Chapter 2

Training and Development Practices

History in the close sight encompasses the transformation of approaches. It

is the transformation of labor relations to personnel management, personnel
management to human resource management, human resource management to
strategic human resource management, and strategic human resource
management to people management. The history of humans starts with being just
a productive unit of the workplace which has now reached to becoming an
associate in the business.
Azhar Kazmi (2009)1 claims that “the emergence of human relations,
industrial sociology and industrial psychology and of the ideas of human
behavior and motivation during the period 1930 through 1960 caused a drastic
change in the perception about people.” It framed people as a critical resource.
“The professional association of human resource management professionals
The Chartered Institute of Personnel and Development (CIPD), London argued
that human resource development is odoriferous of master-slave relationship
between employer and employees (Harrison, 2005)”2.
They arrived at learning and development and found it suitable to connect
with today’s philosophy of human resource management. Sugrue (2005)3 argues,
“this underscores training’s dual aim of improving both employee learning and
organizational performance.” Most organizations still refer it as training and
development as they find the new name abstruse.

1. Kazmi, Azhar, “Strategic Management and Business Policy”, Tata McGraw Hill
Education Private Limited, New Delhi, 2009. p. 474
2. Rosemary, Harrison, “Learning and Development”, Chartered Institute of Personnel
and Development, London, 2005. P. 5
3. Sugrue, Brenda, “What in the World is WLP?”, Training and Development.
January, 2005, pp. 51-54

6
 Devdutt Pattanaik (2013)4 presents a simile that “the eye cell has the same
DNA as the skin cell, yet both are structurally and functionally very different, as
demanded by their local roles.” Every cell is sensitive to the world around itself.
Each cell knows that the excessive growth of one at the cost of another is cancer
which will destroy the whole organism, while suboptimal growth is degeneration
and death. Today, organizations’ success mantra is collaboration of right blend of
competencies for the right job at the right time. As Nolan (2005) 5 reports that
“the new management model of the Information age continues to evolve from the
industrial age management model.”
Training is essential and important management tool used by organizations
which equips management to develop the effectiveness of people in the
organization. Training is the meticulous methodical process of changing the
behavior of people or associates rapt to increasing organizational goal
achievement.
Oxford Dictionary of Business English (1996) defines training as - the
process of teaching someone to do a job or learning to do a job.
As Dessler and Varkkey (2011)6 explained – “training refers to the methods
employers use to give new or present employees the knowledge and skills they
need to perform their jobs.”
The term training is derived from word ‘train’. According to Merriam
Webster Dictionary, the first use of term train has been in 14th century. The
language of origin is in French. It is borrowed from Old French “train” which
itself is a derivative of the “trahiner” that means “drag.” Oxforddictionaries.com
explains - “Trahiner” is derived from Latin “Trahere” that means pull or draw. As

4. Pattanaik, Devdutt, “Business Sutra”, Alepha Book Company, New Delhi, 2013. p.
208
5. Nolan, Richard, “Creative Destruction of Industrial Age Management Principles
and Creative Construction of Information Age Management Principles” Harvard
Business School Publishing HBS No. 9-301-153, Boston, 2005. p. 3
6. Dessler, Gary & Varkkey, Biju, “Human Resource Management”, Dorling
Kindersley (India) Pvt. Ltd., Delhi, 2011. p. 153

7
per John Ayto (1997)7, “the use of the verb “train” for ‘instruct, school,’ which
dates from the 16th century, evolved from an earlier ‘direct the course of growth
of a plant’, which in turn went back to the original notion of ‘pulling’.”
Online Etymology Dictionary defines Train as: “to discipline, teach, bring
to a desired state by means of instruction," 1540s, probably from earlier sense of
"draw out and manipulate in order to bring to a desired form.”
According to Cascio (1995)8, “Training consists of planned programme
designed to improve performance at the individual, group, and /or organizational
levels.” Improved performance, in turn, implies that there have been measurable
changes in knowledge, skills, attitude, and/or social behavior.
Having competent employees doesn’t promise success. Instead, the
employee must know what employer wants and how he want the work to be
done. If they don’t know they will do their own way, better or worse but not what
employer wants. As Dessler (2006)9 highlights, “good training is vital. Training
may include any training like filling firm’s payroll sheet, selling firm’s product,
cleaning the floor, the intricacies of company’s website or any big or small
activities, tasks, and responsibilities.”
Ivanovic and Collin (2003)10, in the Dictionary of Human Resource and
Personnel Management, defines training as: “the process of being taught how to
do something.”
According to Malhotra and Phull (n.d.)11, “training is the scientific process
of improving the knowledge and skill of employees for doing a particular job.”
Armstrong (1993)12 writes, “training can be defined variously as the
modification of behavior through experience; the transfer of skill and knowledge

7. Ayto, John, “Dictionary of Word Origins”, Bloomsbury Publishing Limited,

London, 1997. p. 539
8. Cascio, Wayne F., “Managing Human Resources”, McGraw Hill Inc, New York,
1995. p. 245
9. Dessler, Gary, “Human Resource Management”, Dorling Kindersley (India) Pvt.
Ltd., Delhi, 2006. p. 270
10. Ivanovic, A. & Collin, P., “Dictionary of Human Resource Management and
Personnel Management”, Bloomsbury Publishing Plc., London, 2003. p. 261
11. Malhotra, A. M. & Phull, D. S., “Dictionary of Management”, P. S. Bright for
Bright Careers, Delhi, (n.d.). p. 371

8
from those who have them to those who do not; or the bringing about of a
significant improvement in performance as a result of instruction, practice and
experience.”
Armstrong (2009)13 stated, “employee development, often referred to as
Human Resource Development (HRD) is about the provision of learning,
development and training opportunities in order to improve individual, team and
organizational performance.”
Development facilitates enhancement of conceptual and perceptual skills of
individual. Development is the process of developing the kernel of individual’s
personality, it’s the enlargement of base of the iceberg that obviously enlarges the
tip and ultimately accentuates individual towards attaining maturity and self-
actualization. According to Malhotra and Phull (n.d.)14, “development means
growth of an individual in all respects.”
The purpose of training is to mold the behavior of people so that they can
do their jobs in a better manner whereas purpose of development is the growth of
an individual in all respects.
Training and development is the function that aims at ameliorating the
performance of the organization by bettering the performance of its individuals
and groups.
“Training and development encompasses three main activities, namely-
training, education, and development (Thomas, Pat & Noreen, 199515; Patrick &
Bruce, 200016; Rosemary, 200517).” The focus of these three activities
distinguishes them. Training focuses on the current job that an employee is

12. Armstrong, Michael, “A Handbook of Management Techniques”, Kogan Page

Limited, London, 1993. p. 422
13. Armstrong, Michael, “Handbook of Personnel Management Practice”, Kogan Page
Ltd., London, 2009. pp. 491-492
14. Malhotra, A. M. & Phull, D. S., op. cit. p. 371
15. Thomas N. Garavan, Pat Costine, and Noreen Heraty, “Training and Development
in Ireland”, Cengage Learning EMEA, United States, 1995. p. 1
16. Patrick J. Montana and Bruce H. Charnov, “Management”, Barron's Educational
Series, New York, 2000. p. 225
17. Rosemary, Harrison, “Learning and Development”, Chartered Institute of Personnel
and Development, London, 2005. p. 5

9
holding. Education focuses upon the jobs that an employee may potentially hold.
Development is the joint initiative of employer and employee focused on
providing employees with attainment of new or advanced skills, knowledge, and
viewpoints, as well as the opportunities to apply what is gained.
Training and development practices are the customary, habitual, or
expected procedure or way of managing training and development by the
organizations, industries or the countries. It includes actual application of a
unique blend of training and development principles, standards, policies,
concepts, tools, methods, techniques, ideas, procedures and rules opted by an
entity (i.e. organization, industry and country); on the bedrock of training and
development theories but certainly does not include them. Training and
development theories underpin training and development practices. The term
“unique blend” signifies here that every organization, industry and country makes
its own variety based on its peculiar needs, which in turn, is the resultant of its
distinctive profile consisting of its human, industrial, cultural, economic, legal
and other aspects.
Training and development is one of the thriving professions over the globe.
In this parlance too, training and development practices can be defined as
carrying out the profession of training and development.
The conspicuousness of training and development practice held by an entity
depends on following:

1. Learning Objectives
It is what the entity wants learners to learn. It could be orientation to work,
remedying poor performance, improving technical skills, improving behavioral
skills, improving interpersonal abilities, broadening up the minds, preparing for
future job, helping to understand business, multiskilling, teaching employees
values, earning foreign business techniques and more.

2. Business Objectives
It is what entity wants learning to produce. It could be bridging the gap
between planning and implementation, adopting and using advanced technology,
reduced employee turnover, less supervision cost, increased efficiency resulting

10
in financial gains, improving climate and culture, flexible employees prepared to
participate effectively in value-added production, job satisfaction, building up
second line of competent staff, better customer service, improved quality,
improved health and safety.

3. Modus Operandi of Conduction

Modus operandi is the way of doing training and development that
characterizes it. It could be systematic or haphazard. The modus operandi may be
accountability-oriented where supervisors and managers are held responsible for
results or the organization may be conducting the training and development
merely as activities.

4. Approach for Implementation

Approach for implementation covers policies and general attitude of the
entity to induce behavior through training and development. Carrots or sticks are
not pure approaches but amalgam varying in degree in every other organization.

5. Outlook of Entity Towards Training and Development

Outlook is the view. Entities may be placing great importance on concept of
lifetime employment, treating training and development as investment for long
term, discouraging the outlook of training and development as a cost burden.
They may be inherently motivated for training and development or may be
treating training and development as an imposition of the government and legal
laws, or as an obligation to be fulfilled for promotion and compensation. Their
outlook may be to keep mandatory number of training and development
programs, cutting training staff, consolidating training departments, shortening
training periods, customizing programs, using services funded by government.

6. Kind of Industry
Industries are of five types, namely, primary or extractive, secondary or
manufacturing, tertiary or service, quaternary or knowledge and quinary or
culture and research. Industry is an important factor in deciding the training and
development practices.

11
7. Training and Development Infrastructure
The basic physical and organizational structures and facilities needed for
conduction of training and development including e-platform. It infrastructure
supporting traditional educational approaches as well as new technology-based
new curricula. Infrastructure could be in-house or be hired as resources.
Corporate universities, campus training centers are some example of in-house
infra whereas outsourcing consultants or buying public programs are examples of
hired infra.

8. Turnover of Different Cadres

Some organizations may be more interested in managerial rather than
technical and some vice versa. It depends on employee turnover. Generally,
turnover among the managers is lower than among technical employees which
makes investment in management training less risky. Different cadres, their
turnover and its analytics shows path to settle for training and development
practices.
9. Economic Condition
Economically an entity may be expanding, stable or contracting. These
stages directly influence inflow and finances. They play pivotal role in shaping
training and development practices of any entity.

2.1. Training and Development Principles, Standards, Policies,

Concepts, Tools, Methods, Techniques, Ideas, Procedures and
Rules
The principles of training and development are the fundamental sources that
serve as the basis of finding direction of training and development programs.
According to Adams (2000)18, “five principles of sound training are – Addressing
the problem, the adult learners must relate to training, training must meet an
immediate need of the learner, the adult learner should be involved in setting
learning goals, and training should involve workers to the point of using their

18. Adams, Shawn J., “Improving Safety Instruction & Results Five Principles of
Sound Training” Professional Safety. Dec 2000, pp. 40-41.

12
expertise.” “Modern management requires the practical implementation of skills
learned, not regurgitation of principles (Stephen and Tim, 2006)”19. The
principles of learning are different in the web 2.0 environment. As per Hurdle
(2010)20, “adult learning principles to consider when using web 2.0 are - know
how the employee obtains and shares that knowledge online, provide
opportunities for learning, let employees share their experiences, recognize social
roles, understand that information is problem-centered and applicable, and
recognize internal versus external factors.”
In corporate setting, the target is adult learner and andragogy is used for
training and development. Hence, here, the principles of andragogy holds
relevance. According to Houde (2006)21 “Malcolm Knowles’ principles of
andragogy have been at the core of adult learning since the theory was put
forward over 30 years ago.” Knowles et. al. (1998)22 names the principles as- “1)
they need to know. 2) The Learner’s Self Concept 3) Role of the Learner’s
Experience 4) Readiness to Learn 5) Orientation to Learning. Commonly, the
principles that help in effective training and development programs are
participation, repetition, transfer of training, and feedback.”
Training and development standards are models for the measurement and
comparative evaluation of T&D programs for its effectiveness and efficiency.
They are established and widely accepted means of determining the course of
action pertaining to training and development. In a globalized world, however,
international standards may be more important than ever. The ISO 10015
standard sets up an education and training system of human resources, although
developed for ISO 9001:2008 training, may be treated as a base standard for any

19. Stephen Paul & Peterson, Tim, “It’s called Andragogy”, Academy of Management
Learning & Education. Mar 2006, p. 114.
20. Hurdle, Laine M., “Adult Learning Principles to Consider When Using Web
2.0”T+D. Jul 2010, pp. 76-77.
21. Houde, Joseph, “Andragogy and Motivation: An Examination of the Principles of
Andragogy through Two Motivation Theories” Paper presented at the Academy of
Human Resource Development International Conference (AHRD), Columbus, OH,
Feb 22-26, 2006, p. 90.
22. Knowles, M. S., Holton, E.F. & Swanson, R.A., “The Adult Learner: The
Definitive Classic in Adult Education and Human Resources Development”, Gulf
Professional Publishing, Houston, 1998. pp. 64-67.

13
training. Moreover, other management system standards like ISO 9001:2008, ISO
10014, OHSAS, TQM etc. provides clear standard guidelines for training and
development.
Training and development principles are aspirational goals and are the
highest ideals of any training and development practice. Standards are considered
by those in the organization who are responsible for reaching those aspirational
goals. Blunch and Castro (2007)23 adds, “these principles and standards, together,
set forth enforceable rules called training and development policies.”
Training and development policies are neutralizers of negative effects
which are by-produced from training and development practices. Training and
development policies are statement of intent that turns subjective principles and
standards into objective guidelines to be followed; they doesn’t lose their
subjectivity to be deciphered to yield procedures and rules. Yadapadithaya and
Jim (2003)24 argues, “the need for focussing on the international and comparative
dimension of corporate T&D policies has been increasingly felt ever since many
nations of the world such as China, India, Latin America, East and Central
Europe liberalised, privatised and globalised their economic policies.”
Training and development concepts are clearly stated ideas around which
the training and development programs are organized. They give an idea about
how training and development is going to work. Training and development
concepts are ideas that sell the training and development programs. According to
Tight (2002)25, “there are plethora of such concepts, and new ones seem to be
created (or re-created) every time a supposedly innovative learning initiative is
launched.” Training and development concepts are divided into two broad
categories- one, is the perspective that organizations provide training, and the
second, is the perspective of individual learner. Tight (2002) further elaborates,

23. Blunch, Niels-Hugo, and Castro, Paula, “Enterprise-level training in developing

countries: do international standards matter?”, International Journal of Training &
Development. Dec 2007, p. 315.
24. Yadapadithaya, P.S., and Stewart, Jim, “Corporate training and development
policies and practices: a cross-national study of India and Britain”, International
Journal of Training & Development. Jun 2003, p. 109.
25. Tight, Malcolm, “Key Concepts in Adult Education and Training” Routledge
Falmer, London, 2002. p. 92

14
the first group of concepts, emphasizing the organizational perspective, can be
seen to include the terms such as distance, flexible, or open learning or
education….The second group, stressing the individual learner’s perspective,
includes the closely linked concepts of experiential, problem-based, independent
and self-directed learning.
Training and development tools are the means or help to perform the
training and development operations. Few examples of training and development
tools are audio, video, email, projector, software, mobile devices, smart board
and so on.
Training and development methods are established systematic process of
achieving certain ends with accuracy and efficiency, in an ordered sequence of
fixed steps. The actual delivery starts with training and development methods.
Dessler (2006)26 found, “there are various methods companies use to actually
deliver the training. Some of these methods are lectures and demonstrations,
games and simulations, on-the-job training etc.”
Training and development techniques are the skillful or efficient ways of
carrying out training and development methods. Training and development
techniques are the carriage of training and development methods. For example,
on-the-job training method involves training techniques like job-rotation,
coaching, committee assignments, apprenticeship, internship etc. Julie Patrick
(2011)27 explains, “facilitators can make a difference by employing the
appropriate creative facilitation techniques that capture learners’ attention and
hold their interest according to the environment.” Though, at many places, the
term training and development methods and training and development techniques
are used interchangeably. Schimpf, Hixon, &Trimm (n.d.)28 describes “101

26. Dessler, Gary, op. cit. p. 275.

27. Patrick, Julie, “Creative Facilitation Techniques for Training”, ASTD Press, United
States, 2011. p. 1
28. Schimpf Crystal, Hixon Kieran, &Trimm, Nancy, 101 Interactive Training
Techniques [PowerPoint Slides]. Accessed on 18/07/2014 Retrieved from
http://www.slideshare.net/coloradostatelibrary/101-interactive-training-techni-
ques?utm_source=slideshow02&utm_medium=ssemail&utm_campaign=share_slid
eshow_loggedout

15
training techniques, a few are – brainstorming, five fingers understanding,
computer games, peer teaching, ice-breakers, caption comprehension and more.”
While applying training and development methods and techniques, idea is
an intentional opinion or certitude acting as a trick of success for the unique set
of trainee, trainer and process. Increasing or reducing batch size, complexity and
duration of games and exercises is an example of training and development idea.
According to Suessmuth (1978)29, “too many of today’s best training ideas never
reach most training directors. These may be ideas that develop spontaneously in
training situations, or practical processes and techniques that are devised by
resourceful trainer for their own use.”
A training procedure is a sequence of step-by-step activities involved in the
delivery of a training. From start to end, the training procedure has to be followed
in the same order to correctly impart the training. Training manuals and trainers
manuals are the examples of training procedures. There are more examples of
training procedures like training procedure for call handling, training procedure
for hardware maintenance. These procedures are also called as standard
Operating Procedures (SOPs). Some SOP manuals contain screenshots with
instructions for performing functions within various applications, they may also
contain links to the learning management system website. These manuals must be
updated periodically and supplement training.
Training rules assert demeanor of training within certain scope of
regulation. There are rules for trainers and trainees both. These rules control or
influence the conduct of the training program. Certain rules for trainers could be
being focused, being concise, encourage questions, quality not quantity etc. For
trainees, they could be – punctuality, listening first, participation, no assumptions
etc.

29. Suessmuth, Patrick, “Ideas for training managers and supervisors”, University
Associates, California, 1978. p. V

16
 PS

Training and
PCMT Actual Application Development
Practices

IPR
PS = Principles, Standards
PCMT = Policies, Concepts, Methods, Techniques
IPR = Ideas, Procedures, Rules

Exhibit 2.1: Training and Development Practices

Training and development can broadly be divided into four stages, namely,
Training Need Analysis, Delivery of Training, Appraisal/Evaluation of Training,
and Follow-up of Training.

2.2. Training Need Analysis Practices

Hereunder are the some practices customary in training need analysis:

2.2.1. Observation
Observation can be technical, functional or behavioral; generating real-life
data and can produce qualitative and quantitative results.
Information age changed the paradigm of training and development hence
the related observation. It emphasized more on human less on efficiency through
humans. How the man can contribute its best in his entire life cycle. Tools like
3600 performance evaluation are performing observation about training needs in
place of supervisor only. And it is trying to be made as objective as possible with
the help of online and offline applications that monitors an individual’s
performance in all walks of his life. Social media is a great platform to observe
the skills, behavior and attitude of a trainee. Information systems of the
organization and online log and messaging tools too are very helpful in analyzing
the training needs. Interaction with customers is recorded with the help of CRM
solutions and analyzed for performance gaps and training needs. The major shift

17
in observation is the observation is not person dependent and subjective but are
system driven and objective.

2.2.2. Interview
Interviews can be formal or casual, structured or unstructured. They can be
used with a representative sample or whole group. Interviews can be conducted
in person, by phone, at the work site, or away from it. Interviews uncover
attitudes, causes of problems, and possible solutions and gather feedback. The
yield of data is rich.
The times, today, when interviews are being held in virtual environment
where the interviews are conducted through web based videos in an automated
fashion. It allows interviewers to interview people who traditionally would not
have been able to make an interview for their busy schedule at a certain time and
place. There are many types of online interviews that could be used for training
need analysis. Sometimes, rather than interviewing through web-cam, the need
analyst emails list of interview questions and ask the interviewee to film yourself
answering them. As Salmons (2010)30 writes, “people were perceived online as
friendly and open when they self-disclosed some personal information and shared
photos portraying experiences outside their official role in informal postures or
settings.”

2.2.3. Questionnaires/Survey
Before information age, the questionnaires used to get distributed in-person
or by post. They used to fill–in in group or individually; and submit it to the
assessor. The questionnaires used to get coded and analyzed at some later point
of time, in batch. Designing and getting questionnaires printed, and sending it to
right physical address was a challenge.
Today, questionnaires are sent online and the analysis is done in real time.
At any point of time, a ready information is available. There are many service
providers who provide interactive platform to design, send, store data, and
provide analytics. Here the questionnaire designer has more control on responses.

30. Salmons, Janet, “Online Interviews in Real Time”, Sage Publications, Inc.,
California, 2010. p. 148

18
He can make questions mandatory, can use master data with the help of radio
buttons and drop-down menus to minimize human errors and carelessness. It is
very much convenient to assessees as well because they can go back and rectify
anywhere before finally submitting their response.

2.2.4. Job Description

In industrial age, jobs were observed by practitioners and the doers were
asked in order to write the job description as the jobs were fixed and human
resource was bound to adjust accordingly. The work used to be carried out
repeatedly in the same manner for decades. It was quite redundant to analyze
training need that time.
Today the dynamics has changed on two fronts- first is that human
resources are valued for their uniqueness and endeavor of HR practitioners is to
capitalize on it; and second is that the job deliverables, hence, job description
changes swiftly. Precisely finding the present need is the challenge of
information age training need analysts. Job description software are helpful in
producing the present job description based on information produced by the
organizational information system based on the job record of the person and his
managerial, technical and life skills. Job Analysis at the Speed of Reality (JASR)
is the job analysis method invented by Darin E. Hartley which is perfectly in tune
with the digital age. Hartley (1999)31 writes that “JASR uses the quickest
methods and best possible technology to complete the job analysis.” Hartley
(2004)32 explains the process of JASR and points, “I have used WebEx, but you
can use any virtual collaboration tool that allows you to share applications or
whiteboards – such as Interwise and Centra.”

2.2.5. Gap Analysis

Phillips (2010)33 adds, “in the formal use of gap analysis, a variance is
established between current capabilities and business requirements.” Mikula

31. Hartley, Darin E., “Job analysis at the Speed of Reality”, HRD Press, Inc, MA,
1999. p. 12
32. Hartley, Darin E, “Job Analysis at the Speed of Reality”, T+D., Alexandria, Vol. 58
Issue 9. p. 22
33. Phillips, Pulliam Patricia, “ASTD Handbook of Measuring and Evaluating
Training”, ASTD Press, USA, 2010. p. 6

19
(2004)34 adds that “the gap analysis will help novice salespeople track their
learning after the training.” At the same time, the gap analysis will help the
experienced person select the modules he or she needs to attend and it can shed
light on why the person’s manager suggested he or she seek training.
Prichard and Jordan (1999)35 particularizes, “it is helpful during an analysis
study to ascertain how skilled the staff and management team are and the training
need to maximize efficiency levels.”
According to ASTD’s Guide to Performance (2001)36– “as with any
analysis, you can select a variety of methods to collect the information (such as
surveys, interviews, or focus groups).”

2.2.6. Performance Appraisal

According to Coetzee (2007)37, “performance appraisal data can be relevant
in the needs analysis process.” Srivastava (2005)38 clarifies “performance
appraisal in TNA as, a popular method of training need analysis is identification
through the simple expedient of asking the executives about it while they are
doing performance appraisal of their subordinates.” Rossett (1987)39 writes,
“Upper level management was dissatisfied with the quality of performance
appraisal filed by middle manager. They turned it over to training and to an
external consultant.”
Conventional performance appraisal used to be conducted with the help of
Graphic Rating Scale, Behaviorally Anchored Rating Scale, Critical Incident
Appraisal, Essay appraisal, checklists and ranking methods by designing a
questionnaire, getting it filled by appraisers and preparing a report. It was

34. Mikula, Jim, op. cit. pp. 17-18.

35. Prichard, Julia & Jordon, Louis, “Maximizing performance in insurance
operations”, Woodhead Publishing Limited, Cambridge, 1999. p. 16
36. American Society of Training and Development, “Trainers’ Toolkit”, ASTD Press,
USA, 2001. p. 9
37. Coetzee, Melindeet. al., “Practicing Education, Training and Development in South
African Organizations”, Juta and Company Limited, South Africa, 2007. p. 104
38. Srivastava, Dinesh K., “Strategies for Performance Management”, Excel Books,
New Delhi, 2005. P. 102
39. Rossett, Alison, “Training Need Assessment”, Education Technology Publications,
New Jersey, 1987. p. 56

20
impossible to know the performance of an individual at the latest moment.
Appraisals used to be conducted on some periodicity and used to consume
resources in the form of training appraisers, printing forms, distributing,
following up and preparing reports.
In information age several performance appraisal software are available to
rate employees on several performance dimensions like dependability, initiative,
communication, decision making, leadership, judgment, planning and
productivity and many more with varying importance according to the nature of
business. Employee Appraiser, PeopleSoft HR Management, and SAP r/3 hr are
some popular appraisal computer-based tool.

2.2.7. Focus Group

According to Austin (1996)40, “focus group can help identify the types of
training necessary for employees and the required conditions for providing
efficient and effective training from an internal training.”
“Sometimes organizations will use a focus group to identify target
individuals and ask them directly what skills they think they need to learn and
how the learning experience should be positioned (American Society for Training
and Development, 1998)”41. Confidentiality is extremely in focus group
interview and people when come in contact tend to know each other putting forth
the vulnerability. The inconvenience of gathering the group at one physical
location, handling their emotions and other and keeping them on track, in offline
mode, was very intensive activity that was not possible to be fully recorded with
anonymity.

2.2.8. Competency Mapping and Assessment Centers

Assessment centers are used for performing competency mapping. Putting
the person actually on the job is the best way to assess the potential but this is not
practicable as it involves lots of risk and huge number of asessees. There are
many tools used in assessment centers for competency assessment like

40. Austin, Mary, “Need Assessment by Focus Group”, Infoline, USA, 1996. p. 1
41. American Society for Training and Development, “Train the Trainer Guide Volume
I”, Infoline, USA, 1998. p. 181

21
psychometric test, interviews, leaderless group discussion, in-basket technique,
management games, role playing, and presentation etc.”
Conventional competency mapping is conducted through the process of
identifying key competencies for an organization or a job and integrating those
competencies throughout the various processes like job evaluation, training,
recruitment of the organization.

2.2.9. Advisory Committee

According to Hodgetts and Hegar (2008)42, “to identify and address training
needs, an advisory committee reviews the firm’s strategy and business plan and
then conducts a need analysis among employees.” As Werner and DeSimone
(2012)43 explains, “the role of this committee is to meet regularly and review
need assessment and evaluation data and offer advice on the type and content of
HRD programs to be offered.” According to Phillips (1999)44, “committees can
be developed for individual programs, specific functions, or multiple functions.”

2.2.10. Critical Incidents

This technique is carried out in a way as to facilitate their potential
usefulness in solving practical problems. If proper job description is available,
critical incidence method is very easy to conduct. According to Coetzee (2007)45,
“critical incidents are sorted into dimensions (based on the job description) and
separated into examples of good and poor performance.”
According to Tobey (2005)46, “during critical incident interviews, the need
assessor asks the interviewee to tell interviewees about times when he or she felt
effective or ineffective while performing the targeted skill.”

42. Hodgetts Richard, Hegar Kathryn, “Modern Human Relations at Work” Thompson
Higher Education, USA, 2008. p. 264
43. Werner, John M. and DeSimone, Randy L., “Human Resource Development 6e”,
Cengage Learning, USA, 2012. p. 133
44. Phillips, Jack J., “HRD Trends Worldwide”, Gulf Publishing Company, Texas,
1999. p. 275
45. Coetzee, Melindeet. al., “Practicing Education, Training and Development in South
African Organizations” Juta and Company Limited, South Africa, 2007. p. 104
46. Tobey, Deborah D., “Needs Assessment Basics”, ASTD Press, USA, 2005. P.56

22
 Digital age, as is the age of web based tools, collects information regarding
critical incidents via software and online supports as mentioned in the above text.

2.2.11. Test
According to Frances and Bee (2000)47, “tests can be particularly useful in
determining whether the business need is caused by a specific missing knowledge
or skill competency.”
Tests are oriented to test employees’ understanding. They can be conducted
in a monitored setting or “take home.” Easily quantifiable, comparable and
helpful in terms of knowledge, skills and attitude. Skill and knowledge tests are
conducted to assess the training need.
In offline mode, the test day is the only real part of the test taking that
involves physical presence at some set time or sending the take home papers back
within stipulated time. The takers, too, had to struggle a lot to prepare papers,
maintain dynamics and transparency. The digital age online test taking provides
simple interfaces, configure timings, randomize questions/answers, add quality
questions from extensive question banks or create your own questions and
control test delivery options like date/time, invitees, proctoring etc.
They help to get real time test reports & analytics and are place, time, and
person independent.

2.2.12. Problem Solving Conference

A problem-solving conference is a technique for addressing a specific
problem. According to Kirkpatrick (2006)48, “included in the problem solving
meeting are information giving, information getting and possibly
brainstorming… it usually includes many of the situations that can make a
meeting difficult to control.” The problem solving conference involves several
steps like preparation, finding the reasons why problem must be solved, finding
the cause of the problem, finding possible solutions, finding the best solution, and
implementing the solution.

47. Frances and Bee, Roland, op. cit., p. 92.

48. Kirkpatrick, Donald, “How to Conduct Productive Meetings”, ASTD Press, USA,
2006. p. 73

23
 According to Sleezer, Russ-Eft and Gupta (2014)49, “in today’s online,
global world, technology will more than likely play an important role in your
need assessment.” With so many interaction tools and applications it is so easy to
make virtual problem solving as was never possible. Mail, chat, video
conferencing, file transfers, groupware, social networking etc. have enabled such
interactions to leap to another level.

2.2.13. Recommendation of Senior

The senior manager or the supervisor, if observes or encounters some
lacuna in the performance of an incumbent, recommends him to training
department for the particular functional, behavioral or attitudinal training.
Today with organizational information systems, managers make
recommendations online from different locations of the globe and the training
arrangements are made faster than ever before.

2.2.14. Review of Documents on Existing Training

These documents include organizational charts, planning documents, policy
manuals, audits, and budget reports, various employee records, performance
appraisals, meeting minutes, program reports, and memos. These documents
provide clues to trouble spots. They are available as objective evidence to
promote training needs; and they can easily be collected and compiled.
With e-document and e-file management, it is easy and simple to find and
analyze these documents from multiple perspectives. They are more current as
compared to their paper forms.

2.3. Training Delivery Practices

Hereunder are the some practices customary in training delivery:

2.3.1. Lecture/Discussion
A lecture presents information or teach people about a particular piece of
knowledge and is made orally. According to Saks and Haccoun (2010)50, “lecture
is a training method in which the trainer organizes the content to be learned and

49. Sleezer, Catherine M., Russ-Eft, Darlene, Gupta, Kavita, “A Practical Guide to
Needs Assessment”, John Wiley and Sons, Inc., California, 2014. p. xi
50. Saks, Alan M., & Haccoun, Robert R., “Managing Performance through Training
and Development. Nelson Education Ltd., Ontario, 2010. p. 167

24
present it orally with little trainee involvement.”
In conventional set up, lectures are generally perceived boring training
method but the research evidences indicates that the lectures are effective for
training several types of skills and tasks. According to Korman (1971) 51, “lecture
method perpetuates the traditional authority structure of organizations, thus
promoting negative behavior (such as passivity and boredom), and it is poorly
suited for individualizing training and facilitating its transfer.” Similarly,
according to Bass and Vaughn (1966)52, “although a skilled lecturer may
effectively communicate conceptual knowledge to trainees who are prepared to
receive it, the lecture has little value in facilitating attitudinal and behavioral
changes.”
With some efforts, lectures could be made more retaining, like, according to
Barbazette (2006)53, “lectures that are kept to fifteen minutes or less will not tax
the attention span of most learners.” If you have a longer lecture, consider using
several other available methods, such as case studies, demonstrations,
observations, videos, information searches, interviews, learning tournaments, and
study groups or a one-to-two page summary of a lecture instead. The added
communication, in the form of discussion, has much greater power than the
lecture. It provides a two-way communication that facilitates better engagement
and understanding.
Information age classrooms and lectures are different from that of preceding
age. It is interactive with the help of multimedia and audiovisuals facilities. The
lecturer is better equipped to retain the attention of the learners. Digital age gives
an opportunity to learn from the lecturer of their choice with the help of online or
satellite classes. Subtitled lectures with audiovisual effects are more effective.
According to Ram and Chaudhury (2012)54, “the outreach of distance education

51. Korman, M. G., “As cited by Werner, Jon & DeSimone, Randy, “Human Resource
Development” Nelson Education, Ltd., Canada, 2010. p. 175
52. Bass, BM, and Vaughan, JA, Ascited by Sims, Ronald R., “Human Resource
Development: Today and Tomorrow”, Information age Publishing, Inc., USA,
1966. p. 127
53. Barbazette, Jean, “The Art of Great Training Delivery”, Pfeiffer, California, 2006.
p. 58
54. Ram, A. Ranjith and Chaudhuri, Subhasis, “Video Analysis and Repackaging for
Distance Education”, Springer, New York, 2012. p. 8

25
can be even extended from remote computers to mobile phones by adopting
suitable retargeting strategies for the instructional media.” Lectures can be
delivered online in audio and video formats. According to Ma (2006)55, “Video
lectures can be delivered in several different formats, such as recorded video files
available for download, broadcast or streamed real-time video lectures, and
video-conferences.” All these new methods give learners flexibility of time,
place, continuity etc. that helps make it a more effective and available.

2.3.2. Demonstration
According to Ehlers (2002)56, “to demonstrate something means to show
how it is done.” Demonstration is explaining or making clear by use of examples
or experiments. Demonstrations often occur when learners have a hard time
connecting theories to actual practice or when learners are unable to comprehend
use of theories. According to Bogardus (2009)57, “the demonstration method of
training can be used as part of an on-the-job training program or combined with a
lecture program.” Demonstration is powerful with those who cannot read easily.
According to Arduser & Brown (2005)58, “the demonstration method is used
when a trainer performs the particular job task being taught to the group.”
The typical process of demonstration is a trainer showing the learners how
something is done, explaining each step and tell learners why it is being done.
Computer-based demonstration allows learners to see in visual images/
videos the sequence of steps and to obtain a verbal explanation of how each is
performed. According to Brewer, DeJonge, & Stout (2001)59, “online
demonstration commonly involve multimedia and may be synchronous or
asynchronous. Common forms of synchronous demonstration include

55. Ma, Zongmin, “Web-based Intelligent E-learning Systems”, Information Science

Publishing, USA, 2006. p. 92
56. Ehlers, Valerie, “Teaching Aspects of Health Care”, Juta & Co., Lansdowne, 2002.
p. 24
57. Bogardus, Anne M., “PHR / SPHR Professional in Human Resources Certification
Study Guide”, Wiley Publishing, Inc., Canada, 2009. p. 246
58. Arduser, Lora and Brown, Douglas Robert, “The Encyclopedia of Restaurant
Training”, Atlantic Publishing Group, Inc., Ocala, 2005. p. C9-166
59. W. Brewer, Ernest, DeJonge, Jacquelyn O., & Stout, Vickie J., “Moving to Online:
Making the Transition From Traditional Instruction and Communication
Strategies”, Corwin Press, Inc., California, pp. 83-84

26
webcasting, network conferencing, or real-time chatting accompanied by text.”
Asynchronous demonstration might consist of CD-ROM files, streamed videos,
streamed audio accompanied by text, presentation graphics with text, audio and
digital photographs, or a series of links that enable participants to step through
procedure. “At a time when everyone is used to surfing internet, it is hard to
realize how impressive an online demonstration could be (Smith, 1998).”60 One
only has to browse through youtube.com or some similar intranet/extranet sites to
see how online demonstrations are making the world learn.

2.3.3. Games and Simulation

“A business game is a serious game in a business environment that can lead
to one or both of the following results: the training of players in business skills
(hard and/or soft) or the evaluation of players’ performances (quantitatively
and/or qualitatively) (Greco, Baldissin, Nonino, 2013).”61
Training games are also called serious games or business games.
According to Blanchard, Thacker and Ram (2012)62, “business games are
simulations that attempt to represent the way an industry, a company, or unit of a
company functions.” Business games is one of the simulation methods used.
Trainees experience the games and simulations in a controlled setting that
facilitates them develop their skill and discover concepts that will improve their
performance in real-life work. According to Samanta (1993)63, “with thorough
understanding of the instructional objectives and participants’ background, the
trainer decides the particular games which are to be played by the participants.”
In conventional setting, there are many ways of this method like equipment
simulators, business games, in-basket exercise, case studies, role-plays, behavior

60. Smith, K. Wayne, “Oclc 1967:1997: Thirty Years of Furthering Access to the
World's Information”, The Haworth Press, Inc., New York, 1998. p.145
61. Greco, Marco; Baldissin, Nicola; Nonino, Fabio,“An Exploratory Taxonomy of
Business Games”, Simulation & Gaming, Volume 44 number 5. pp. 645-682
62. Blanchard, P. Nick, Thacker, James W., and Ram, Anand V.“Effective Training”,
Dorling Kindersley (India) Pvt. Ltd., 2012. p. 225
63. Samanta, R.K., “Training Methods for Management and Development”, M D
Publications Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi, 1993. p. 79

27
modelling etc. Dessler (2008)64 narrates simulation as- “this is necessity when it
is too costly or dangerous to train employees on the job. Putting new assembly-
line workers right to work could slow production, for instance, and when safety is
a concern – as with pilots – simulated training may be the only practical
alternative.”
In computer age the training and development through games is a different
interface altogether. This age offers gaming portals and applications that create
value in learning, provide opportunities to experiment with aspects of general
management and issues linked to specific corporate functions.

2.3.4. Brainstorming
According to Wilson (2013)65, “brainstorming is an individual or group
method for generating ideas, increasing creative efficacy, or finding solutions to
problems.” Gogatz and Mondejar (2005)66 puts, “in order for brainstorming to
succeed, its participants need to regain some of the creativity they had as children
and the best way to do this is through creativity enhancement exercises and
training.” Crawford (2005)67 describes, “the rule of brainstorming is to think of
many ideas, think of different ideas, and to suspend judgment until students have
produced many different ideas. Brainstorming is newer in origin.”
According to Samanta (1993)68, “it started when the US space scientists at
NASA were working on the design of a spacesuit for astronauts.”
According to Bovée (2011)69, “online brainstorming via blogs offer a way
for people to toss around ideas and build on each others’ contribution.”“Remote
brainstorming can be accomplished with synchronous (e.g. chat) and

64. Dessler, Gary, “Human Resource Management” Dorling Kindersley (India) Pvt.
Ltd., India, 2008. p. 289
65. Wilson, Chauncey, “Brainstorming and Beyond: A User-Centered Design Method”
Elsevier Inc., Oxford, 2013. p. 2
66. Gogatz, Arthur & Mondejar, Reuben, “Business Creativity: Breaking the Invisible
Barriers”, Palgrave McMillan, Hampshire, 2005. p. 145
67. Crawford, Alan et. al., “Teaching and Learning Strategies for the Thinking
Classroom”, The International Debate Education Association, New York, 2005. p.
29
68. Samanta, R.K. op. cit. 59.
69. Bovee, Courtland L., Thill, John V. & Chatterjee Abha, “Business Communication
Today” Dorling Kindersley (India) Pvt. Ltd., 2011. p. 188

28
asynchronous (e.g. blogs, wikis, and other social media) communication
technologies (Wilson, 2003).”70 Remote brainstorming could be done with the
help of tools like specialized online brainstorming software, email, online chat
and instant messaging and electronic boards, blogs, wikis, Google Spreadsheet,
visual diagramming and mind mapping software. According to Binder (2007)71,
“the online brainstorming method is recommended for most cases, but requires
all team members to be connected at the same time, during the whole session.”
When the participants are in different time-zone or when they want to participate
anonymously, asynchronous methods are chosen. As per Noveck (2009) 72, “the
white house could convene week-long, asynchronous brainstorming exercises on
key policy questions, including ways to achieve more collaborative and
participatory democracy.”

2.3.5. Storytelling
“Storytelling is an interesting, proven, and inexpensive way of communi-
cating memorable messages (Evans and Metzger, 2003).73” Storytelling is giving
perspective to the events. According to Driscoll and Carliner (2005)74, “each
story consists of a story teller (the vantage from which the story is told),
characters (people who participate in the incident, as described by the story
teller), plot (a description of one or more related incidents, usually in detail), and
commentary from the story teller (that gives readers the storyteller’s view about
the events and helps readers interpret the incidents).” “With the rise of liberal and
universal education in the late 1800s storytelling came to be regarded as an
important pedagogical tool (Stone, 2008).”75 As Umeasiegbu (1982)76 explains –

70. Wilson, Chauncey, op. cit. p. 3.

71. Binder, Jean, “Global Project Management” Gower Publishing Limited, England,
2007. p. 118
72. Noveck, Beth Simone, “Wiki Government”, Brookings Institution Press, USA,
2009. p. 158
73. Evans, Karin B. & Metzger, Dennis, “Storytelling” ASTD Press, USA, 2003. p. 1
74. Driscoll, Margaret & Carliner, Saul, “Advanced Web-Based Training Strategies”
John Wiley & Sons, Inc., California, 2005. p. 61.
75. Stone, Kay, “Some Day Your Witch Will Come”, Wayne State University Press,
Michigan, 2008. p. 84
76. Umeasiegbu, RemsNna, “Words are Sweet” E. V. Brill Leiden, Netherlands,1982.
p. 6

29
“Storytelling is an art and people value this art very much.” A storytelling
training had been performed on 75 leaders. Dolan and Naidu (2013)77 describe
the follow-up of the event as “follow-up survey after the training showed that
98% of this group felt storytelling was a relevant skill to their role as a leader and
that they felt it would improve their effectiveness as a leader.”
Information age storytelling is entirely different. According to Friedland
and Jain (2014)78, “with advances in multimedia, storytelling has taken new
direction.” Information age allows interactive computer based/online storytelling
which is a very different form of storytelling. Multimedia storytelling uses a
combination of text, still photos, animated graphics, video and audio, presented
in a non-linear format in which all the information in the components unifies.
According to Yuzer&Eby (2014)79, “there are various software programs used for
digital storytelling purposes.” Among these programs, the most popular ones are
Windows Movie Maker, Photo Story, Wevideo, Animoto, iMovie and Voice
Thread. Digital storytelling programs can be used on online or software basis.

2.3.6. Workshop
A training workshop is a kind of interactive training. Rather than passively
attending a lecture, in workshop, partakers carry out a number of training
activities. According to Brooks-Harris and Stock-Ward (1999)80, “a workshop is
a short-term learning experience that encourages active, experiential learning and
uses a variety of learning activities to meet the needs of diverse learners.”
In information age, you can attend a workshop in person or virtually using a
web-based/online conferencing. According to Chan (2010)81, “preparing for a

77. Dolan, Gabrielle & Naidu, Yamini, “Hooked: How Leaders Connect, Engage and
Inspire with Storytelling” John Wiley and Sons, Australia, 2013. p.
Acknowledgement.
78. Friedland, Gerald & Jain, Ramesh, “Multimedia Computing”, Cambridge
University Press, USA, 2014. p. 312
79. Yuzer, T. Volkan & Eby, Gulsun, “Handbook of Research on Emerging Priorities
and Trends in Distance Education” Information Science Reference, USA, 2014. p.
124
80. Brooks-Harris, Jeff E. and Stock-Ward, Susan R., “Workshops: Designing and
Facilitating Experiential Learning”, Sage Publications, Inc., California, 1999. p. 6
81. Chan, Janis Fisher, “Delivering Training Workshops” John Wiley and Sons, Inc.,
California, 2010. p. 7

30
workshop is like carrying out any other project: the more organized you are, and
the more attention you pay to the details, the better the chances of achieving your
goal.” Workshop training offers retained performance benefits as it emphasizes
on practical skills and transferring them to job. According to Bellman and Kelly
(1997)82, “more efficiently than any other methods, workshops can close the gap
between desired and actual job performance, and are most valuable if practical
and relevant to both organizational and individual training needs.”
According to Lichau (2007)83, “online workshop has taken on a proportion
and dimension not found in the face to face version…the magnitude of change
for epistemic values and pedagogic functions in the online version moves the
locus of learning even further from the instructor and places it squarely on the
learner, an optimal condition for meaningful, long-term learning.”

2.3.7. Field Trip

According to Rothwell and Kazanas (2004)84, “field trips, specially in the
form of visits to other work sites, have gained attention because organizations are
sponsoring these trips so employees can benchmark the best practices of other
organizations as part of total quality initiative.” To Laird, Holton, and Naquin
(2003)85, “instructor give each trainee a set of questions for which answers must
be supplied. These answers must be discovered on field trip.” According to
Kroehnert (2004)86, “a well-planned field trip, with associated exercises, for the
trainees, can be useful training method.” According to Singh (2012)87, “a field
trip is recommended when the subject matter of training is such that it can best be
learned by observation of the actual process.”

82. Bellman, Geoffrey M. and Kelly Leslie A., “Create Effective Workshop”, ASTD
press, USA, 1997. p. 1
83. Lichau, Patricia K., “Next Generation Instructional Design: Modifying a
Transformative Education Workshop for Online Delivery” ProQuest Information
and Learning System, MI, 2007. p. 118
84. Rothwell, William J. & Kazanas, H. C., “Improving On-the-Job Training”, John
Wiley and Sons, Inc., California, 2004. p. 123
85. Laird, Dugan, Holton, Elwood F., and Naquin, Sharon S., “Approaches to Training
and Development”, Parseus Books Group, LLC, US, 2003. p. 156
86. Kroehnert, Gary, “Basic Training for Trainers” Tata McGraw Hill, India, 2004. p.
83
87. Singh, Vikram, “Public Administration Dictionary”, Tata McGraw Hill, New Delhi,
2012. p. 332

31
 Adelsberger, Kinshuk, and Pawlowski (2008)88 adds, “field trips are an
ideal example of an established pedagogical method that can be enhanced with
computer-based tools for new ways of collaboration and individual active
knowledge construction.” There are several web-based platforms for virtual field
trips. Now, with the availability of virtual field trips, trainees do not have to leave
their place to explore places. A trainer can create a virtual field trip by clicking
plenty of relevant photographs and shooting videos and uploading them on
website.

2.4. Training Evaluation and Appraisal Practices

Hereunder are the some practices customary in training appraisal:

2.4.1. Observation
Observation is a method of gathering data by watching the behavior and
events. According to Taschereau (1998)89, “here, the evaluator directly observes,
or even participates in, the program, and then reports on what happened. The
observation could be overt and covert; and direct and indirect.” As per Phillips
(1997)90, “a potentially useful data collection method is observing participants to
record changes in behavior.” Conversation analysis is one other way of observing
the effect of training programs.
An observer must be trained how to observe systematically. As Patton
(2002)91 adds, “training observers can be particularly challenging because so
many people think that they are “natural” observers and therefore, have little to
learn.” Observation involves enormous dynamism and concentration. On the
other hand observation data is less likely to be distorted than that collected
through a questionnaire or interview. Industrial age used to make use of personal

88. Adelsberger, Heimo H., Kinshuk, and Pawlowski, Jan Martin, “Handbook on
Information Technologies for Education and Training” Springer-Verlag,
Heidelberg, Germany, 2008. p. 104
89. Taschereau, Suzanne, “Evaluating the Impact of Training and Institutional
Development Programs, World Bank, Washington, D. C., 1998. p. 47
90. Phillips, Jack J., “Handbook of Training Evaluation and Measurement Methods”,
Taylor and Francis, New York, 1997. p. 148
91. Patton, Michael Quinn, “Qualitative Research & Evaluation Methods”, Sage
Publications, Inc., California, 2002. p. 261

32
observation or audit observation where observers were present physically to
watch the activities and performance of the employees. And later some
mechanical tools too got added like psychogalvanometer etc.
In information age, digital tools have given a range and depth to the
observation method. Replay of events has added a new dimension. Videos, logs,
information systems help a great deal in observing and evaluating the effects and
result of training.

2.4.2. Interview
Follow up interview is a methodology of asking questions, listening and
recording the answer, and then following up with additional relevant question.
According to Infoline (2006)92, “interviews can secure data not available in
performance records or data difficulty to obtain through written responses or
observation.” Also, interviews can uncover success stories that are useful in
communicating evaluation results. According to Taschereau (1998)93, “the
purpose of interviewing is to find out what is in someone else’s mind, to
understand how they see things.” According to Goel (2008)94, “an appraisal
interview, when conducted properly, yields benefits for individual employees,
management and organization as a whole.”
Prior to digital age, in-person face-to-face interviews were the methods.
According to McNeil, Newman, and Steinhauser (2005)95, “in-person interviews
are conducted face-to-face, usually with one respondent at a time.”
Multimedia age has enabled interviews for conducting interviews, by
deploying new techniques, when the interviewee is most comfortable to be
participative and cooperative. With many free or inexpensive options for
communication in real time, interviewers are looking for ways to collect

92. Infoline, “Info-Line Guide to Training Evaluation”, ASTD Press, USA, 2006. pp.
81-82
93. Taschereau, Suzanne, “Evaluating the Impact of Training and Institutional
Development Programs”, World Bank, Washington, D. C., 1998. p. 45
94. Goel, Dewakar, “Performance Appraisal and Compensation Management: a
Modern Approach”, PHI Learning Private Limited, New Delhi, 2008. p. 189
95. McNeil, Keith, Newman, Isadore, and Steinhauser Jim, “How to be Involved in
Program Evaluation”, Rowman and Littlefield Education, USA, 2005. p. 47

33
information through online interviews. According to Salmons (2010)96, “online
interviews refer to interviews conducted with ICT. The primary focus is on
interviews conducted with synchronous technologies, including text messaging,
video conferencing or video calls, multi-channel meetings or 3-D immersive
environments.”

2.4.3. Feedback
Training programs without feedback systems is just half job done.
According to Furjanic and Trotman (2000)97, “the feedback form is a valuable
source of information as you prepare future courses. Feedbacks are given by
both – the trainers, and the trainees; and also by third parties like co-learners and
others as well.” According to Saks and Haccoun (2010)98, “feedback lets trainees
know if they are effectively performing the training tasks.” To Phillip (1997)99,
“ratings from reaction questionnaire can be so critical that a person’s job may be
at stake, as in case of instructor ratings in some education and training
department.” According to Jacobs (2003)100, “a module can also contain forms
that document the completion of training and provide summative feedback
certifying that the training objectives have been achieved. Opinion polling is
another feedback tool.”
Effective feedback seeks to promote better insight by the trainee, not to
judge or criticize them or provide unasked for solutions. According to Singh
(2010)101, “a very simple and inexpensive method of ascertaining the
effectiveness of a particular training program is to get a feedback in prescribed

96. Salmons, Janet, “Online Interviews in Real Time, Sage Publications, Inc.,
California, 2010. p. xv
97. Furjanic, Sheila W., and Trotman, Laurie A., “Turning Training into Learning”,
AMACOM, New York, 2000. p. 197
98. Saks, Alan M., & Haccoun, Robert R., “Managing Performance through Training
and Development”, Nelson Education Ltd., USA, 2010. p. 151
99. Phillips, Jack J., “Handbook of Training Evaluation and Measurement Methods”,
Taylor and Francis, New York, 1997. p. 115
100. Jacobs, Ronald, “Structured On-the-Job Training”, Berrett–koehler Publishers,
Inc., California, 2003. p. 114
101. Singh, Sanjeev Kumar, “Human Resource Development”, Atlantic Publishers and
Distributors (P) Ltd., New Delhi, 2010. p. 64

34
forms, from the trainees who attended it.” Industrial age feedback systems were
basically manual, one-dimensional, evaluative and controlling.
According to Egolf and Chester (2013)102, “now, the industrial age has
given way to the information age.” England (2012)103, presents characteristics of
online feedback as “multidimensional, non-evaluative, supportive, student
controlled, timely, and specific.” The online feedback methods involve, email,
blog, forum, websites, social media, e mail and chat, applications and corporate
information systems. Online opinion polls are a big success in web 2.0
environment.

2.4.4. Performance Appraisal

Training programs are of on-going nature and their effects are not
immediate. According to Mello (2015)104, “behavioral impact is usually
measured through performance appraisal, which is done by those who are able to
witness and observe the employee.” “Most appraisal processes include a written
document (Pride, Hughes, and Kapoor, 2008).”105 While discussing strategies for
evaluating training programs, Jane Bozarth (2008)106, “highlights on-the-job
performance change as – trained individuals whose managers report that their
actual job performance has changed (as result of their changed behavior/skill),
either through improved performance appraisal scores or specific notation about
the training on performance appraisal from (within x months).” Employees are
generally curious to know the result of their performance evaluation. According
to Durai (2010)107, “this feedback enables them to have a clear idea about their
standing in the organization as related to performance rewards like promotion, or

102. Egolf, Donald sand Chester, Sondra, “Forming Storming Norming Performing.”
iUniverse, Bloomington, 2013. p. 31
103. England, Liz, “Online Language Teacher Education”, Routledge, New York,
2012. p. 24
104. Mello, Jeffrey,“Strategic Human Resource Management.” Cengage Learning,
USA, 2015. p. 391
105. Pride, William, Robert Hughes, Robert and Kapoor, Jack,“Business” South-
Western Cengage Learning, USA, 2008. p. 262
106. Bozarth, Jane, “From Analysis to Evaluation”, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.,
California, 2008. p. 267
107. Pravin, Durai, “Human Resource Management”, Dorling Kindersley (India) Pvt.
Ltd., India, 2010. p. 275

35
merit pay.” If employee is falling short of expected performance after training,
the reason and re-training avenues must be sought out.
Before computer-based information systems, the HR department used to
design an appraisal form, in cases variations – based on functions, levels and
others, and get it filled by the supervisors. According to DelPo (1967)108, “most
companies provide a performance evaluation form for this purpose, although
some ask managers to write their review as narrative.”“Performance evaluation
forms come in all varieties, including rating scales, checklists, fill-in-the blanks,
and free-form essay (Levoy, 2007).”109 These appraisals are done at certain
frequency and the communication between the appraiser and the appraised is
very little. It’s left less objective, more subjective.
In information age, according to Lloyd (2009)110, “a burgeoning industry is
offering a wide range of web-based applications to cover virtually every aspect of
the performance appraisal process.” Online evaluation eliminate masses of paper
and are based on wide range of performance data not one that’s captured through
appraiser’s eyes.

2.4.5. Benchmarking
Benchmarks are standards, it means comparing the process with some better
process and improving the performance. In case of training evaluation,
benchmarking is comparing outcomes in terms of learner satisfaction, learning,
impact on job performance, impact on organizational performance, return on
training investments and others. Most trainers are aware of it and this is found
sufficient. Some organizations make agreements with trainer for certain
benchmarks. According to Thorne and Mackey (2007)111, “for many
organizations this is in fact sufficient; the agreed internal standard for training

108. DelPo, Amy, “The Performance Appraisal Handbook”, Nolo, California, 1967. p.
111
109. Levoy, Bob, “222 Secrets of Hiring, Managing, and Retaining Great Employees in
Healthcare Practices”, Jones and Bartlett Publishers, Inc., USA, 2007. p. 148
110. Lloyd, “Performance Appraisals and Phrases for Dummies”, Wiley Publishing,
Inc., NJ, 2009. p. 46
111. Thorne, Kaye and Mackey, David, “Everything You Ever Needed to Know about
Training”, Kogan Page Limited, Great Britain, 2007. p.149

36
and development are accepted as being appropriate for all evaluation needs.
Organizations are attempting to benchmark their key functions.” According to
ASTD (2001)112, “determining right measure is difficult, but a crucial first step in
benchmarking world class training operations.”“The primary difficulty of using
benchmarking is in sourcing information about other organizations (Page-tickell,
2014).”113 Prior to online solutions, benchmarking was not well aligned with the
dynamics of the environment and with expected execution as well.
In information age, with online tools, such limitations are overcome.
ASTD’s WLP card is an online benchmarking tool. It is a thorough and
confidential tool that benchmarks at number of levels, including industry, type
and size of industry. Benchmarking software can be used to organize large and
complex amounts of information, and can extend the concept of benchmarking,
allowing individuals to handle strategies. Such tools support different types of
benchmarking and can reduce the costs significantly. GOBENCH is an example
of benchmarking software.

2.4.6. Cost-benefit Analysis

Cost-benefit analysis is a systematic approach to compare the cost and
benefit of a training project. According to Werner and DeSimone (2012)114,
“cost-benefit analysis involves comparing the monetary costs of training to the
benefits received in non-monetary terms, such as improvements in attitudes,
safety and health.” “Most cost benefit analyses are comparative studies that show
how the performance levels obtained by installing a new training program
compare with the performance levels obtained by no training or some alternative
form of training (Parry, 1997).”115

112. American Society of Training and Development. “Train the Trainer Volume 4:
Measurement and Evaluation”, ASTD Press, USA, 2001. p. 46
113. Page-Tickell, Rebecca, “Learning and Development”, Kogan Page Limited. Great
Britain, 2014. p. 188
114. Werner, John M. and DeSimone, Randy L., “Human Resource Development
6e”Cengage Learning, USA, 2012. p. 226
115. Parry, Scott B., “Evaluating the Impact of Training”, ASTD Press, USA, 1997. p.
160

37
 Training costs, in conventional setting, are facility usage, supplies,
advertising, refreshments, rentals/purchase of needed equipment, trainer’s fee and
trainees’ missing work. According to BLR (2006)116, “to calculate the total
benefits, you must evaluate the tangible returns of training and assign a monetary
value to the so-called “hard benefits”…in addition, consider the “soft benefit” of
improved communication, enhanced corporate image, improved conflict
resolution, improved morale, and increased loyalty.” “Because of its focus on
utility, cost-benefit analysis (CBA) is a natural choice of evaluation methodology
for leaders and training personnel who are consistently confronted with a bottom-
line approach to making decisions around investments in training initiatives
(Sims, 1998).”117 In fact, converting training into cash value is not the main
purpose of cost-benefit analysis. According to Bramley (1996)118, “the intention
is to provide rational basis for making the decision – to train or not train.”
The cost-benefit undergoes a paradigm shift in information age. According
to Anderson (2008)119, “for learners, online learning knows no time zones, and
location and distance are not issues…online materials can be updated, and
learners can see the changes immediately. Repeatability is the added feature of
information age that empowers HR department to develop modules for online
learning, update the modules as and when required and make the learners learn
without much interrupting their work schedule. This way lots of cost is saved and
value is added.”

2.4.7. Data Mining

Other training evaluation methods are able to evaluate the results of a
specific training effort, data mining is able to evaluate training as a whole.

116. BLR, “7 Strategies for Effective Training”, Business and Legal Reports, Inc.,
USA, 2006. p. 111
117. Sims, Ronald R, “Reinventing Training and Development”, Quorum Books,
USA, 1998. p. 146
118. Bramley, Peter, “Evaluating Training”, Universities Press (India) Ltd., India,
1996. pp.104-105
119. Anderson, Terry, “The Theory and Practice of Online Learning” AU Press,
Athabasca University, Edmonton, 2008. p. 17

38
According to Wang (2003)120, “by setting up a data mining program to search for
patterns of training activities related to advancement in the organization, a
company might uncover the data to support further training investments.”
Training data is made up of specialist human expertise which is mostly in short
supply. When a vast supply of data is available, this is no problem: just make a
model based on a large training set, and try it out on another large test set.
According to Pyle (2003)121, “mining involves many loops through an iterative
loop in order to create the best possible model in the training data set that
performs as well as possible in the test data set.” In mining data, we need to get
more than get an estimate of future performance. “Comparisons of alternative
solutions or alternative approaches will be made, and we must decide which of
these alternatives are best (Weiss, 1998).”122
Data mining flourished in 1980s and is purely IT supported concept, hence
an outcome of prevailing information age, and a part of business intelligence.
According to Sumathi and Sivanandam (2006)123, “data mining emerged in late
1980s and will continue its fast development in the years to come in this
increasingly data-centric world.”

2.4.8. Factor Analysis

“Factor analysis refers to a variety of statistical techniques whose common
objective is to represent a set of variables in terms of a smaller numbers of
hypothetical variables (Kim and Mueller, 1978).”124 Factor analysis is used in
training as a basis for excluding subjects who are not in agreement; it is a means
of reducing the number of attributed on scorecard.

120. Wang, John, “Data Mining: Opportunities and Challenges”, Idea Group
Publishing, USA, 2003. p. 379
121. Pyle, Dorian, “Business Modeling and Data Mining”, Morgan Kaufmann
Publishers, USA, 2003. p. 428
122. Weiss, Sholom M., “Predictive Data Mining: A Practical Guide”, Morgan
Kaufmann Publishers, USA, 1998. p. 45
123. Sumathi, S., Sivanandam, S.N., “Introduction to Data Mining and Its
Applications”, Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg, New York, 2006. p. 6
124. Kim, Jae-On and Mueller, Charles W., “Introduction to Factor Analysis”, Sage
Publications, Inc., CA, 1978. p. 9

39
 According to Stone, Bleibaum, and Thomas (2012)125, “using factor
analysis to directly reduce the number of attributes is troublesome, particularly
during training, because it assumes a cause-effect relationship for those attributes
correlated with a specific factor, and such assumptions are risky.”
Factor analysis dimensions have shifted in information age, which in turn
are supported by advanced software. According to Kim and Mueller (1978)126,
“in recent years, factor analysis has become accessible to a wider circle of
researchers and students, primarily due to high speed computers and the
packaged computer programs (e.g. BMD, DATATEXT, OSIRIS, SAS and
SPSS).” These programs have increased the usability of factor analysis as users
who do not have enough mathematical training can exploit the capabilities and
potentials of factor analysis. According to Koppes (2014)127, “they gained
popularity because of the specificity and utility of task analysis in training
development and evaluation.”

2.5. Training Follow-up Practices

Hereunder are the some practices customary in training follow-up:

2.5.1. Orientation Program

“Orientation is a process…not an event. It is part of the overall integration
of new employees into the organization by which the organization help the new
hire adapt to the work environment and the job (Sharpe, 1999).”128 Orientation
program is intense where learners get real career development advice from the
fine educational institutions and corporations that fortifies their prior learning.
These program provide big returns to the organization, because an organization
that invests money in training and orienting and re-orienting its employees results
in better dividends to employees and organizations. Orientation programs are
organized by the companies time to time to reinforce the training imparted to

125. Stone, Herbert, Bleibaum, Rebecca and Thomas, Heather A., “Sensory Evaluation
Practices” Elsevier Inc., USA, 2012. p. 245
126. Kim, Jae-On and Mueller, Charles W., op. cit. p.7
127. Koppes, Laura L., “Historical Perspectives in Industrial and Organizational
Psychology, Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc., New York, 2014. p. 231
128. Sharpe, Cat, “Successful Orientation Programs”, ASTD Press, USA, 1999. p. 1

40
them at certain point of time. The purpose of the orientation program is to keep
the wheels rolling.
“Online orientation is most beneficial to organizations with a
geographically dispersed workforce, staggered start dates, and established
intranet technologies (Westwood and Johnson, 2002).”129 Short-term programs
can be shared with learners and the effectiveness of programs can be evaluated.

2.5.2. Small Reunion Meets

A training reunion may be organized after a week or more at a regular
frequency to reinforce the learnings and their applications in real life. It is formal
or informal meet where every participant is encouraged to share their learnings,
thoughts, and experiences with other members and also learn from theirs’. This
can be organized in-house or at some outdoor location. Seeing people growing
and learning motivates others to follow the course.

2.5.3. Quizzes
Giving puzzles, quizzes, riddles and tricky questions bring back the group
to utilize each other’s’ strength. They can be sent through any fast media or when
learners and trainer meet. Quizzes are great motivators for learning. Time-to-time
quizzes keep learners focused and go deeper into the insight.
Conducting a quiz competition is very easy, convenient and fast with the
emergence of social media and communication facilities. Today’s social media is
performing groups as never before.

2.5.4. Making Groups/Clubs

Developing certain platforms in the form of groups and clubs gives new
dimension and action to learnings. Here, learning mixed with individual and
group talents evolves into some contribution in the field. Such platforms get
bigger, involve more learners and aspirants and work as a prestige of the field or
organization. Others also become aware of such skills and feels motivated to
learn them. People of these groups get a status in the form of signs, marks and
positions in the organization.

129. Westwood, Roberta and Johnson, Leanne, “Take Orientation Online”, ASTD
Press, USA, 2002. p. 1

41
2.5.5. E-mail/Letters
According to ASTD (1998)130, “an easy-to-use technology for training
follow-up is web-based e-mail. E-mail helps trainers gather responses to a single
question at intervals of one week after training, one month after training, and
three months after.”
The information age has superseded letters with e-mails.
Training is a process not an event. Learners are asked to prepare a brief
summary or the list of their take aways and e-mail it to the trainer and/or the
supervisor. Trainer too can e-mail thoughts about learning that proved to be most
valuable and also the tips and tricks they have found useful. Past graduates could
be ask to share their thoughts and experiences with the learners via e-mail.
According to ASTD (2001)131, “message from their peers are invaluable in
showing new learners that the training is useful and applicable.” As learners go
farther in time, they could be asked about the new skills or knowledge they have
added based on the material covered in the training. According to Biech
(2005)132, “a few weeks after the training program is completed, the trainers may
write follow-up letters or make phone calls.”
E mail and letters are very gentle reminders and have longer effect. E mail
has a high response rate. According to BLR (2006)133, “you can use e-mail to
promote or enhance training, send reminders of upcoming training, solicit follow-
up questions for trainers and/or managers, and conduct training evaluations
through e-mail forms.”

2.5.6. Praise and Motivation

Praise and motivation are very effective for training follow-up. Praise is a
constructive feedback given to learners by instructors. The supervisor’s praise is

130. American Society for Training and Development, “Train the Trainer-Vol 5:
Applying Technology to Learning”, USA, 2001. p. 173
131. American Society of Training and Development, “Trainers’ Toolkit”, ASTD
Press, USA, 2001. p. 191
132. Biech, Elaine, “Training for Dummies”, Wiley Publishing, Inc., Indiana, 2005. p.
279.
133. BLR, “Managing an HR Department of One”, Business and Legal Reports, Inc.,
USA, 2006. p. 14

42
a big motivator and coming into the notice of senior managers due to improved
performance is another good deal for employees. Praise makes employees feel
noticed and recognized for the change in behavior that helps them to upkeep the
behavior. Trainers can praise in a variety of ways and contexts. For example, an
instructor may choose to praise a learner in front of a class or work group or may
instead deliver that praise in a private conversation or as written feedback on the
student's assignment. Praising on some platform does not mean praising the
abilities but praising the effort and accomplishments, otherwise it may work
detrimental to the growth of others who are learning slower. There are many
other methods of motivating the learning.
Prior to computers, praises were made on-the-job, in person or publically.
Monetary incentives and packages were also the part of praise. Appreciation
letters, promotions, vacations, and other forms of acknowledgements were in
fashion.
In information age, with the emergence of social media, intranet and
groupware, the appreciation has got a new face and wider reach. On social media,
people are being so popular for the little efforts they make towards betterment.
Groupware and intranet help organizations to acknowledge their performers
beyond the boundaries of geography and profile.

2.5.7. Phone/SMS
SMSes could be more successful in approaching the learners. Small
messages with clear and concise points could be sent to learners in order to keep
them in touch. A phone call involves more conscious and subconscious senses.
Generally, phone calls should be made after 48 to 72 hours after the training. The
purpose of the call is to connect with the learner to understand the learners’ status
with learning, and to resolve and guide them in their issues.

2.5.8. Stationary/Gift/Memento
At the time of winding up, the learners could be given some memento in the
form of some stationary or other gifts to keep a reminder with them of their
learnings. The performers could be given some marks that will help them stay

43
connected with the thought that they are good with what and the attached
motivation to achieve more in the same direction.
At some later point of time, they could be sent such small articles to bring
back their focus. Information age has made this very interesting, the customized
gifts with messages and points could be get prepared as never before. The entire
market is there online and is growing.

2.5.9. Assigning Voluntary Services

When conducting some related programs, the senior learners could be
invited on voluntary basis and can be asked for certain responsibilities. Assigning
jobs that let them demonstrate their learned skills will make them feel good. The
contribution made by them hooks them with the skill and other learners and thus
their buy-in and involvement can be bought.

2.5.10. Social Media

“Social Media” refers to online material produced by the public, distinct
from content produced by professional writers, journalists, or generated by the
industrial or mass media (Bozarth, 2010)134. Social media is providing
meaningful utility for the construction of shared knowledge.
Social media has emerged as a brand new platform to allow individuals to
have their voice heard publically, contributing to content as text supplemented
with images, sound, video and multimedia facilitating a self-directed learning
approach. All the learning expectations can’t be met at the time of training. With
social media, a trainer supplements the knowledge or invokes the thought in a
particular direction to learners to help them keep up with the new levels and
dimensions of knowledge. Social media provides direction, content, and
expression of learnings. Blogs, collaborative calendars, podcasting, RSS Reader,
collaborative mind mapping, micro blogging, presentation sharing, social
bookmarking, collaborative editing, collaborative working, and many others are
the services provided by social networks to facilitate post-training learning.

134. Bozarth, Jane, “Social Media for Trainers”, Pfeiffer, California, 2010. p. 11

44
2.6. Importance of Training and Development
The last few years marked an ongoing trend in which organizations
worldwide were forced to cut costs and make tough choices to stay viable. “The
choices made by these organizations say a lot about their commitment to
employee development (Bishop, 2011).”135 Spending on corporate training is
spiraling. “The past few years have been particularly testing for learning and
talent development (L&TD), the spotlight on training budgets in a bid to reign in
their costs (People Management, 2011).”136
“US spending on corporate training grew by 15% last year (the highest
growth rate in seven years) to over $70 Billion in the US and over $130 Billion
worldwide (Bersin, 2014)”137. Most of the organizations find competence gap as
one of the top reasons hampering their growth. According to Prayag (2012)138,
“Indian companies will have to double their spends on workforce training as they
move from cost-based to value-based offerings.” Although conventional training
is going on, companies now have to map and build people to add value as this is
how India is going to stay ahead.
Training and development is vital to any business. Its purpose is to better
the performance of employees to enable corporate to meet its business goals.
According to Singh (2014)139, “to be realistic, one has to accept with absolutely
open mind that there is an ocean gap between the training and development and

135. Bishop, Mark, “Raising the Bar on Performance-Driven Leadership” T+D,

Canada, Jul 2011, p. 39.
136. People Management, “Training Trends are Still a Mixed Picture” People
Management. May, 2011, p. 40.
137. Bersin, Josh, “Spending on Corporate Training Soars: Employee Capabilities Now
a Priority” [Web log Post], (2014, Apr 2). Accessed on 14/07/2014. Retrieved
from http://www.forbes.com/sites/joshbersin/2014/02/04/the-recovery-arrives-
corporate -training-spend-skyrockets/
138. Prayag, Anjali, “Indian firms need to double spend on training. The Hindu
Business Line”, (2012, Mar 21), Accessed on 24/6/14, Retrieved from
http://www.thehindubusinessline.com/economy/indian-firms-need-to-double-
spend-on-training/article3024495.ece
139. Singh, Nishu and Singh, B. N., “Recent Trends in Training and Developments in
Indian Health-Care Sectors in the Changed Economic Scenario”, International
Journal of Scientific and Research Publications,2014,Volume, 4 Issue 5, p. 2

45
related human resources strategies for the traditional agriculture, manufacturing
sectors and the latest upcoming services sector.”
According to Kranz (2014)140, “Organizations spent more than $164 billion
on employee training in 2012, up 5 percent from 2011”, according to a November
2013 report by the American Society for Training & Development. DDI says it
has witnessed a decline in demand for event-based training and a shift towards
what Rich Wellins, senior vice-president, calls “integrated learning journeys”—
professional development paths that include classroom learning, social learning,
mentoring, and other forms of learning tied to business context(Castellano,
2014)141.
Career arc of today’s learners comprises of creating and delivering
knowledge that addresses the needs of learners from their early days as students,
to their first jobs, to their first promotions and beyond. Man, machine and
material are the main capital of the organization and today men are most valuable
resources of the organization. The effectiveness of the organization depends on
competence of the employees.
The success of training depends on how much it could answer the whats
and whys. Every what has to be justifiable with every why. This appropriateness
could be achieved by considering the dimensions of training, involving three
direct dimensions, namely: trainer(s), trainee(s), and changing environment
which is the result of affecters, like – economic, technological, legal,
sociocultural, Political, educational, and demographic.
Training and development has took center-stage in today’s times. Trainer is
transforming its definition. The kaizen has brought non-person trainers after
gradually increasing facilitating the person trainer. According to Ketter (2014)142,
“the evolution of the trainer’s role in today’s business world is continuing at a
brisk pace, and is something that all trainers need to embrace to maintain
relevance in organizations.” The changes in the environment does not lessen the

140. Kranz, Garry, “Learning Gets a Higher Degree of Attention at Workplaces”,

Workforce. 2014, Vol. 93, Issue 1, p. 44.
141. Castellano, Stephanie, “Opening Solutions to Talent Development”, T+D. August
2014, Vol. 68 Issue 8, p. 67.
142. Ketter, Paula, “The Role of the Trainer” [Editorial], T+D. Feb 2014, Vol. 68 Issue
2, p. 6.

46
need for expert teachers or trainers, rather, they accentuate the need in a flipped
learning setting because more individual attention is required to be given to
learners than any preceding point of time. Kornacki (2009)143, Paul Fairhurst
from the Institute of Employment Studies introduced his concept of the T-shaped
L&D professional. He explained that “the vertical line of the ‘T’ is the L&D skill
set, the area L&D professionals are currently strongest in, but the horizontal line
– business orientation – requires development if they are to succeed within post
recessionary organizations.” The trend is a move towards line managers involved
in the training and development process to bring core business competencies,
including marketing, the L&D capability and managing suppliers and contracts.
Such trainers can’t be developed without a strategic training planning and
execution. As per Manikutty (2005)144 “reasons, organizations try to help
managers by sending them for various training programmes. These programmes
are meant to expose them to different ideas and situations, stimulate peer
interaction, and broaden their perspectives.”
Today’s organizations are flat, and run by teams; and soon they are going to
be liquid, and run by people. According to Schmidt and Cohen (2013)145, “by
2025, the majority of world’s population will, in one generation, have gone from
having virtually no access to unfiltered information to accessing all of the world’s
information through a device that fits in the palm of the hand. If the current pace
of the technological innovation is maintained, most of the projected eight billion
people on earth will be online.” The boom in digital connectivity will bring world
in a different orbit where all the avenues of the physical world like productivity,
health, education, quality of life and other numerous dimensions will gain a shift
in their meaning. This will equally apply to everyone, from the most exclusive
users to those at the base of economic pyramid. According to Cole (2011)146,

143. Kornacki, Martin, “Talking about the future of L&D”, Training Journal. October
2009, p. 22.
144. Manikutty, S., “Manager as a Trainer, a Coach, and a Mentor”, Vikalpa: The
Journal for Decision Makers. Apr-Jun 2005, Vol. 30 Issue 2, p. 58
145. Schmidt, Eric and Cohen, Jared. “The New Digital Age: Reshaping the Future of
People, Nations and Business”, John Murray, London, 2013. p. 6
146. Cole, Brent, Why Carnegie’s Advice Still Matters [Editorial]. “How to Win
Friends and Influence People in the Digital Age.”, Simon and Schuster
Paperbacks, New York, 2011, p. xx

47
“what is your ratio of face-to-face versus digital interactions? For most people,
email, texts, blogs, tweets, and Facebook posts are the primary ways they
correspond with others.” This presents new hurdles and new opportunities. We
live in first-time period of self-help. In the digital world the full value of human
connection is traded-off with transactional proficiency. The people of today must
also learn to enhance customer experience management in parallel to
transactional proficiency in order to sustain. The digital age is welcoming at its
gate those who have technical knowledge, ability to communicate expressions,
assume leadership round the clock, and fill-in enthusiasm in others. There is a
threshold extent of this proficiency. The world will change as fast as never
before. Every moment will demand fresh blood. This kind of training of people
will be the axis of all developments.
According to Gustin (2013)147, “it is no longer satisfactory for experts in the
discrete fields of technology, business, politics, and international affairs to
remain cloistered in their respective silos.”
The technology infuses all the areas. The new economy is about dynamics,
not static efficiency. The next generation of experts will need to be well-versed in
each, in order to understand how technology is radically transforming industries,
governments, and the age-old force of political science. The training, learning
and development needs a different eye, different hand, different mind and
different heart that matches with the evolving needs of coming times.
According to Quinn (2014)148, “Training is no longer enough. Technology
now gives us the opportunity to do much more, and we have the responsibility to
do it.” Learning is undergoing redesign to match how people really learn. Making
a PowerPoint and adding a quiz to it is not going to make an impact, rather, the
courses will have to be designed with meaningful practice and will have to be
resourced with the least amount of additional material when it meets the
necessary criteria. Knowledge is not an additional resource along with the

147. Gustin, Sam, The Internet Doesn’t Hurt People — People Do: ‘The New Digital
Age’ [Book Review]. TIME. April 26, 2013. Accessed on 18/12/2014 Retrieved
from http://business.time. com/2013/04/26/the-new-digital-age-promise-and-peril-
ahead-for-the-global-internet/
148. Quinn, Clark N., “The Learning and Development Revolution”, T+D. Aug 2014,
Vol. 68 Issue 8, p. 59.

48
traditional factors of production such as man, machine, capital, and land; it is the
only speaking resource today, consequently, the knowledge worker is greatest
single asset of any organizations. According to Tapscott (1996) 149, “in the old
economy, workers tried to achieve fulfillment through leisure. In the new
economy, fulfillment can be achieved through work and the means of production
shifts to the brain of the producers’. Information technology enables an economy
based on knowledge. So the learning and development has to move in tandem
with this development and match the launching needs.”
According to Potts (2001)150, “in essence, the defining characteristic of the
modern economy is extremely rapid technological, organizational and
institutional change, all embedded within broader patterns of social change.”
“People are living longer-and cities may well play a role in extended life-spans
(Liotta and Miskelp, 2012).”151 Customers and their demands are changing.
Population growth and drop in different nations, combined with an ageing
population around the world, will create a strikingly different consumer market
by 2050. In such competitive times, it’s getting harder to exploit demographic
dividend. The business will need to anticipate demographic developments and
bring products and services into line with the changing customer base in the
markets which, at any cost, is not possible without trained and versatile human
resource. Because there are so many generations in the workforce, so in the
information age, learning needs to be agile, quick, available on demand, address
specific needs, and deliver results which makes training and development not
only indispensable but the core competence of stepping-in times.
……

149. Tapscott, D.“The Digital Economy: Promise and Peril in the Age of Networked
Intelligence” McGraw-Hill, New York, 1996. p. 48
150. Potts, Jason, “The New Evolutionary Microeconomics: Complexity, Competence
and Adaptive Behaviour” Edward Elgar, UK, 2001. p. 4
151. Liotta P. H. and Miskel, James F., “The Real Population Bomb: Megacities,
Global Security & the Map of the Future”, Virginia: Potomac Books, 2012. p. 19

49