NAME-OCINE AHIRWAR

ROLL NO. - 623

ANS.4) D-PLEISTOCENE ENVIRONMENT

INTRODUCTION

The pleistocene is a remarkable epoch in the geological calender of the

earth marked by great climatic events. The pleistocene is an unusual
period in the earth’s history.It was the time of emergent continents , deep
ocean basins and high mountains , a time of profound environmental
changes marked by repeated waxing and warming of huge ice sheets over
large parts of earth and a time of exceptionally rapid evolution of organic
life perhaps one reason of our great interest in the pleistocene period is its
close connection with the evolution of man. There is no doubt that the
greater portion of man’s initial phase of cultural evolution falls within the
pleistocene.The pleistocene happens to be a significant period in prehistory
marked by remarkable climatic oscillation.
The pleistocene period represents an unique series of events in the four
billion years of earth’s history .During the preceding sixty million years of
the tertiary , the climate was warm , equitable and less differentiated than
what it is now.The high latitudinal areas of the tropics experienced intense
cold climate with ice coverage called glacial period.These glacial periods
were intervened by comparatively warm phases termed interglacial periods​.
These climatic period had variations in different regions .The effects of
glaciation were also noticed in the seas and oceans of the earth besides the
occurrence of faunal and floral species peculiar to the epoch.​Then within a
brief span of a mere million years the environmental equilibrium was rudely
shaken .An abrupt change in the long standing environmental picture was
brought out when the earth witnessed alternating spasm of colder and
warmer climate , the former reaching their climax in the extensive
continental glaciation of the upper and middle pleistocene in northern
hemisphere.
The following answer thus focuses on the environmental condition of the
pleistocene followed by a conclusion :

The Pleistocene epoch is identified by the occurrence of ​Villafranchian

fossils namely ​Bos ​(bovine), ​Equus ​(horse) and ​Elephas ​(elephant) in the
terrestrial stratigraphy and calabrian formation or specific marine species in
the seas. Different regions of the earth experienced the Pleistocene
differently. There prevailed cold climatic conditions in the higher latitudes
and altitudes of the earth marked by intense snowfall and glaciations. On
the other hand, the tropical regions of the earth experienced high humidity
and heavy rainfall. Most part of Northern Europe, Great Britain, North
America, Scandinavia, Switzerland and almost all the Alps were covered
with ice sheets. It is estimated that during maximum glaciation almost 30%
of the earth surface was covered by ice sheet and the minimum
temperature went down to -6º C (21º F). Even higher altitudes of mountains
in the tropical region like Kilimanjaro, Mount Kenya,Ruwenzori range in
East and Central Africa were also under the influence of glaciation. So
intense was the snowfall that in some mountains the permanent snowline
came below by almost 3500 ft. In Central Europe most of the mountain
glaciers had glaciers during the Ice Age; the glacial snowline therefore was
depressed to an elevation of 3000 feet and less. In the west it lay lower
than in the east, the mountains of the Wales produced a considerable
glaciation in the same latitudes in which the Ural Mountains were not
glaciated at all. Penck (1904) has stated that “ We find very small glaciers
sometimes in high latitudes where the country is not mountainous, on the
other side, a very considerable development of glaciers in lower latitudes –
for example, in the Himalayas- is due to the existence of a mountain chain.
The Climatic condition of the development of glaciers can be best
recognized by the elevation of the snowline above the sea and in late years
one prominent task of glacial geology on the continent has been to
determine the elevation of the snowline during the glacial period.” Thus the
snowline lies above the region of morainic accumulation along the regions
where glaciers begin to melt called the tongue of the glaciers.

Pleistocene epoch , earlier and major of the two epochs that ​constitute​ the
Quaternary Period​ of the ​Earth’s​ history, and the time period during which a
succession of glacial and interglacial climatic cycles occurred. The base of
the ​Gelasian Sta​ge marks the beginning of Pleistocene, which is also the
base of the Quaternary Period. It is coincident with the bottom of a marly
layer resting atop a sapropel on the southern slopes of Monte San Nicola in
Sicily​, Italy, and is associated with the Gauss-Matuyama ​geomagnetic
reversal​. It is preceded by the ​Pliocene Epoch​ of the ​Neogene Period​ and
is followed by the ​Holocene Epoch​.
The Pleistocene Epoch is best known as a time during which extensive ice
sheets and other ​glaciers​ formed repeatedly on the landmasses and has
been informally referred to as the “Great Ice Age.” The timing of the onset
of this cold interval, and thus the formal beginning of the Pleistocene
Epoch, was a matter of substantial debate among geologists during the late
20th and early 21st centuries. By 1985, a number geological societies
agreed to set the beginning of the Pleistocene Epoch about 1,800,000
years ago, a figure coincident with the onset of glaciation in Europe and
North America​. Modern research, however, has shown that large glaciers
had formed in other parts of the world earlier than 1,800,000 years ago.
This fact precipitated a debate among geologists over the formal start of
the Pleistocene .

Definition of the base of the Pleistocene has had a long and controversial
history. Because the ​epoch​ is best recognized for glaciation and ​climatic
change​, many have suggested that its lower boundary should be based on
climatic criteria . Other ​criteria​ that have been used to define the
Pliocene–Pleistocene include the appearance of humans, the appearance
of certain vertebrate fossils in Europe, and the appearance or extinction of
certain microfossils in deep-sea sediments. These criteria continue to be
considered locally, and some workers advocate a climatic boundary at
about 2.4 million years.

Since evidence of Cenozoic glaciation was discovered in rocks laid down

earlier than those of the Vrica section, some geologists proposed that the
base of the Pleistocene be moved to an earlier time. The Pleistocene is
subdivided into four ages and their corresponding rock units: the Gelasian ,
the Calabrian,the Ionian,and the Tarantian . Of these, only the Gelasian
and Calabrian are formal intervals, whereas others await ratification by the
ICS. The Calabrian, which was previously known as the early Pleistocene,
extends to the Brunhes–Matuyama paleomagnetic boundary at 780,000
years ago. The Ionian, also known as the middle Pleistocene, extends to
the end of the next to the last glaciation at about 130,000 years ago. The
Tarantian, also known as the late Pleistocene, includes the last
interglacial–glacial cycle ending at the Holocene boundary about 11,700
years ago.

Environments​ during the Pleistocene were ​dynamic​ and underwent

dramatic change in response to cycles of ​climatic change​ and the
development of large ice sheets. Essentially all regions of the ​Earth​ were
influenced by these climatic events, but the magnitude and direction of
environmental change varied from place to place .

GLACIATION
The growth of large ​ice sheets​, i​ ce caps​, and long ​valley glaciers​ was among
the most significant events of the Pleistocene. During times of extensive
glaciation, more than 45 million square kilometres or about 30 percent of the
Earth’s land area was covered by glaciers, and portions of the northern oceans
were either frozen over or had extensive ice shelves. In addition to the
Antarctic and Greenland ice sheets, most of the glacial ice was located in the
Northern Hemisphere, where large ice sheets extended to mid-latitude regions.
The results of glaciation varied greatly, depending on regional and local
conditions. Glacial processes were concentrated near the base of the glacier
and in the marginal zone. Material eroded at the base was transported toward
the margin, where it was deposited both at the glacier bed and in the marginal
area. These processes resulted in the stripping of large quantities of material
from the central zones of the ice sheet and the ​deposition​ of this material in the
marginal zone and beyond the ice sheet. The effects in mountainous terrain
were even more dramatic. Glacial processes were concentrated in the upper
regions where snow accumulated and in the valleys through which the glaciers
moved to lower elevations. These valley glaciers carved towering peaks , large
rock basins, and sweeping U-shaped valleys and left some of the most
spectacular scenery on the Earth, with many high-level lakes and waterfalls.

PERIGLACIAL ENVIRONMENTS
The ​environment​ around the ice sheets was markedly different from that of
today in these formerly glaciated areas. Temperatures were much lower, and a
zone of ​permafrost​ developed around the southern margin of the ice sheets in
both North America and Eurasia. This zone was relatively narrow in central
North America, on the order of 200 kilometres, but in Europe and Russia it
extended many hundreds of kilometres south of the ice margin. Mean annual
temperatures near the ice margin were about −6 °C or colder and increased
away from the ice margin to about 0 °C near the southern extent of the
permafrost. These conditions were indicated by ice-wedge casts and
large-scale patterned ground, which are relict forms of ice wedges and tundra
polygons that form today only in areas with continuous permafrost. Frost
activity through freezing and thawing was intensified, and in areas of more
relief talus accumulations and large block fields formed along escarpments and
valley sides. Mass-wasting processes also were intensified and much material
was eroded from slopes in periglacial areas.
 LACUSTRINE ENVIRONMENT

Large ​lakes​, usually many times bigger than their modern counterparts, were
common during the Pleistocene. They fluctuated in level in response to the
major climatic cycles or the opening and closing of outlets due to glaciation and
vertical movements of land areas. Of equal interest was the development of
large lakes in areas that today have arid to semiarid climatic regimes and
generally lack lakes or have modern lakes that are much reduced in size and
are saline in character. Such lakes are referred to as ​pluvial lakes​, and the
climate under which they existed is termed a pluvial climate. Most of these
lakes existed in closed basins that lacked outlets, and thus their levels were
related to relative amounts of precipitation and evaporation. A record of
fluctuating lake levels is provided by ancient shorelines and beach deposits
that are present along the slopes of the enclosing mountains as well as by the
sediment and soil record preserved in the subsurface deposits of the lake
basins. The history of lake fluctuations varies somewhat locally within a region
but may be much different from one region of the world to another, depending
on the local and regional climate.Pluvial lakes in these areas were most
extensive during times of widespread glaciation in the Northern Hemisphere
and were low or dry during times of reduced glacial cover.

FLUVIAL ENVIRONMENT
Rivers​ and the ​valleys​ that they occupy were affected strongly by the changing
climates of the Pleistocene. River channels and their sediment record are
controlled in large part by the amount and type of load that is supplied by their
drainage basins and the discharge or quantity of water available for flow. Both
are closely related to climate, which not only includes precipitation,
evaporation, and seasonality but also controls the extent of the vegetative
cover of the land and the type and intensity of weathering processes. In
addition, because of sea-level changes related to glaciation, the base level of
rivers in coastal regions also fluctuated by significant amounts. As a result,
river ​environments​ were ​dynamic​ and variable.

During the transition from glacial to interglacial conditions, river channel

patterns evolved from braided to meandering as a result of decreased load and
possibly discharge. Near glaciated areas, rivers eroded into ​glacial outwash
and left a system of stream terraces along the sides of most valleys. These
modern interglacial rivers are much smaller than their glacial counterparts and
are underfit (i.e., appear too small) with respect to the large valleys in which
they flow. In contrast, near coastal areas rivers actively built up their channels
during the transition to interglacial conditions in response to rising ​sea level​.

COASTAL ENVIRONMENT AND CHANGES

IN SEA LEVEL
Coastal environments during the Pleistocene were controlled in large part by
the fluctuating level of the sea as well as by local tectonic and environmental
conditions. As a result of the many glaciations on land and the subsequent
release of meltwater during interglacial times, sea level has fluctuated almost
continuously between interglacial levels, like those of today, and levels during
times of maximum glaciation, such as 18,000 years ago when sea level was
more than 100 metres lower. At that time all the continental land areas were
larger, and extensive areas of the world’s continental shelves were exposed to
weathering, soil formation, and fluvial and eolian activity and were inhabited by
plants and animals. The ​Bering​ Shelf was exposed at this time and ​Siberia​ was
connected to Alaska by a ​land bridge​, thus allowing intercontinental migration
of animals, including early humans. Rapid melting of the last large ice sheets
resulted in a rising sea level that reached near modern level by the
mid-Holocene, about 5,000 years ago. As a consequence, Pleistocene coastal
environments are submerged below sea level in most parts of the world and
are poorly known.

Fortunately some coastal areas of the world were undergoing tectonic uplift
during the Pleistocene, and as a result older shorelines and their deposits are
exposed above modern sea level. Study of these deposits is important in
understanding the recent sea-level record and in relating it to the record of
glaciation. The most important are shorelines that contain ​coral reefs​, because
it is possible to obtain radiometric ages on fossils in the reef complex.

CONCLUSION
The transition from hunting and gathering to farming in southwest economy
coincided with the environmental changes that marked the close of the
pleistocene : a worldwide increase in temperature that melted ice sheets and
caused sea levels to rise , alterations in atmospheric circulation systems, and
shift in vegetation zones . The climatic amelioration was an uneven process ,
with episodes of increased warmth alternating with reversions to cooler
conditions .It appears from Baruch and Bottema’s that the improved conditions
for forest growth that took place in the region during the Late glacial period
were spread over several millennia . The improvement thus tend to correlate
with the lenghty period of climate warming to be seen in the barbados coral
reefs.There were changes in structure and composition of vegetation which
was marking shift from pleistocene to holocene .Fossil pollen data from the
core suggest that during the last glacial maximum the climate was wet and
cold, vegetation was open cloud forest and forest fires did not occur .During
the last phase of pleistocene , the structure of vegetation changed with more
dryer environment leading the transition to holocene.
B) TOOL TECHNOLOGY

INTRODUCTION

Earliest evidence of tool making go back to 2.5 million years ago . Earliest tool
were rigid, crude and rudimentary . But various anatomical and neurological
(related to brain and nervous system)changes occured gradually which led to
better tool making technology. Later tools are therefore better , sharper
,sophisticated and smaller.Various biological changes favoured this
advancement . Opposable thumb , bipedalism led to the better use and grasp
of hand . Cranial capacity also increased and larger brains made it possible to
memorise complex organisational skills . Human evolution is the interplay of
biological and cultural evolution . At a point while biological evolution slows
down , cultural evolution continues and lead to changes in shorter period of
time which is evident in evolution of tool making technology.Typology also
shows gradual advancement and development in tool making technology .
Biological and cultural evolution are linked together and supplement the
process of human evolution . Evolution of human culture has proceded hand in
hand with biological evolution of our species ; in other words , our biology and
culture have experienced coevolution . Cultural transmission , culture and
cultural evolution arises from genetically evolved psychological adaptations for
acquiring ideas, belief , values , practices , mental modules and strategies from
individuals by observation and inference . It is interplay of biological and
cultural evolution that led to human evolution . Changes in man through
interaction with environment establish cultural evolution which determines
man’s socio-cultural development . Dual Inheritance Theory (DIT) also known
as gene - culture coevolution or biocultural theory explains how human
behaviour is a product of two different and interacting evolutionary processes :
genetic evolution and cultural evolution . Biological evolution favoured humans
to better adapt to the changing environment . Both genes and culture shape
our brains and biology .​ Charles Darwin said “ It is not the strongest of the
species that survives , nor the most intelligent that survives . It is the one that is
most adaptable to change .”​ It is to remember that cultural evolution is not a by
- product of genetic evolution . the evolution of physiology of the speech and
facial communication is a dramatic example of gene-culture evolution . Human
cultural traits, behaviour, ideas, technologies that can be learnt from other
individuals exhibit Complex pattern of transmission and evolution. cultural
evolution is assumed to be faster and biological evolution Humans can adapt to
new ecosystem more rapidly than other animals. culture allows to evolve over
short time scales .

The following answers focuses on evolution of tool Technology by looking at

various tool cultures and their features:

It is not known for sure which hominin species created oldowan tools .Iit is
largely associated with homo habilis. Oldowan are the earliest evidence of
cultural behaviour. The term oldowan is is taken from the site of olduvai gorge
in Tanzania .It is dated between 2.5 to 1.6 million years ago . In 1972 a
complete skull was found near Koobi Fora. Cranial capacity is estimated to be
around 800 cc . Brain was 30% larger than australopithecus africanus . Teeth
was a smaller , enamel was thinner and jaw muscles were reduced .Oldown
tools were simple usually made with one or two flakes chipped chipped off with
another stone .To obtain an oldowan tool,a roughly spherical spherical
Hammer stone is struck on the edge of a suitable core to produce a conchoidal
fracture .This process is called lithic reduction. Tools include choppers,
scrappers and pounders .It is important to remember that these words simple
tools and source of subsistence was still foraging and scavenging .They made
Chopper tools to chop skin of animals . Meat was part of the diet which would
have in ensured better nutrition and health.They formed small units which help
them to develop social skills and cooperate to survive better.

Homo erectus was the first one to move out of Africa. Now we have clear
evidence of tools from the sites like Lake Turkana, Java , China , Kenya .The
species had cranial capacity of around 900 to 1200 cc .Acheulean hand axes
and tools were found . Named after the site of Saint - acheul is a
archaeological industry of a stone tool manufacture characterized by oval and
pear shaped hand axes associated with homo erectus . Acheulean tools
demonstrate a significant technological advance over the oldowan tools .The
defining artefact is Acheulean handaxe . We see sexual dimorphism is
reducing in this time . They are becoming hairless with bigger and broader
cheeks and thick eyebrows. Species is dated to 2.0 million years ago to 4000
years ago .There is a discussion that homo ergaster and homo erectus were
the same species or had a very minor difference. Ergestar could run faster, had
narrow rib cage and longer Limbs. In this time the child born would have a
small brain at birth due to the constricted pelvis and would require nurture as a
brain would develop after birth .The tools were bifacial that is flaking was done
from both sides .Precise and accurate method of flaking that is block unblock
method and soft hammer Technology was used for retouching the tools
.Movius gave theory that as we move East hand Axes have not been found but
remains of erectus are found. Acheulean tools were multipurpose tools used in
a variety of task. There is clear evidence of hunting ,butchering and retouching
. Hand axes were used to scrape, cut and throw . They used to dry meat for
future use. From sites like Boxgroove and Kolarba and Amrona there are
evidence of group hunting with carefully planned out strategy .They hunted
huge animals like elephants, deer, Bison, horse .Late acheulean culture is
considered the border of middle paleolithic.

Mousterian culture is majorly associated with middle paleolithic. It is associated

primarily with Neanderthals. They made complex spherehead and sticks to
hold. We are sure about them hunting effectively and strategizing. Neanderthal
were well aware of season and move accordingly. They knew migratory
patterns of animals. They knew when plants grow .They could return to the
same place year after years . They mostly lived in caves during winter and in
open areas during summers . Tools would include small hand axes , flake tools
side scrapers and triangular points probably used as knives. 16 type of tools
made by Neandethals are found which signifies the kind of activities they
carried out. We also found a conscious belief pattern. Burials have been found
.They were clear in which cave they have to place the dead bodies . They
would wear skin, mae bags ,do wood work . They were good hunters also .But
we are not sure about the reasons of why they declined despite their advanced
survival strategy .

Levalloise technique is a name given by archaeologists to a distinctive type of

stone knapping developed during paleolithic period . Levallois tool culture used
‘prepared core technology’ in which the core was prepared first and then the
flaking was done .Heavy flakes and blades were chipped off from the
core.Numerous blades - rectangular blades , handaxe , scrappers, flat flake
blade appeared . Tools were prominent ,round shaped ,tortoise/bun shaped .
The stone tool technology covered the levallois and disk core technique .
Levalloisian is primarily a flake tradition . It is characterised by new and
improved method of producing flakes . Levalloise tools are opportunistic tool .​It
is named after nineteenth-century finds of ​flint​ tools in the ​Levallois-Perret
suburb of ​Paris​, ​France​. The technique was more sophisticated than earlier
methods of ​lithic reduction​, involving the striking of ​lithic flakes​ from a prepared
lithic core​. A ​striking platform​ is formed at one end and then the core's edges
are trimmed by flaking off pieces around the outline of the intended lithic flake.
This creates a domed shape on the side of the core, known as a ​tortoise​ core,
as the various scars and rounded form are reminiscent of a tortoise's shell.
When the striking platform is finally hit, a lithic flake separates from the lithic
core with a distinctive ​plano-convex​ profile and with all of its edges sharpened
by the earlier trimming work.

Chatel perrorian is associated with transition from middle paleolithic to upper

paleolithic .It displays continued use of earlier mousterian lithic style tools as
well as the use of Levalloise core technique .These include denticulates, side
scrappers,end scrappers ,blades,burins , knifes,chisel ,etc .It is dated between
35000-30000 years ago.Found mostly in west .Mammal tusks were used to
form structure .Upper paleolithic was a period of incredible diversity and
technological innovation . lithic technology went under a massive change
during this time .The trend towards increasing the efficiency of stone tool
reached its pinnacle during this period with the development of blade tool
technology . Gravettian culture made leaf like point shape tools between
35000-30000 years ago . They are specially known for venus figurine which are
typically made of ivory or limestones .Identified first at the site of La Gravette in
south western France . Gravettians were hunter -gatherers living in period of
bitter cold in european prehistory . Animals were primary source for early
humans during gravettian period which were high in fat and energy content
.Aurignacian culture used variety of bones and tools . Beaked burin were also
found .Find of ornaments suggest that it was not the survival issue anymore
they had time and skill and energy to make ornaments. They invested in
artistic expressions .We have found Rock Shelters with engravings and burins
.They used decorated bones ,antler and stone blocks. One of the finest
example of aurignacian art is represented by painting of animals such as
horses ,elephants ,bulls on walls and ceilings of cave at Lascaux in France .
Evidences for Cro -Magnum have also been found .Research data suggests
that early aurignacian was marked by cold,dry and open steppelike
environment whereas late aurignacian saw a warm , wet and forested
environment .Solutrean culture is dated around 17000-21000 year ago ,
humans living in what is now France ,Spain developed a very finely crafted and
technically sophisticated technology.It has relatively finely worked bifacial
points made with lithic reduction , percussion and pressure flaking . Knapping
was done using antler bones , hardwood batons and soft stone hammers . We
found bas-relief and cave paintings . They soon declined and were replaced by
magdalenian culture . Bone needles occured and indicated use of fitted
clothing .Magdalenian culture show evidence of more complex art.
Magdalenian sites contain extensive evidence for hunting of red deer , horses
and other large mammals present in europe towards the end of last ice age
.Tools include small geometrically shaped implements like triangular and
semilunar blades probably set in bone or antler handles for use .This culture
was followed by azilian culture . By coming azilian culture we were entering into
mesolithic . Short blade microlithic tools were found . We found evidence of
early humans increasingly moving near to river valley . Evidences of the use of
fish hooks are also found .It shows that other sources like fish also became
part of their diet . But it is to be remembered that hunting was still the
predominant form of subsistence . They also made some kind of construction .