LUBRICANTS

Lubricant is substance that reduces friction and wear at the interface of two materials. The lubricant at
interface reduces the adhesive friction by lower the shear strength of interface.
Lubrication is a process of either separating surfaces or protecting them in a manner to reduce friction,
heat, wear and energy consumption. This can be accomplished by using oils, greases, gases or other
fluids.

The Role of a Lubricant

The primary functions of a lubricant are to:
 Reduce friction
 Prevent wear
 Protect the equipment from corrosion
 Control temperature (dissipate heat)
 Control contamination (carry contaminants to a filter or sump)
 Transmit power (hydraulics)
 Provide a fluid seal

Types of Lubrication
There are three different types of lubrication: boundary, mixed and full film . Each type is different, but they all
rely on a lubricant and the additives within the oils to protect against wear.

1. Full-film lubrication: can be broken down into three forms: hydrostatic, hydrodynamic and
elastohydrodynamic.
a. In hydrostatic lubrication the lubricant is supplied at pressure for starting heavy rotating
machines, such as steam turbines, large motor steel mills and rotary ball and rod mills.
Because metal to metal contact exists between the shaft and the bearings when the shaft is at
rest, extremely high torque may be required to start rotation and damage to the bearings may
occur. However, by feeding oil under pressure into the bottom of the bearings, the shaft can be
lifted and floated on fluid films. When the shaft reaches a speed sufficient to create
hydrodynamic films the external pressure can be turned off and the bearing will continue to
operate in the hydrodynamic manner.
b. Hydrodynamic lubrication occurs when two surfaces in sliding motion (relative to each
other) are fully separated by a film of fluid. This type of lubrication protects surfaces most
effectively and is the most desired.
c. Elastohydrodynamic lubrication is similar but occurs when the surfaces are in a rolling
motion (relative to each other). The film layer in elastohydrodynamic conditions is much
thinner than that of hydrodynamic lubrication, and the pressure on the film is greater. It is
called elastohydrodynamic because the film elastically deforms the rolling surface to lubricate
it. Hydro-static & Hydrodynamic films are for sliding contact surfaces whereas Elasto-
hydrodynamic film is for rolling contact surfaces.
2. Boundary lubrication (or thin film lubrication) is found where there are frequent starts and stops,
and where shock-loading conditions are present. Some oils have extreme-pressure (EP) or anti-wear
(AW) additives to help protect surfaces in the event that full films cannot be achieved due to space,
speed, load or other factors.
 These additives cling to metal surfaces and form a sacrificial layer that protects the metal from wear.
Boundary lubrication occurs when the two surfaces are contacting in such a way that only the EP or
AW layer is all that is protecting them. This is not ideal, as it causes high friction, heat and other
undesirable effects.
3. Mixed lubrication is a cross between boundary and hydrodynamic lubrication. While the bulk of the
surfaces are separated by a lubricating layer, the asperities still make contact with each other. This is
where the additives again come into play.

Main properties of lubricanys

Physical properties of lubricating oil
Viscosity
Viscosity is the measure of the internal friction within a liquid; the way the molecules interact to resist motion. It
is a vital property of a lubricant because it influences the ability of the oil to form a lubricating film or to minimize
friction.
Viscosity index
The most frequently used method for comparing the variation of viscosity with temperature between different oils
by calculation of dimensionless numbers, known as the viscosity index (VI). The kinematic viscosity of the sample
is measured at two different temperatures (40°C, 100°C) and the viscosity compared with an empirical reference
scale.
Low temperature properties.
When a sample of oil is cooled, its viscosity increases in a predictable manner until wax crystals start to form.
The matrix of wax crystals becomes sufficiently dense with further cooling to cause an apparent solidification of
the oil. Although the solidified oil does not pour under the influence of gravity, it can move if sufficient force is
applied. Further decrease in temperature cause more wax to form, increasing the complexity of the wax/oil matrix.
Many lubricating oils have to be capable of flow at low temperatures and a number of properties should be
measured.
 cloud point
It is the temperature at which the first sign of wax formation can be detected. A sample of oil is warmed sufficiently
to be fluid and clear. It is then cooled at a specified rate. The temperature at which haziness is first observed is
recorded as the cloud point.
 pour point
It is the lowest temperature at which the sample of the sample of oil can make to flow by gravity alone. The oil is
warmed and then cooled at a specified rate. The pour point is the last temperature before the movement ceases,
not the temperature at which solidification occurs. This is an important property of diesel fuels as well as lubricant
base oils.
 low freezing point
High temperature properties.
The high temperature properties of oil are governed by distillation or boiling range characteristics of the oil.
 volatility
It is important because it is an indication of the tendency of oil to be lost in service by vaporization.
 flash point
It is important for oil from a safety point of view because it is the lowest temperature at which auto-ignition of the
vapour occur above the heated oil sample. The flash appears for few seconds (5 seconds).
 Fire point
The temperature at which the oil catches fire.
 High boiling point
Other physical properties
Various other physical properties may be measured, most of them relating to specialized lubricant applications.
Some of the more important measurements are:
 density
Important, because oils may be formulated by weight, but measured by volume.
 demulsification
Ability of oil and water to separate.
 foam characteristics
Tendency to foam formation and stability of the foam that results.
 thermal conductivity
Important for heat transfer fluid.
 electrical properties
Resistivity, dielectric constant.
 .
Chemical stability
Corrosion resistance
Thermal stability
Resistance to oxidation
Ease of starting rapidity of warming up.
Low carbon forming tendency
Etc.

Types of Lubricants
Based on the shear strength of lubricant or molecular state, lubricants are classified in four
categories.

1. Solid lubricants
2. Semi-solid lubricants
3. Liquid lubricants
4. Gaseous lubricants

1. Solid Lubricants :
A solid lubricant is basically any solid material which can be placed between two bearing surfaces and
which will shear more easily under a given load than the bearing materials themselves.

Advantages & disadvantages of solid lubricants are tabulated below.

One way to apply solid lubricant is powder coating. We can use powder form of solid lubricant and rub
against the tribo surfaces.
Classification of Solid Lubricants :
Solid lubricants in use are self-lubricating composites. These composites are classified as polymer,
metal-solid, carbon and graphite, and ceramic and cermet.

(a). Polymers :
These lubricants are suitable to bear light loads. With recent advances in polymers, polymers make the
largest group of solid lubricants. In polymer, sub class of solid lubricants, PTFE, Nylon and
Synthetic polymers are common solid lubricants.
Poly Tetra Fluoro Ethylene (PTFE) :
Polytetrafluoroethylene is a polymer produced from ethylene in which all the hydrogen atoms have
been replaced by fluorine atoms. Teflon is trade name of PTFE given by Du Pont. Very light load
applications. Poor adhesion of PTFE to other materials is responsible for very low μ (< 0.1).

Strengths of PTFE :
• High chemical stability, great chemical inertness, because of carbon fluorine bonds.
• Very low surface energy, low friction (0.1), high P, low V.
• Nontoxic- useful in pharmaceutical and food industries.

Weaknesses of PTFE :
• Too soft, high wear rate.
• Poor creep resistance, Low load capacity.
• Poor thermal conductivity, high thermal expansion, temp. limit(250 0C).
• Vacuum is detrimental to performance.

(b). Metal - solid lubricant :

These metal solids lubricants containing lamellar solids rely on film transfer to achieve low friction.
Molybdenum Disulfide :
It is one of the most common used metal-solid lubricant.

• Strengths of MoS2 :
1. High Load Carrying (> 700 MPa)
2. Low Friction
3. High temperature lubricant particularly in space.

• Weaknesses of MoS2 :
1. Moisture detrimental to performance
2. Film thickness ~ 15 μ m.

(c). Graphite :
The high thermal and oxidation stabilities at temperatures of 500 to 600 0C enable use of this solid
lubricant at high temperatures and high sliding speeds.
• Strengths of graphite :
1. Moderate loads (< 275 MPa).
2. Low friction.
3. High temp. stabilty.

• Weaknesses of graphite :
1. Corrosion.
2. Vacuum detrimental to performance.
It is intersting to note that presence water helps graphite in lubrication, white presence of water
detrimental to MoS2. On other hand vacuum is detrimental to graphite, but favorable for MoS 2.

(d). Ceramic and Cermet (metal bonded ceramic) coatings :

Ceramics and cermet can be used in applications where low wear rate is more critical than low friction.
These composites can be used at temperatures up to 1000 0C. Ceramic/Cermet coating up to 0.5 mm
thick on metal substrates offer a convenient way of utilizing the wear resistance of metal with a
minimum processing cost.

2. Semi-Solid Lubricant : Grease

In layman’s language Grease is: A black or yellow sticky mass used in the bearings for lubrication
purpose. Lubricating greases consist of lubricating oils, often of quite low viscosity, which have been
thickened by means of finely dispersed solids called thickeners. It consist of base oils(75 to 95%),
additives(0 to 5%) and minute thickener fibers(5 to 20%).

Base Oil :- Many different types of base oil may be used in the manufacture of a grease, including
petroleum (napthenic: more popular, parafinic) and synthetic (PAO's, esters, silicones, glycols)..

Additives :- Chemical additives are added to grease in order to enhance their performance.
Performance requirements, compatibility, environmental considerations, color and cost all factor into
additive selection. Solid lubricants such as graphite, MoS2, EP additives are few examples.

Thickener :- The two basic types of thickeners are organic thickeners and inorganic thickeners.
Organic thickeners can be either soap-based or non-soap based, while inorganic thickeners are non-
soap based. Soda(Sodium) base grease (max. temperature 90-1200C) is preferred over lime based
grease in rolling bearings.

Advantages Of Greases :

• Remains at application point & adhere to surface.

• Good for inclined/vertical shafts.
• Seal out contaminants & less expensive seals needed.
• Provide better mechanical lubrication cushion for extreme conditions such as shock loading, reversing
operations, low speeds & high loads.

Disadvantages of Greases :

• Because of semi-solid nature of greases, it does not perform the cooling, so poor dissipation of heat.
• Once dust or dirt enters the grease, it cannot be easily removed and would act as deterrent in
performance.

3. Liquid Lubricants
Classification of Liquid Lubricants :

• Vegetable (Castor, Rapeseed) oils :

• Animal fats : These are fatty substances extracted from animals, and fish.
• Mineral oils.

Mineral oils are classified as paraffins, naphthene and aromatic. Paraffins are preferrable choice
compared to napthenes or aromatics.

(a). Paraffinic Oils :

These oils have good natural resistance to oxidation. But on oxidation it forms acids, which means
when burnt, leaves a hard carbonaceous deposit.
• Good thermal stability :
- Low volatility.
- High viscosity index (VI=90-115)
- High flash point.
- Pour point higher than naphthenic or aromatic.

Naphthenic Oils :

• Lower VI (15-75)
• Less resistant to oxidation.
• Lower flash points than paraffinic.
• Oxidation leads to undesirable sludge type deposits.

Synthetic Oils :

Less than -1200F ambient temperatures, 60000 shaft rpm, and 500 0+F exhaust temperatures proved too
much for conventional oils. Synthetics were created specifically to withstand these harsh conditions
and to date every jet engine in the world uses synthetic lubricants.
Common synthetic oils are : Polyglycols (Polyalkylene glycol), Esters, Silicon,
Perfluoropolyalkylether, etc.
 4. Gas Lubrication :
Gas (i.e, Air, Nitrogen, and Helium) lubrication is used for ultra-thin film thickness(separation)
between tribo-pairs.

ADVANTAGES :

• Temperature range– (-2000C) to (20000C). No vaporization, cavitation, solidification, decomposition.

• Very low viscosity (1000 times less viscous than even the thinnest mineral oil), therefore ultra low
friction. Possible high speed.
• Cleanliness.
• No seal requirement for lubrication.

DISADVANTAGES :
• Very low load capacity. Low damping. Ultra low film thickness.
• Smooth surfaces & very low clearance (to maximize load capacity & minimize flow rate) needs a
specialist designers & manufacturer (close tolerance).

Selection of Lubricant Type :

Load and speed are two major factors (as shown in Fig. 1) which affect selection of lubricants
environment and sealing requirements are additional factors which affect lubricant selection. Apparent
area, material conductivity and friction coefficient decide the operating temperature.

Fig. 1: Lubricant selection.