulse Mf

+z 90yꞌ -x +yꞌ 90xꞌ -z

+z 90-xꞌ -y +yꞌ 90yꞌ +y

+z 180xꞌ -z +yꞌ 90xꞌ +z
22 For B.S, M.Sc & M.Phil Students

+z 180yꞌ -z +yꞌ 180xꞌ -y

+z 180xꞌ -z +xꞌ 180yꞌ -x

When RF is switched off, relaxation processes occur.

1.12 RELAXATION
By the absorption of energy the excitation of a nucleus from the lower to higher energy
level occurs which is called resonance. After resonance the population of the different
energy levels changes, the number of nuclei at the lower energy level is decreased. In
order to maintain the slight excess of nuclei at the lower energy level, the nuclei at the
higher energy level lose their energy and return to the lower energy level. The various
processes that tend to restore the original equilibrium condition among the energy levels
are referred to as relaxation phenomena (Figure 1.12) [15].

Figure 1.12 Simple representation of resonance and relaxation phenomenon

As long as this equilibrium is not established again, a second NMR spectrum from the
same sample cannot be recorded. This process of relaxation is important because the time
spent in the excited state determines the width of the absorption peaks, pattern of the
peaks, and ease with which the nucleus is observed. The relaxation time is the time
needed to relax the nuclei back to their equilibrium distribution. Relaxation processes can
be divided into two categories:
(1) spin-lattice relaxation (longitudinal relaxation) T1
(2) spin-spin relaxation (transverse relaxation) T2.
[CHAPTER – 01] INTRODUCTION 23

The probability of spontaneous emission of the excess energy in the form of

electromagnetic radiation is negligible, although the excitation occurs by the adsorption
of electromagnetic radiation. Before we start to discuss spin-lattice relaxation, the term
lattice should be defined. Lattices are defined as all kinds of aggregates of atoms or
molecules in the solution. Solvent molecules and dissolved gases are also considered to
be lattices.

1.12.1 The spin-lattice relaxation designated by the time T1 involves the transfer of
energy from the excited protons to the surrounding lattice in the direction of applied field.
Donated by T1 and energy is transferred to assembly of molecules and energy of the
system is increased. For the moment we will confine our attention to liquids and gases
which undergo random translational and rotational motion. Since some or all of these
atoms and molecules contain magnetic nuclei, such motions will be associated with
fluctuating magnetic fields. The fluctuating lattice fields can be regarded as being
composed of a number of oscillating components. If a component matches the
precessional frequency of the magnetic nuclei, the transfer of energy from the excited
proton to the surrounding atoms or molecule can take place which are tumbling at the
appropriate frequencies. The energy will be transferred into kinetic and thermal energy.
The magnitude of T1 varies to a considerable extent depending on the nucleus and its
environment. Liquids usually have a T1 of 10-2-102s, while in solids this value is much
larger. For many organic compounds, T1 is less than one second. Spin lattice relaxation is
responsible to maintain Boltzmann equilibrium. If signal is obtained slowly, it means it
is T1 relaxation. Spin lattice relaxation T1 also depends on γ. If γ is high, it has lower T1
values [15]. For 1H, T1 is from milliseconds to several seconds and for 13C tens of seconds
to several minutes because it has lower value of γ.

1.12.2 The spin-spin relaxation, characterized by the time T2, involves the transfer of
energy among the precessing protons. Spin-spin relaxation indicates that energy lost by
one molecule is gained by another molecule. This is mutual exchange of spins between
two precessing nuclei when they are in close proximity to each other. T 2 relaxation is
quicker than T1 and in such cases you get broader signal. In case of 1H and 13C T1 and T2
are comparable and sharp signal is obtained. The most important feature of spin-spin
relaxation is that it determines the natural width of the lines in the spectra in a plane
perpendicular to applied magnetic field. This is called entropy. When nuclei are induced
to change their spin by absorption of radiation, they all end up precessing in phase after
resonance [15]. This is called phase coherence.
24 For B.S, M.Sc & M.Phil Students

From the foregoing discussion, certain precautions must be taken in the preparation of the
sample. The solvent must be free of magnetic impurities and paramagnetic species
because they affect the relaxation process. We have already mentioned the importance of
relaxation times in controlling the width of peaks. If the relaxation time is very short, we
observe a broadening of the peaks. In the case of longer relaxation times, there are more
intense peaks (Figure 1.13). This relationship is described by the Heisenberg
uncertainty principle, which states that the product of the uncertainty of the energy ΔE
and the uncertainty of the life time

Figure 1.13 Variation in signal width with respect to relaxation time

This equation shows the relation between the peak width and relaxation time. Thus, if the
life is very short the uncertainty in energy will be large. This uncertainty in energy is, in
turn, manifested in an uncertainty in the frequency. In short, if Δt is small, then ΔE is
large, and the peak is therefore broad. Any kind of paramagnetic impurities existing in
the NMR tube will decrease the relaxation time. Consequently, line broadening will occur
so that we cannot see fine splitting, which provides very important information about the
structures. Therefore, the removal of fine suspended matter by filtering through a pad of
Celite is recommended. The increased viscosity will also affect the relaxation times. One
also has to pay attention to the concentration of the solution. The solution prepared
should not be highly concentrated.
[CHAPTER – 01] INTRODUCTION 25

1.13 Free Induction Decay (FID)

Let us see how FID is produced with the help of pictorial diagram (Figure 1.14).

Figure 1.13 Pictorial representation to understand the generation of FID

After the application of 90o the net magnetization vector comes toward yʹ-axis. Due to T2
relaxation after switching off the RF, the spins are dephased. If we consider the net
magnetization vector it is the sum of the large number of individual vectors. The
26 For B.S, M.Sc & M.Phil Students

reduction in strength of net magnetization occurs due to T2 relaxation due to dephasing of

vectors. The spins are actually oscillating in the xy plane spiraling around the z-axis and
become zero due to T2 relaxation and equilibrium is established along z-axis due to T1
relaxation. The x-component is decreasing with T2 and finally it becomes zero. FID is
nothing but the projection of magnetization along y-axis. Basically this is decreasing
oscillation along y-axis which is called damped oscillation. The FID can be decomposed
into two components which are oscillation and decay.

i) Oscillation=Cos ωt ii) Decay=e-t/T2 FID= Cos(ωt)e-t/T2

Due to decay in strength this is called is free induction decay. To extract the frequency
from FID we apply the mathematical program which is called Fourier transform.

ωeff i=γBo(1-δi)

δ is the chemical shift. Oscillations frequencies in molecules are different and are coming
from γBo(1-δi). What is happening let us understand this with the help of rotating frame.
In the rotating frame we are moving with this frequency γBo. We apply the B1 field in the
form of Rf on the basis of γBo. You cannot synchronize all the spins at the same time you
will select one particular spin at one time. Your reference frequency is that of rotating
frame of reference. Let us again take an analogy of moving three trains at 100km/h,
120km/h and 80km/h. Now we move into the rotating frame of reference of train moving
at speed 100km/h. You cannot observe the speed of your train, it is zero for you because
your train is in resonance with the train speed. The train which is moving at speed 80km
is moving at 20km slower than your train, while the train moving at speed 120km/h is
moving 20km faster than your train. The other trains moving at 20km slower and 20km
faster than your reference train. Same is the case with rotating frame of reference which
is rotating at one reference frequency under given set of conditions. Some vectors are
spinning faster and some are spinning slower than the reference frequency. What is
important here is that FID is subtracted from the reference frequency ω r=γBo. After
subtraction of reference frequency you get the remaining oscillations in the FID which
are digitized and Fourier transformed to obtain the frequency domain spectrum. If the
oscillations are same as to those of reference frequency then after subtraction there will
be zero oscillations in FID and you get no any signal in the spectrum. The whole NMR is
based on the concept of rotating frame of reference [16].
[CHAPTER – 01] INTRODUCTION 27

1.14 The 1D NMR Spectrum

The one-dimensional NMR spectrum shows amplitude as a function of frequency. To
generate this spectrum, an ensemble of a particular NMR-active nuclide is excited. The
excited nuclei generate a signal that is detected in the time domain and then converted
mathematically to the frequency domain by using a Fourier transform. All 1D NMR time
domain data sets must undergo one Fourier transformation to become an NMR spectrum.
The Fourier transformation converts amplitude as a function of time to amplitude as a
function of frequency. Therefore the spectrum shows amplitude along a frequency axis
that is normally the chemical shift axis. The signal we detect to ultimately generate a 1D
NMR spectrum is generated using a pulse sequence. A pulse sequence is a series of time
delays and Rf pulses that culminates in the detection of the NMR signal. Sometimes more
than one Rf channel is used to perturb the NMR-active spins in the sample. For example,
the effect of the spin state of 1H’s on nearby 13C’s is typically suppressed using 1 H
decoupling (proton decoupling) while we acquire the signal from the 13C nuclei. Figure
1.14 shows a simple 1D NMR pulse sequence called the one pulse experiment. The pulse
sequence consists of three parts: relaxation, preparation, and detection. A relaxation delay
is often needed because achieving a spectrum with a reasonable signal-to-noise ratio
often requires repetition of the pulse sequence (scanning) many times to accumulate
sufficient signal, and following preparation (putting magnetization into the xy plane), the
NMR spins will often not return to equilibrium as quickly as we might like, so we must
wait for this return to equilibrium before starting the next scan. Some relaxation will take
place during detection, but often not enough to suit our particular needs [17].

Figure 1.14 Schematic representation of operational sequence of 1D NMR spectrum

1.15 The 2-D NMR Spectrum
A 2-D NMR spectrum is obtained after carrying out two Fourier transformations on a
matrix of data (as opposed to one Fourier transform on an array of data for a 1-D NMR
spectrum). A 2-D NMR spectrum will generate cross peaks that correlate information on
one axis with information on the other; usually, both axes are chemical shift axes, but this
is not always the case. The pulse sequence used to collect a 2D NMR data set differs only
slightly (at this level of abstraction) from the 1D NMR pulse sequence. Figure 1.10
28 For B.S, M.Sc & M.Phil Students

shows a generic 2D NMR pulse sequence. The 2-D pulse sequence contains four parts
instead of three. The four parts of the 2D pulse sequence are relaxation, evolution,
mixing, and detection. The careful reader will note that preparation has been split into
two parts: evolution and mixing. Evolution involves imparting phase character to the
spins in the sample. Mixing involves the phase-encoded spins, which pass their phase
information to other spins. Evolution usually occurs prior to mixing and is termed t1 (not
to be confused with T1 the relaxation time!), but in some 2D NMR pulse sequences the
distinction is blurred, for example in the correlation spectroscopy (COSY) experiment.
Evolution often starts with a pulse to put some magnetization into the xy plane. Once in
the xy plane, the magnetization will precess or evolve (hence the name “evolution”) and,
depending on the t1 evolution time, will precess a certain number of degrees from its
starting point. How far each set of chemically distinct spins evolves is a function of the t1
evolution time and each spin set’s precession frequency which in turn depends on its
chemical environment. Thus, a series of passes through the pulse sequence using different
t1 ’s will encode each chemically distinct set of spins with a unique array of phases in the
xy plane. During the mixing time, the phase-encoded spins are allowed to mix with each
other or with other spins. The nature of the mixing that takes place during a 2D pulse
sequence varies widely and includes mechanisms involving through-space relaxation,
through-bond perturbations (scalar coupling), and other interactions.
During the detection period denoted t2 (not the relaxation time T2) the NMR signal is
captured electronically and stored in a computer for subsequent workup. Although
detection occurs after evolution, the first Fourier transformation is applied to the time
domain data detected during the t2 detection period to generate the f2 frequency axis. That
is, the t2 time domain is converted using the Fourier transformation into the f2 frequency
domain before the t1 time domain is converted to the f1 frequency domain. This ordering
may seem counterintuitive, but recall that t1 and t2 get their names from the order in
which they occur in the pulse sequence, and not from the order in which the data set is
processed. Following conversion of t2 to f2, we have a half-processed NMR data matrix
called an interferogram. The interferogram is not a particularly useful thing by itself, but
performing a Fourier transformation to convert the t1 time domain to the f1 frequency
domain renders a data matrix with two frequency axes (f1 and f2) that will (hopefully)
allow the extraction of meaningful data pertaining to our sample [17].
[CHAPTER – 01] INTRODUCTION 29

Figure 1.10 Schematic representation of operational sequence of 2D NMR spectrum

1.16 Information Content Available Using NMR
NMR spectroscopy can provide a wealth of information about the nature of solute
molecules and solute-solvent interactions. At this point, it is best to highlight the simplest
and most basic features present in typical solution state NMR spectra, especially those of
proton NMR spectra.
 NMR provides chemical shifts (denoted δ) for atoms in differing chemical
environments. For example, an aldehyde proton will show a different chemical
shift than a methyl proton.
 NMR can give the relative population of spins in each chemical environment
through peak integration.
 NMR shows how one spin may be near (in terms of number of bonds distant)
another spin through scalar coupling or J-coupling.
 NMR shows that through the J-coupling of spin only a few bonds distant, how a
molecule may be folded or bent.
 NMR can also show how one atom in a molecular may be nearby (in space) to
another atom in the same or even a different molecule through the nuclear
Overhauser effect.
 NMR can reveal how molecular dynamics and chemical exchange may be taking
place over a wide range of time scales.
1.17 INSTRUMENTATION

The essential components of NMR instrument include the following parts

 a highly stable magnet
 sample probe
 RF Generator and Detector System
 Signal Integrator and Computer
30 For B.S, M.Sc & M.Phil Students

3.48
3.47
3.46
3.45
3.37
3.36
3.34

1.63
1.62
1.60
1.59
1.57
1.56
1.21
1.20
1.18
1.00
0.98
0.97
2.01
2.00

2.01

2.99

2.99
4 .0 3 .5 3 .0 2 .5 2 .0 1 .5 1 .0 0 .5
δ (p p m )

Figure 1.11 Schematic setup of the NMR experiment.

Unlike other spectrometers, an additional device a magnet capable of producing strong

homogenous magnetic field is needed in NMR spectrometer. Let us discuss the different
components of an NMR spectrometer [18].
1.17.1 Magnet
It is the heart of all types of NMR spectrometers. The sensitivity and resolution of a
spectrometer critically depends on the strength and quality of the magnet. Since
sensitivity and resolution both increase with field strength, it is advantageous to operate
the instrument at highest possible field strength. In addition, the field must be
homogeneous, uniform and reproducible. Three types of magnets have been used in
NMR spectrometers; these are permanent magnet, electromagnet and super conducting
solenoid. It is most essential that stability of a magnet is maintained at all costs.
a) Permanent magnet
[CHAPTER – 01] INTRODUCTION 31

In order to change the field, sweep coils were used. You can change the magnetic field by
changing the electric field around the sweep coils. You can change field up to 20ppm.
Permanent magnet is alloy of Iron with Nd and B, and its chemical formula is Nd2Fe14B.
These are very temperature sensitive and require extensive cooling and shielding.
Permanent magnets with strengths that need an oscillator frequency of <100 MHz for
bare protons have been used in commercial continuous wave spectrometers. However,
these are not ideal for extended periods of data accumulation because of field drift
problems.

b) Electromagnetic magnet

In case of electromagnetic magnets conducting coils of ferromagnetic materials are

present, which on passage of electricity generate magnetic field. When electricity is
switched off, the magnetic field becomes zero. In electromagnets, warm up time is very
less, but in permanent magnets warm up time is longer.

c) Cryogenic magnets (Super Conducting Magnets)

Modern NMR spectrometers use superconducting solenoid magnets. These are simple,
small sized and produce high field strength besides having low operating cost. The
magnet consists of a main field coil made of superconducting Nb/Sn or Nb/Ti wire with a
dozen or more superconducting shim coils wound around the main coil to improve field
homogeneity. The superconducting coils must be submerged in liquid helium. The
magnet and liquid helium reservoir are encased in a liquid nitrogen reservoir to decrease
the evaporative loss of the more expensive liquid helium. There is an open bore in the
middle of the solenoid which hosts the sample tube. The magnetic field strength is held
constant by a “frequency locking” circuit. The cryogenic fluids must be replenished on a
regular basis, usually weekly for the liquid nitrogen and every 1-6 months for the liquid
helium. The superconducting coils must be kept cold; if permitted to warm up they stop
functioning. The magnet is said to have “quenched”.

1.17.2 The Sample Probe

It is a key component in NMR spectrometer which not only holds the sample in a fixed
position in the magnetic field but also contains an air turbine to rotate (spin) the sample.
The sample is spun so as to ensure that it experiences a uniform field. In addition to
these, it houses a coil for generating radiofrequency for excitation and also for detection
of the NMR signal. Earlier NMR spectrometers have separate transmitter and receiver
coils perpendicular to each other for excitation of the pulse and detection of the signal.
32 For B.S, M.Sc & M.Phil Students

Modern spectrometers contain a single coil probe which is simple and more efficient.
Since most of the continuous wave spectrometers use field sweep mode, a fixed
frequency is generated from the radiofrequency generator and frequency synthesizer. The
spectrometer is known by its operating frequency e.g., a 60 MHz, a 100 MHz or a 500
MHz instrument and so on. However, in Fourier transform spectra, the sample is
irradiated with a pulse consisting of a range of frequencies sufficiently high to excite
nucleus having different resonance frequencies. The pulse of radiation provides a
relatively broad band of frequencies centered on the oscillator frequency [19].
1.17.3 RF Generator and Detector System
The RF radiation is generated by using an RF crystal oscillator. The output of the
oscillator is amplified, mixed, and filtered to produce essentially monochromatic RF
radiation for an NMR instrument. The RF radiation delivered to the sample is pulsed. A
simple pulse might be a rectangular pulse of 500 MHz frequency for a 10 milli seconds
duration. The process of pulsing actually widens the RF band, providing a range of
frequencies that is able to excite all nuclei whose resonances occur within the band of
frequencies. All resonances within the band are excited simultaneously. A proton
spectrum occurs over a chemical shift range of 10 ppm, which corresponds to +2.5 kHz at
500 MHz. A pulse programmer is used to control the timing and shape of the RF pulses
used to excite the sample. Square wave pulses are commonly used, but multipulse
experiments and 2D NMR experiments with other pulse shapes are performed. There are
hundreds of pulse sequences and many 2D experiments like APT, DEPT, INEPT,
INADEQUATE, COSY, have been developed using these pulses. Each pulse sequence
provides specific and unique NMR responses that enable the analyst to sort out the NMR
spectrum and deduce the chemical structure of a molecule. All signals are collected
simultaneously. The Rf pulse delivered is generally on the order of watts while the NMR
signal collected is in the order of microwatts. The FID signal in the time domain must be
converted to a frequency domain spectrum by application of a Fourier transformation or
other mathematical transformation. Commercial instruments generally use quadrature
phase-sensitive detection to avoid spectrum artifacts resulting from the mathematical
transformation [19].
1.17.4 Signal Integrator and Computer
All NMR spectrometers are equipped with a signal integrator to measure the area of
peaks. The area often appears on the NMR spectrum as a step function superimposed on
the spectrum, as but is also printed out in a data report as well. All NMR spectrometers
require a computer to process the data and much of the instrument is under computer
control. Multitasking or networked computer workstations are normally used, so that data
[CHAPTER – 01] INTRODUCTION 33

can be processed while long experiments are running on the instrument. A typical single
NMR data file can be processed in less than one second. 2D and 3D NMR experiments
generate megabytes to gigabytes of data that must be processed for each experiment.
According to Petersheim, 2D NMR plot generation in the early 1980s required days of
operator and computer time. The same 2D plots are now generated in minutes with
today’s improved software and faster computers. Computer control of the room
temperature shim currents that control the field homogeneity, of sample spinning rates,
auto samplers, pulse sequences, and many other aspects of the instrument operation is a
necessity [19].

EXERCISE
Q.1.1 What is the necessary condition for a nucleus to become NMR active?
Q.1.2 A nucleus is composed of 6 protons and 6 neutrons; is it NMR-active nucleus?
What do you think?
Q.1.3 How many Zeeman energy levels exist for nuclei having spins 1/2, 3/2 and 5/2.?
Q.1.4 A certain proton resonate at 125Hz on 100MHz NMR instrument. What will be the
resonance frequency of Phosphorous (31P, γ 31P=10.84 x 107) at the same instrument?
Q.1.5 Boltzmann equilibrium governs the population difference between α and β spin
states, how the population difference is related to gyromagnetic ratio and the magnetic
field strength under high temperature conditions?
Q.1.6 Gyromagnetic ratio of two nuclei differs by a factor of four, what is the amount of
observable magnetization in this case?
Q.1.7 What is the difference between populations and coherences?
Q.1.8 Time evolution of magnetization is fully characterized by the Bloch equations. Is
this true?
Q.1.9 Group the following terms together: T2 relaxation; longitudinal relaxation; spin-
lattice relaxation; T1 relaxation; transverse relaxation; spin–spin relaxation.
Q.1.10 How is the shape of the FID related to the relaxation time constant T2 in the case
of short T2s? And how does that influence the signal in the spectrum?
Q.1.11 Does the line width of a signal directly reflect the transverse relaxation time T2?
Q.1.12 An important concept in the description of NMR is the rotating frame of
reference. In particular the action of RF pulses is best described in a rotating frame of
reference. To which frequency is the reference frequency therefore usually related to?
Q.1.12 What is the result of a 90o pulse when applied to thermal equilibrium
magnetization that is exactly on-resonant? And what happens when the magnetization is
not exactly on-resonant?
34 For B.S, M.Sc & M.Phil Students

Q.1.13 What is the general purpose of the shim system?

Q.1.14 What is the purpose of sample spinning in liquid-state NMR?
Q.1.15 RF coils are an integral part of (a) the RF amplifiers, (b) the probehead, or (c) the
shim system?
Q.1.16The signal-to-noise ratio of a proton spectrum is rather poor although the sample
concentration is reasonable high. What could be the reason for the “attenuated” resonance
signals?
Q.1.17The deuterium lock circuit is used to compensate (a) for magnetic field instabilities
or (b) instabilities in the sample temperature?
Q.1.18 How do room-temperature instabilities influence spectrometer performance?
Q.1.19 Comment on the following statement: The Fourier transform approximates the
time domain signal (FID) as a series of sines and cosines.
Q.1.20 In order to measure the entire range of chemical shifts of a metal hydride the
spectral width must be doubled. How do you then need to change the number of time
domain data points in order to keep the maximal spectral resolution at a constant level?
Q.1.21The FID of a relatively intense resonance is sampled only up to about one times its
T2 relaxation. What artifacts do you have to expect after FT of the FID? Give two
possible pre-processing steps of the FID that help to reduce these artifacts.
Q.1.22 Place the following items into the correct order in which they are performed:
phase correction/window multiplication/Fourier transform/zero filling/baseline correction
Q.1.23 What type of window function is most often applied to 13C data and why?
Q.1.24 Describe the most important relaxation mechanisms for the following spins (we
look at the spins printed in bold): (a) –CH2CH3, (b) –13C–14N, (c) –13CDO
Q.1.25 Which relaxation mechanisms lead to enthalpic and which to entropic changes?
Q.1.26 What is the observable effect of short T2 and long T1 times in spectra?
Q.1.27 How do you measure T1 and T2 relaxation times (name of the experiments)?
Q.1.28 Suppose you have a pair of 1H–1H and 1H–15N spins in the same distance. Are the
proton T1 and T2 times the same?
Q.1.29 Describe the difference between saturation and inversion of spins?
[CHAPTER – 01] INTRODUCTION 35

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