Class 10 Chemistry Workbook PDF

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X ICSE Chemistry – Periodic Classification of Elements
Instructions: This booklet can be used while watching videos. Keep filling the sheet as the videos
proceed.
1. Introduction
Whenever humans have been provided with a heap of random entities, we have always shown a
strong tendency to towards organizing the entities into neat defined groups. Grouping of any
number of entities always requires a certain common factor or feature of the concerned entities. It
can be colour, size, weight, material, power, money etc.
Organization - the act or process of putting the different parts of something in a certain order so
that they can be found or used easily or even ease the study of a number of different basic
particles.
a. Organizing Elements
Around 1869, sixty-three elements were discovered. Around 1817 to 1829, Johann Dobereiner
began to classify elements into triads, or groups of three. In a triad, all three elements had like
properties.
What is periodicity?
Question1. What do you understand by the term 'elements'?
2. Early Models of the Periodic Table
a. Dobereiner’s Triads
As the number of elements increased, chemists inevitably began to find patterns in their
properties. In 1829 Johann Wolfgang Dobereiner discovered the existence of families of elements
with similar chemical properties. Because there always seemed to be three elements in these
families, he called them triads.
Dobereiner also found patterns in the physical properties of the elements in a triad. He noted, for
example, that the atomic weight of the middle element in each triad is about equal to the average
of the atomic weights of the first and third elements.
The atomic mass of Lithium is 7 and that of Potassium is 39, use the law of triads to find the
atomic mass of Sodium.
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b. Newland’s Octaves
By the mid-19th century, the atomic masses of many of the elements had been determined. The
English chemist John Newlands (1838–1898), hypothesizing that the chemistry of the elements
might be related to their masses, arranged the known elements in order of increasing atomic mass
and discovered that every eighth element had similar properties (the noble gases were still
unknown). Newlands therefore suggested that the elements could be classified into octaves. A
group of seven elements, corresponding to the horizontal rows in the main group elements (not
counting the noble gases, which were unknown at the time).
Question2. Why do we not follow the periodic table suggested by Newland?
c. Mendeleev’s Periodic Table

The next milestone in the development of the periodic table was set by the Russian chemist
Dmitri Mendeleev, who is generally acknowledged as the “father” of the modern periodic table.
When the elements were ordered according to atomic weight, Mendeleev, like Dobereiner and
Newlands, could see that certain chemical properties were repeated periodically; however, not all
the elements fit this pattern neatly. Mendeleev's solution was to move certain elements to new
positions, despite their accepted weight, in order to group them with other elements sharing
similar properties.
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Figure 1 - Mendeleev's Periodic Table
Question3. What was the periodic law given by Dmitri Mendeleev?
d. Limitations of Mendeleev’s Periodic Table

The position of hydrogen was not correctly defined. It was placed in group I although it resembles
both the group I elements - the alkali metals and the group VII elements-the halogens, in their
properties.
Write down the other limitations of Mendeleev's Periodic Table
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3. The Modern Periodic Table
Henry Moseley, an English physicist discovered in the year 1913 that atomic number, is the most
fundamental property of an element and not its atomic mass. Atomic number (Z), of an element is
the number of protons in the nucleus of its atom. The number of electrons in the neutral atom is
also equal to its atomic number.
Question4. Write down the Modern Periodic Law.
Question5. What are the merits of the modern periodic table over that of Mendeleev?
Question6. Discuss the key features of the modern periodic table.
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a. Alkali Metals/Alkali Earth Metals

The Alkali metals are comprised of group 1 of the periodic table and consist of Lithium, Sodium,
Rubidium, Caesium, and Francium.
Alkali Earth metals are located in group 2 and consist of Beryllium, Magnesium, Calcium,
Strontium, Barium, and Radium.
Compare the properties of the alkali metals and the alkali earth metals.
b. Transition Metals
The transition metals range from groups IIIB to XIIB on the periodic table. These metals form
positively charged ions, are very hard, and have very high melting and boiling points. Transition
metals are also good conductors of electricity and are malleable.
Give a few examples of transition metals.
c. Lanthanides and Actinides
Lanthanides and Actinides, form the block of two rows that are placed at the bottom of the
periodic table for space issues. These are also considered to be transition metals. Lanthanides
form the top row of this block and are very soft metals with high boiling and melting points.
Actinides form the bottom row and are radioactive. They also form compounds with most non-
metals.
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Give a few examples of Lanthanides and Actinides.
d. Metalloids
What are metalloids? What is the reason behind their distinctive properties?
e. Halogens
What are halogens? What is their general molecular formula?
f. Noble Gases
The noble gases consist of group 18 (sometimes referred to as group O) of the periodic table of
elements. The noble gases have very low boiling and melting points and are all gases at room
temperature.
Question7. Why are noble gases considered unreactive?
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Question8. What is the common oxidation state of all the elements of the alkali metals and halogens
respectively.
4. Trends in the Modern Periodic Table
a. Atomic Radius
We can never determine the atomic radius of an atom because there is never a zero probability of
finding an electron, and thus never a distinct boundary to the atom. All that we can measure is the
distance between two nuclei (inter-nuclear distance).
Define the terms, covalent radius and ionic radius.
Question9. What is the trend in the change of atomic radii as one moves across the periods and down
the group in the Modern Periodic Table?
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Figure 2 - Covalent and Ionic Radii
b. Ionization Energy (ionization potential)

Expelling an electron from an atom requires enough energy to overcome the magnetic pull of the
positive charge of the nucleus.
Figure 3 - Ionization Energy of an Element
Question10. What is ionization energy? What is the trend in the change of ionization energy as one
moves across the periods and down the group in the Modern Periodic Table?
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c. Electron Affinity
What do you understand by the term electron affinity? Discuss the trends in the variation of
electron affinity across the periodic table.
Electron affinity can be either positive or negative in value. The greater the negative value, the
more stable the anion is.
 (Exothermic) The electron affinity is positive
X(g) + e-  X− + Energy
 (Endothermic) The electron affinity is negative
X(g) + e- + Energy  X−
d. Electronegativity
Electronegativity will be important when we later determine polar and non-polar molecules.
Electronegativity is related with ionization energy and electron affinity. Electrons with low
ionization energies have low electronegativities because their nuclei do not exert a strong
attractive force on electrons. Elements with high ionization energies have high electronegativities
due to the strong pull exerted by the positive nucleus on the negative electrons.
Question 11. Define electronegativity. Identify the most electronegative and the most electropositive
elements in the modern periodic table respectively.
e. Metallic Character
The metallic character is used to define the chemical properties that are present in metallic
elements. Generally, metals are defined as elements that tend to lose electrons to form cations.
Non-metals tend to gain electrons to form anions. They also have a high oxidation potential
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therefore they are easily oxidized and are strong reducing agents. Metals also form basic oxides;
the more basic the oxide, the higher the metallic character.
Discuss the variation of metallic character in the modern periodic table.
Importance of understanding the Periodic Properties of Elements
1. Predicting greater or smaller atomic size and radial distribution in neutral atoms and ions
2. Measuring and comparing ionization energies
3. Comparing electron affinities and electro negativities
4. Predicting redox potential
5. Comparing metallic character with other elements; its ability to form cations
6. Predicting what reaction may or may not occur due to the trends
7. Determining greater cell potential (sum of oxidation and reduction potential) between
reactions
8. Completing chemical reactions according to trends
Figure 4 - Summary of Periodic Trends in Properties
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X ICSE Chemistry – Chemical Bonding
proceed.
1. Introduction
What is Chemical Bonding?

The term “Chemical Bonding” is self-explanatory. When chemicals bond with each other, the
bond that they share is called a Chemical Bond and the process is called Chemical Bonding. But
then again, you may ask what chemicals are? A chemical is a substance that takes part in a
reaction. A chemical is made up of atoms that are able to exhibit the properties of the substance
independently.
Question 1. What is an atom? How is it different from a molecule?
2. Why do Atoms Combine?
To understand why atoms 172.16.12.118
combine, we can look for the atoms that combine with each other and observe them as to why
they initiate combination. Or, a much simpler approach would be to look for elements that do not
take part in any reaction and study the behavior which keeps them inert. Such types of elements
are called Noble Gases and they can be found in Group 18 of the periodic table.
Fill in the blank spaces

Noble Sym Atomic Electronic Valence Electrons
Gas bol Number Configuration
K L M N O P
He 2 - - - - - 2
10 2 8 - - - - 8
Argon 2 8 8 - - - 8
Kr 2 8 1 8 - - 8
8
Xe 54 2 8 1 3 8 - 8
8 2
Radon 2 8 1 3 1 8 8
8 2 8
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Question2. By observing the noble gas configuration, what reason do you think keeps them inert?
Now, we have one answer to why atoms combine, they try to attain the nearest noble gas
configuration and attain inertness. Another important observation was made by scientists studying
chemical bonding. They observed that whenever bonds were being made, energy was released
and whenever bonds were broken, energy was absorbed by the system. In other words,
bonding led to release of energy leading to a lower energy state and breaking of bonds
required energy thus increasing the energy of the system.
Question3. Does a lower energy state point to greater stability? Discuss.
3. Participants in a Reaction
The atomic number of Carbon is 6 and its electronic configuration is 2, 4. It is evident that this
carbon atom is unstable as it does not have a duplet or octet configuration in its valence shell.
Carbon here has two choices. It can both reject 4 electrons and achieve the configuration of He or
it can gain 4 electrons to achieve the state of Ne.
Whether an atom gains or losses electrons, depends on the atom it is interacting with. This can be
explained with the help of a concept known as Electronegativity.
a. Electronegativity
The tendency to attract electrons towards itself is known as electronegativity. Naturally, elements
which need 1 or 2 electrons to complete their octet configuration will exert a stronger pull on the
electrons and hence will be more electronegative.
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Question4. Explain the trend of electronegativity in the modern periodic table.
b. Electro positivity
The exact opposite of electronegativity, electro positivity is the tendency of an element to get rid
of an electron from its outer-most shell. Greater the electro positivity, easier it is for the atom to
lose a valence electron. Elements having 1 or 2 electrons in their valence shell are electropositive
in nature as losing these 1-2 electrons will help the element achieve stable configuration.
Question5. Why is Francium the most electropositive element?
4. Types of Bonding
The atoms combine with each other most of the times by either sharing its valence electrons or by
actual transfer of electrons. Whether an actual transfer or sharing of electrons will occur, depends
on the electronegativity difference of the combining atoms.
a) Ionic Bonding
When the difference in electronegativity is considerable, the more electropositive element

donates one or more of its valence electron which gets accepted into the valence shell of the
more electronegative element. Let us understand this with the help of an example.
NaCl, more commonly known as Table salt, is an Ionic compound made from Sodium and
Chlorine.
The electronic configuration of Na is 2, 8, 1 and that of Cl is 2, 8, 7. Clearly, Na needs to get rid
of one electron and Cl needs to accept that electron to achieve the noble gas configuration of Ne
and Ar respectively. As soon as Na loses an electron, it gains a net positive charge as the number
of protons exceeds the number of electrons and becomes a positive ion which is called Cation.
Similarly, Cl gains a net negative charge on accepting an electron and becomes a negative ion
called Anion.
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Figure 1 - Process of Ionic Bonding
The positively charged Cation and negatively charged Anion attract each other due to electrostatic
force of attraction and hence, the Ionic bonds are very strong in nature.
Question6. Show the ionic bonding in calcium chloride.
b) Covalent Bonding
When the electronegativity difference is < 1.7, it implies that neither the electronegative element
has a strong enough pull to remove the electron nor the more electropositive has a tendency to
lose one of its valence electrons. In such cases, the atoms decide to share electrons among them to
achieve noble gas status. Water is one of the most common and famous covalent compounds.
The electronic configuration of Hydrogen is 1 and that of Oxygen is 2, 6. H needs one electron to
achieve duplet and O requires 2 electrons to achieve its octet.
Figure 2 - Covalent Bonding in Water
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2 H atoms each share one of their valence electron with O which shares two of its valence
electron with each of the H atom. In the process, H achieves it duplet and O achieves its octet.
The bond thus formed is weaker as compared to an Ionic Bond as only partial overlapping of
shells occurs in covalent bonding.
Show the bonding of atoms in a molecule of CCl4 (carbon tetrachloride).
Question7. Do metals take part in covalent bonding? Give reasons to support your answer.
i. Polar Covalent Bond
What do you understand by a polar covalent bond?
Water is an example of a compound which shows polarity in covalent bonds. It has been
scientifically observed that the compounds in which the electronegativity difference is between
0.4 and 1.7 generally exhibit polarity.
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Figure 3 - Polarity in Water
ii. Non-Polar Covalent Bond
Whenever elements with identical electronegativity form a covalent bond, the cloud between
them gets shared equally. In such cases, there is no polarity observed in the compounds. H2, O2,
N2, etc. are examples of such molecules which have zero polarity as the atoms sharing the shared
pair are identical and hence exert an equal and opposite force.
Figure 4 - Non-polar H2 and polar HF
Question8. Which of the following compounds exhibit polarity?
(a) NH3 (b) CH4 (c) HCl (d) KF (e) CO2
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c) Coordinate Bonding
A special case of bonding occurs when an atom which has already achieved its octet, donates a
lone pair of electron to an electron-deficient atom, enabling it too, to complete its octet. You can
look at it as a special case of covalent bonding where the electron pair is being provided by a
single atom. Such bonding is commonly known as Coordinate Covalent Bonding or Dative
Bonding.
Figure 5 - Dative Bonding (coordinate bonding)
In the above example, A acts as a donor and donates its lone pair to B which acts as an acceptor.
This results in B achieving a noble gas configuration while A retains its Octet configuration.
Question9. Show the coordinate bonding between Ammonia and Boron trifluoride.
5. Properties of Ionic and Covalent Bonding
Fill in the blank spaces

Property Ionic Compound Covalent Compound
State Solids
Structure Soft or Brittle
Melting and Boiling Points High
Electrical Conductivity Poor conductivity
Solubility in water
Solubility in non-polar solutions Insoluble
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X ICSE Chemistry – Acids, Bases and Salts
proceed.
1. Introduction
What are Acids?
The definition of acids and bases has taken shape through the course of almost about a hundred
years as a result of human obsession of identifying common properties and hence categorizing
things. By the end of this chapter, you would have reached the answer. The first of these attempts
to categorise substances into acids or bases began with the study of their physical properties.
a. Classical theory
 Acids are sour in taste and corrosive in nature.

 All acids generally have hydrogen as their constituent element in the form of proton (H+)
which dissociates in aqueous solutions.
 Acid turns blue litmus red.
b. Electro positivity and Electronegativity
Electronegativity is the ability of an atom to attract electrons to itself. It's governed by nucleus
size (more protons - more pull!) but also the number of valence shells (farther away an electron is,
lesser the pull).
Question 1. What is electro positivity?
Did you know?
The most electropositive elements in the periodic table is

Francium and the most electronegative element is Fluorine.
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c. Patterns of electronegativity in the Periodic Table

The distance of the electrons from the nucleus remains relatively constant in a periodic table row,
but not in a periodic table column. The force between two charges is given by Coulomb’s law.
𝑄1 x 𝑄2
F=𝑘
𝑟2
In this expression, Q represents a charge, k represents a constant and r is the distance between the
charges. When r = 2, then r2= 4. When r = 3, then r2 = 9. When r = 4, then r2 = 16. It is readily
seen from these numbers that, as the distance between the charges increases, the force decreases
very rapidly. This is called an inverse square law.
Electronegativity order for some common elements.
F > O > Cl > N > Br > I > S > C > H > metals
2. Ionic and Covalent Bonds
There are many types of chemical bonds and forces that bind molecules together. The two most
basic types of bonds are characterized as either ionic or covalent. In ionic bonding, one of the
atoms transfers electron(s) to the other. Ionic bonds require at least one electron donor and one
electron acceptor. In contrast, atoms with the same electronegativity share electrons in covalent
bonds, because neither atom preferentially attracts or repels the shared electrons.
(i) Ionic bonding
In this example, the sodium atom is donating its 1 valence electron to the chlorine atom. This
creates a sodium cation and a chlorine anion. Notice that the net charge of the resulting
compound is 0.
Question2. Comment on the nature of bonds present in a molecule of XY when you have this
additional information
1. The compound exists in the solid state

2. It has a very high melting point
3. Its aqueous solution makes an excellent electrolyte
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Question3. Show the bonding of atoms in the case of zinc sulphide (ZnS).
(ii)Covalent bonding
Covalent bonding is the sharing of electrons between atoms. This type of bonding occurs
between two atoms of the same element or of elements close to each other in the periodic table.
This bonding occurs primarily between non-metallic atoms.
In this example, a single atom of carbon having a valency of four, shares its electrons mutually
with two other oxygen atoms. Note – here electrons are shared between atoms rather than the
complete transfer of electrons. Hence cations and anions are not formed. Also, since no electrons
were gained or lost in the process of bonding, the net charge on the compound is 0.
Question4. Show the bonding between the constituent atoms of carbon tetrachloride (CCl4).
2. What is an Acid and a Base
a. Arrhenius Acids
In 1884, the Swedish chemist Svante Arrhenius proposed two specific classifications of
compounds, termed acids and bases. When dissolved in an aqueous solution, certain ions were
released into the solution. Consider the case of HCl.
HCl(aq)  H+(aq) + Cl−(aq)
In this reaction, hydrochloric acid (HCl) dissociates completely into hydrogen (H +) and chlorine
(Cl-) ions when dissolved in water, thereby releasing H+ ions into solution. Formation of the
hydronium ion equation:
HCl(aq) + H2O(l)  H3O+(aq) + Cl−(aq)
What are Arrhenius acids?
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Question5. Pure water does not conduct electricity. Why does adding a few drops of an acid to the
pure water make it conducting?
Did you know?
The world’s strongest acid comes from the carboranesuperacid,

considered to be a million times stronger than concentrated sulphuric
acid.
b. Arrhenius Bases
Let's zoom into a bar of soap to understand more about the chemical nature of bases.
Sodium hydroxide (NaOH) is an Arrhenius base that is often used to make soap. When
the NaOH goes into solution, the positively charged sodium ion breaks apart from the
negatively charged hydroxide ion.
Question6. Write the chemical equation to represent the ionic dissociation of sodium hydroxide
(NaOH) in an aqueous medium.
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3. Limitations to the Arrhenius Theory

The Arrhenius theory has many more limitations than the other theories. The theory suggests that
in order for a substance to release either H+ or OH- ions, it must contain that particular ion.
However, this does not explain the weak base ammonia (NH3), which in the presence of water,
releases hydroxide ions into solution, but does not contain OH- itself.
NaOH(aq) + HCl(aq)  NaCl(aq) + H2O(l)
NH3(aq) + HCl(aq)  NH4Cl(aq)
In the sodium hydroxide case, hydrogen ions from the acid are reacting with hydroxide ions from
the sodium hydroxide - in line with the Arrhenius theory. However, in the ammonia case, there
are no hydroxide ions!
4. The Bronsted-Lowry Theory of Acids and Bases
In 1923, chemists Johannes Nicolaus Bronsted and Thomas Martin Lowry independently
developed definitions of acids and bases based on the compounds' abilities to either donate or
accept protons (H+ ions). In this theory, acids are defined as proton donors; whereas bases are
defined as proton acceptors. A compound that acts as both a Bronsted-Lowry acid and base
together is called amphoteric. This took the Arrhenius definition one step further, as a substance
no longer needed to be composed of hydrogen (H+) or hydroxide (OH-) ions in order to be
classified as an acid or base.
Question7. Will the compound NH3 act as an acid or a base? Justify your answer.
In this theory an acid is a substance that can release a proton (like in the Arrhenius theory) and
a base is a substance that can accept a proton. A basic salt such as Na+F- generates OH- ions in
the water by taking protons from water itself (to make HF):
F−(aq) + H2O(l) ⇌ HF(aq) + OH−
When a Bronsted acid dissociates, it increases the concentration of hydrogen ions in the
solution, [H+]; conversely, Bronsted bases dissociate by taking a proton from the solvent (water)
to generate [OH−].
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Question8.Identify the following compounds as acids or bases: Cl-, NH4+, HSO4- .
5. Reactions of Acids
Question 9. Fill the boxes with complete and balanced chemical equations.
i. Acid + Metal  Salt + Hydrogen
ii. Acid + Metal hydroxide  Salt + Water
iii. Acid + Metal oxide  Salt + Water

iv.
v. Acid + Metal carbonate  Salt + Water + Carbon dioxide
vi. Acid + Metal hydrogencarbonate  Salt + Water + Carbon dioxide
vii. Acid + Base  Salt + Water
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6. Indicators
Indicators are a class of substances which react differently in the presence of acids and bases. The
change of these compounds is usually consistent and reflects on the physical property of the
substance such as colour and smell. This consistent change in physical properties which is
distinctive for both acidic and basic medium makes these certain substances ideal for use as acid
and base indicators. Some of the common laboratory indicators are given below.
Figure 1 - Chemical structure of 7-

hydroxyphenoxazone, the chromophore of
litmus components.
a. Litmus
Litmus is a weak acid and is one of the oldest forms of a pH indicator and is used to test materials
for acidity.
It has a complicated structure which we will simplify to HLit. The "H" is the proton which can be
given away to something else. The "Lit" is the rest of the weak acid molecule. There will be an
equilibrium established when this acid dissolves in water.
Question10. Fill the following table:
Test Colour in Acidic solution Colour in Basic solution
Litmus solution
b. Methyl orange
Methyl orange is one of the indicators

commonly used in titrations. In an
alkaline solution, methyl orange is
yellow and the structure is:
Figure 2 – A molecule of the active compound in Methyl
Orange
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c. Phenolphthalein
Phenolphthalein is an organic compound used as a laboratory reagent

and pH indicator. Phenolphthalein exerts laxative effects by stimulating
the intestinal mucosa and constricting smooth muscles.
However, phenolphthalein is no longer used as a laxative due to the
suspected carcinogenicity of this compound.
Question11. Fill the blank spaces in the following table:
Test Colour in Acidic solution Colour in Basic solution

Methyl orange
Phenolphthalein
7. Water
Water, even pure water, has an amphiprotic nature. This means that a small number of ions will
form in pure water. Some molecules of H2O will act as acids, each donating a proton to a
corresponding H2O molecule that acts as a base. Thus, the proton-donating molecule becomes a
hydroxide ion, OH-, while the proton-accepting molecule becomes a hydronium ion, H3O+.
Water molecules are amphiprotic and can function as both acids and bases. One water molecule
(acting as a base) can accept a hydrogen ion from a second one (acting as an acid). This will be
happening anywhere there is even a trace of water - it does not have to be pure.
Figure 4 - The ionic dissociation of water molecule
Did you know?
Water should be a gas at room temperature– all similar molecules, such

as hydrogen sulphide (H2S) and ammonia (NH3), are gases. The strong
intermolecular force of attraction holds them together as a liquid.
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8. pH
The pH of an aqueous solution is the measure of how acidic or basic it is. The pH of an aqueous
solution can be determined and calculated by using the concentration of ions in the solution.
Introduction
The pH of an aqueous solution is based on the pH

scale which typically ranges from 0 to 14 in water.
A pH of 7 is considered to be neutral. A pH of less
than 7 is considered acidic. A pH of greater than 7 is
then considered basic. Acidic solutions have high
hydronium concentrations and lower hydroxide
concentrations. Basic solutions have high hydroxide
concentrations and lower hydronium concentrations.
a. Strong Acids and Strong Bases

The ionization of strong acids and strong bases in
dilute aqueous solutions essentially go to
completion. In aqueous solutions of strong acids and
strong bases, the self-ionization of water only occurs
to a small extent. Since it only occurs to a small
extent, the self-ionization of water is an insignificant
source of hydronium and hydroxide ions.
Figure 5 - The pH of some common chemical substances
Question12. What is pH and what is its relation with pOH?
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b. Weak Acids and Weak Bases

Weak acids only partially dissociate in aqueous solutions and reach a condition of equilibrium;
therefore, the degree of dissociation is given by the equilibrium equation for that acid in solution:
[𝐻3 𝑂][𝐴− ]
𝐾𝑎 = [𝐻𝐴]
where -
 [H3O+] is the hydronium concentration

 [A−] is conjugate base concentration
 [HA] is the weak acid concentration
Stronger the acid, higher will be its Ka value. Weak bases also only partially dissociate in
aqueous solutions and reach a condition of equilibrium.
 Misconception: Strong acids are corrosive and dangerous whereas strong

bases are non-corrosive and harmless.
 Clarification: Both strong acids and strong bases are dangerous and
corrosive. Bases like NaOH, KOH are very strong and can dissolve flesh.
Home Activity
Red Cabbage Juice – A natural and homemade indicator
We live in a world which is full of dangerous and corrosive acids and alkalis. How do we identify
them? As we have seen, acids and bases have the property of modifying the colour of certain
substances. This is the case with the juice of the red cabbage. This liquid has a blue-violet colour, but
when it comes in contact with acidic substances it becomes red, while in contact with basic substances
it becomes green and even yellow. Let's see how it is possible to use the juice of the red cabbage to
measure the pH of various substances.
Red cabbage is a member of the cabbage family which has a red-violet colour. Buy one of them and
cut it in little slices. Put them in a pot and pour enough water to cover them. Boil for half an hour,
then turn off the heat and let the temperature come down. Pour the blue-violet liquid you have
obtained into a large, low container. The boiled cabbage slices are edible and you can use them in a
recipe.
 Use of the red cabbage juice as an indicator in the liquid state.
Pour some drops of this liquid on a white surface and observe it change colour when it is
mixed with vinegar or with baking soda. You will see that this liquid becomes red in contact
with vinegar or lemon juice, while it becomes green in contact with baking soda.
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Pour one centimetre of the red cabbage juice indicator liquid into a transparent glass. Add
water up to half of the glass. Now, pour vinegar into the glass and observe the colour changes
of the liquid. Repeat the experiment by adding, this time, a little baking soda instead of the
vinegar. Also in this case, you will see colour changes.
 Preparing red cabbage pH papers
Cut some porous white paper or card sheets into rectangles and soak them in the juice so they
absorb it. After about half an hour, remove the cards and put them away to dry. To do it
quicker, you can also dry them with a hairdryer. Cut the cards in strips. Put away the red
cabbage cards which are not used immediately: they will last some months. If you store them
in a closed envelope to reduce their oxidization, they will last longer.
Add the indicator strips to the given substances and note the colour produced –
Substance Lemon Cola Vinegar Tap Dishwashing Baking Toothpaste Onion

juice water soap soda solution juice
Colour of
solution
9. Manufacture of Acids and Bases
a. Acids
Non metal oxide with water (complete the reactions to show the products formed)
SO2 + H2O 
CO2 + H2O 
b. Base
Metal oxide with water (complete the reactions to show the products formed)
CaO + H2O 
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10. Acids and Bases in Nature
As its name suggests, citric acid is found in citrus fruits—particularly lemons, limes, and
grapefruits. It is also used as a flavouring agent, preservative, and cleaning agent. As a
preservative, citric acid prevents metal ions from reacting with, and thus hastening the
degradation of fats in foods. It is also used in the production of hair rinses and low-pH shampoos
and toothpastes.
Question13. Name the acids found in the following natural chemical substances:
Ant stings -
Vinegar -
Curd -
There are plenty of acids found in the human body, including hydrochloric acid or stomach
acid—which, in large quantities, causes indigestion, and the need for neutralization with a base.
Nature also produces acids that are toxic to humans, such as sulphuric acid.
Bases, for instance magnesium sulphate, better known as Epsom salts, which provide a powerful
laxative also used for ridding the body of poisons.
Bases are also commonly used in toothpastes. Tooth decay starts when the pH of the mouth drops
lower than 5.5. To counter the acidic effect, a basic substance is added to toothpastes in order to
neutralize the harmful effect.
Did you know?
Concentrated sodium hydroxide is as corrosive as strong acids like

hydrochloric acid and it will eat its way through an aluminum can in about
20 minutes.
11. Salts
Salts are ionic compounds formed as a result of ionic attraction between a cation and an anion.
Since the force of attraction is very high, salts are always found in a solid crystalline state.
a. Neutralization
A salt is any compound which can be derived from the neutralization of an acid and a base. The
word "neutralization" is used because the acid and base properties of H+ and OH- are destroyed or
neutralized. In the reaction, H+ and OH- combine to form HOH or H2O or water molecules. A
neutralization is a type of double replacement reaction. A salt is the product of an acid-base
reaction and is a much broader term then common table salt.
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b. Strong Acid - Strong Base Neutralization
Question14. Complete the following neutralization reaction:
HCl(aq) + NaOH(aq) ⇋
c. Weak Acid - Weak Base Neutralization
A weak acid, weak base reaction can be shown by the net ionic equation example:
H+(aq) + NH3(aq) ⇋ NH4+(aq)
The equivalence point of a neutralization reaction is when both the acid and the base in the
reaction have been completely consumed and neither of them are in excess. When a strong acid
neutralizes a weak base, the resulting solution's pH will be less than 7. When a strong base
neutralizes a weak acid, the resulting solution's pH will be greater than 7.
d. Baking Soda
Write down the applications of Baking Soda -
Write down the steps involved in the manufacturing of Baking Soda -
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Question15. What is the difference between baking soda and baking powder?
e. Soda – Acid Fire Extinguishers
A soda acid extinguisher acts by cutting off the supply of air on all types of fire, except fire
created because of electrical and inflammable liquids. How does this happen? This is done by
carbon dioxide that is produced when the acid reacts with baking soda in the extinguisher. Here's
the reaction that takes place :
2NaHCO3(s) + H2SO4(aq) Na2SO4(ppt) + 2H2O(l) + 2CO2(g)
As you can see, carbon dioxide is produced in the above reaction. Also, you must be knowing that
CO2 gas does not support combustion and hence the fire is extinguished.
Question16. Heating of water increases the energy of the molecules of water. This leads to an
increase in the dissociation of the molecules. Does this mean the pH of water has changed? Does it
mean that water becomes acidic or basic upon heating? Explain your answer briefly.
Question 17. What is water of crystallization? What are its effects on the crystal of a particular salt ?
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Question18. What have you understood about acids and bases throughout the chapter?
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X ICSE Chemistry – Mole Concept and Stoichiometry
proceed.
1. Introduction
What do you understand by “a mole”?
Mole concept appears to be one of the most difficult concepts in chemistry for students mainly
because of never-ending numerical. But, the moment you understand the concept of a mole, the
entire topic will be nothing but application of Unitary method that you earlier learnt in Math.
A mole is simply a representation of a number just like dozen apples are used to refer to a
bunch of 12 apples. The concept of mole was required because unlike apples, chemistry deals
with substances that are extremely small and cannot be seen with naked eye. Even though we
knew how the reactions proceeded and what caused these reactions, we still couldn’t measure
how much of a chemical is taking part in reaction. We have already studied that Atoms are the
smallest particles that can take part in reactions. So, it would have made more sense if we knew
the number of atoms taking part in a reaction instead of knowing the weight of the chemical
involved.
Mole Concept was an attempt to link the number of particles in a sample with the weight or
volume of the sample, considering the sample was in Gaseous state.
Question1. What is the value of a mole and how was it determined?
2. Laws of Chemical Combination
a. Law of Conservation of Mass

Hans Heinrich Landolt, a Swiss chemist performed an experiment with an H-shaped flask. In one
side of the flask, he kept Silver Nitrate and Sodium Chloride in the other side. He then measured
the weight of the apparatus and proceeded to shake the Tube. The chemicals from one side of the
flask mixed with the chemicals on the other side leading to a chemical reaction:
AgNO3 + NaCl → AgCl + NaNO3
After the reaction reached its completion, he again measured the weight of the tube and found the
weight to be exactly same as before the reaction, prompting him to state the Law of conservation
of mass.
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Figure 1: Landolt's Experiment
Question2. State the Law of Conservation of Mass.
b. Law of Definite Proportions

Stated as, “a chemical compound always contains exactly the same proportion of
elements by mass”, the law essentially means that a particular compound irrespective of
its source of origin will always be composed of the same elements and these elements
will only combine in a particular ratio characteristic of the compound.
Question3. Show how Sulphuric Acid agrees with the Law of Definite Proportions.
Question4. What do you understand by Law of Multiple Proportions?
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c. Gay-Lussac’s law of combining volume

In the year 1802, Gay-Lussac combined the Gas Laws to come up with a law that could describe a
gaseous system undergoing a reaction. It was stated as follows: “The volume of gases taking part
in a chemical reaction show simple whole number ratios to one another when those volumes are
measured at the same temperature and pressure”.
Question5. State Avogadro’s Law.
3. Concept of Mole
Mole came into existence because the need to measure the reactants was growing. One thing that
became apparent with the various laws of chemical combination coming up was that, atoms could
individually take part in a reaction. It was now a proven fact that atoms combined with other
atoms in whole number ratios and hence, the need to measure the number of atoms taking part in
a reaction was now paramount.
The Avogadro constant is named after the early nineteenth century Italian scientist Amedeo
Avogadro (1811), who is credited with being the first to realize that the volume of a gas (strictly,
of an ideal gas) is proportional to the number of atoms or molecules. The French chemist Jean
Baptiste Perrin in 1909 proposed naming the constant in honor of Avogadro.
Just like a dozen implies that we are talking about 12 items, mole is a unit that is used for
microscopic particles, like atoms, electrons, molecules, etc. The value of mole is 6.022 x 1023 and
is often represented as NA.
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Question6. The term Molar mass came into existence before the value of mole was determined. It was
first used by Ostwald in 1900. What do you understand by molar mass?
4. Applications of Mole Concept

Say, you have a dozen apples. The dozen apples may approximately weigh 2 kgs. Let’s assume
their volume to be X. We can say that the apple has a dozen mass of 2 kgs and dozen volume of
X. Dozen mass or volume of any other substance can similarly be found by measuring the
mass/volume of 1 unit and multiplying it with a dozen. Similarly, we have the terms Molar Mass
and Molar Volume.
The atomic mass of Nitrogen is 14 amu. If we multiply the mass of a single atom of a particular
element with NA, the value obtained will be called the molar mass. By definition, 1 amu = 1.66 x
10-24 grams and 1 mole of atoms = 6.022 x 1023 of atoms.
Question7. Show the relationship between a mole, atomic mass unit and grams.
Avogadro’s law on the other hand says that equal volume of gases occupies equal volume
under same conditions of temperature and pressure. Does this statement hold true for all
gases?
Question8. What is the volume of 1 mole of ideal gas at STP?
The entire mole concept can be summarized into three bullet points:
 1 mole of any substance = 6.022 x 1023 units of that substance.

 Molar mass of any element is the atomic mass of that element expressed in grams.
 1 mole of any ideal gas at STP will occupy 22.4 L.
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Question9. Using unitary method, calculate the number of molecules and the volume occupied by 5.6
grams of Nitrogen gas.
Moles of a substance can also be determined by using the below formula:

Weight of Sample
Moles (n) =
Weight of 1 mole of Substance
Applying the same concept, various other formulae can be derived, such as:
Weight of Sample Weight of Sample
Moles (n) = or Moles (n) =
Gram Atomic Mass Gram Molecular Mass
Question10.Calculate the number of moles in a) 1.08 grams of water and b) 5.56 L of H2.
Question11. Why is the molar mass of Chlorine taken as 35.5 grams?
5. Stoichiometry and its applications
Consider the following reaction:

N2(g) + 3H2(g) → 2NH3(g)
Note down important inferences from the above equation you can think of:
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Question12. The molecular formula of a certain compound is A2B5. If the mass of A is 15 and that of
the compound is 70, calculate the percentage composition of the compound a) by mass and b) by
atomicity.
Question13. A compound made up of Carbon, Oxygen and Hydrogen has percentage composition by
mass of 6:8:1 respectively. Find the molecular and empirical formula.
Question14. What do you understand by Stoichiometry? Explain with an example.
Did you know?

1. One mole of paper would make a stack that would reach to the moon
more than 80 billion times
2. One mole of inches would be1,616,434 light years, or across our
galaxy and back 8 times
3. One mole of seconds is about 19 quadrillion years, 4,240,666 times
the age of the earth, or 954,150 times the age of the universe itself
6. Limiting Reagent
Assume that you are given the responsibility of organizing a local cricket tournament. You
understand that to organize one particular match, the bare requirements are 2 bats, 2 sets of
stumps and 1 ball. You go to the market to buy the items and return with 8 bats, 8 sets of stumps
and 3 balls. How many matches can you conduct at any given time?
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Your answer has to be three because you have only 3 balls. If you had bought 4 balls you could
have had conducted 4 matches at once. In this case, can we say that the number of balls limited
the number of matches you could conduct?
Limiting Reagent of a reaction, in Chemistry, similarly is the reagent that will limit the
progress of that particular reaction
Question15. How many grams of carbon dioxide will be produced when 11.6 g of butane (C4H10)
burns with 22.4 L of oxygen? Which one of them was the limiting reagent?
7. Reactions in Solutions
Most reactions nowadays are conducted in solutions so that the reacting agents can come
close to each other thus forming chemical bonds. If we increase the concentration of the
reactants, the probability of them coming within colliding distance will also increase. For
such reasons, expressing the reagents in terms of concentration was extremely useful.
Generally, concentration is expressed in the following terms.
Moles of Solute
 Molarity (M) = Volume of Solution in L
Moles of Solute
 Molality (m) = Mass of solvent in Kg
Gram Equivalent Weight

 Normality (N) = or Molarity × number of Equivalents
Volume of Solution in L
Question16. What do you understand by number of equivalents? What is the number of equivalents
for Ca(OH)2?
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Question17. What is the normality of 1.0 M H2SO4 in the following reaction?

H2SO4 + 2NaOH → Na2SO4 + 2H2O
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X ICSE Chemistry – Analytical Chemistry – Use of Ammonium & Sodium Hydroxide
proceed.
1. Introduction
Let's think about a situation where you buy your favorite food stuffs from grocery to feast
upon, but when you check the product, you find that it has expired and now looks unhealthy
to eat. How would you feel?
Frankly speaking, anyone will get irritated by this, but this could have been avoided if we
were more conscious while buying the product. It's the quality of the product that matters the
most to any consumer and hence, we should be careful while buying such products.
If the product which you are buying has no expiry date, no manufacturing date and even the
quantity is not printed on the packaged product, it could lead to the same situation as we
discussed in the beginning.
In such cases how will you determine whether the product is consumable or not?
Chemistry, in such cases, has all the answers for our questions. You can apply chemistry to
check whether the product is consumable or not. We all know the importance of chemistry
and its various applications which have improved our lifestyle and made our way of living
much more comfortable.
Figure 1: Quality of the product should be checked before buying them
Question1. What do you understand by analytical chemistry?
Analytical chemistry is one of the most importance branch of chemistry. It can be used efficiently
to check the quality of food, drugs and other chemicals which we use in daily life.
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Without Analytical Chemistry, it would have been a nightmare for the food regulation authorities
to keep the product’s quality in check.
How does analytical chemistry test the quality of a substance?
It does so by two methods:
1. Qualitative analysis
2. Quantitative analysis
Question2.What is qualitative analysis?
Question3.What is quantitative analysis?
Analytical chemistry finds its usage in many fields like agriculture, pharmaceutical and food
industries.
In schools, analytical chemistry comes in handy when we are looking to analyze a number of
chemical compounds and to study in detail about its chemical and physical properties.
2. Colour of Salts
A salt is formed by the chemical reaction between an acid and base, generally most of the salts are
coloured. The salts formed by elements of s-block are colorless in nature and the salts formed by
d-block elements are coloured in nature.
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Did You Know?
The key for a substance to be coloured, is the excitation of electrons, because

while it goes back from the excited state to the ground one, it releases
photons, which we can see as any of the colours.
Figure 2: Periodic Table showing coloured & colourless salt
In the periodic table, the group coloured with light gray are colourless salts (i.e 1, 2 & 13 to 17)
and the groups coloured in dark gray are coloured salts (i.e 3 to 12).
Question4. Name the salts which are coloured and write the cation and anion of the particular salt.
Question5. Fill in the appropriate cation & anion in the table given below.
Salt Cation Anion
CuSO4
Pb(NO3)2
Al(OH)3
3. Action of Sodium Hydroxide on Solutions of Salts

Sodium hydroxide is a strong base which is used in our everyday life. Sodium hydroxide was
used extensively for a long time, even before it was actually discovered. The Ancient Egyptians
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and Babylonians used sodium hydroxide in a weakened state when they mixed vegetable ashes
with water to make lye (Sodium hydroxide) which was used mainly for cleaning purposes.
Question6.Why is sodium hydroxide used in dry cleaners?
Sodium hydroxide is a base that is soluble in water. Such bases which ae soluble in water are
called Alkali.
All alkali are bases, but not all bases are alkalis.
On dissolving in water, alkali yield hydroxyl as the only negative ions.
Question7. Fill in the blanks:
(i) ZnSO4 + 2NaOH → _______ + _______
(ii) CuO + 2HNO3 → _______ + ________
Sodium hydroxide reacts with sulphates of copper, iron, magnesium and zinc to form metal
hydroxide and sodium sulphate & nitrates.
CaCO3 + 2NaOH → Ca(OH)2 + Na2CO3
Fe(SO4)3 + 6NaOH → 3Fe(OH)2 + 3Na2SO4
Question8. Name a metal chloride which is soluble in excess of NH4OH.
Question9. Which reagent can be used to distinguish a solution containing a lead salt from a solution
containing a zinc salt?
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Reaction of sodium hydroxide with nitrates

Sodium hydroxide reacts with nitrates of calcium and lead to form metal hydroxide and sodium
nitrate.
Ca(NO3)2 + 2NaOH → Ca(OH)2 + 2NaNO3
Pb(NO3)2 + 2NaOH → Pb(OH)2 + 2NaNO3
4. Action of Ammonium Hydroxide Solution on Salts

Ammonium hydroxide is a base which has numerous application in our daily life. It’s mainly used
as a cleaning agent and in food industry as an acid regulator to avoid the microbial activity on
food, which will keep it safe for use according to the agreed standards.
Fe2(SO4)3 + 6NH4OH → 2Fe(OH)3 + 3(NH4)2SO4
Question10. Why does the blue precipitate of Cu(OH)2 turn black on heating?
5. Action of Alkalis on Metals
Alkali metals include all of the elements in column 1A of the periodic table. These metals are
united by the fact that they all have one electron in their outermost layer of electrons.
Reaction with alkali metals are among the most exciting and most dangerous. Generally speaking,
the easier it is to remove an electron, the more energetic the reaction will be. The ease of
removing an electron from an alkali metal translates to an enormous release of energy.
Zn + 2NaOH → Na2ZnO2 + H2
Question11. Fill in the blanks:
(i) Al + 2NaOH → ______ + H2
(ii) Pb + _____ → Na2PbO2 + H2
Question12.What are amphoteric oxides? Give an example of a reaction of amphoteric oxide with an
alkali.
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Question13. What do you observe when NH4OH is added to (a) FeSO4 (b) Fe2(SO4)3 solution?
Question14. State why aqueous solution of NH4OH is used for identification of cations?
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X ICSE Chemistry – Electrochemistry

proceed.
1. Introduction
Chemical reactions are considered to be irreversible, in the sense that reversing the conditions
won’t reverse the reaction. This practice is useful if we are dealing with physical reactions.
Reversing a chemical reaction essentially means getting elements in their free state from a
compound. This is useful when we are trying to extract an element from its ore, mineral, etc. Let
us understand this with the help of an example:
2Na + Cl2 → 2NaCl

If we are looking to reverse this reaction, our products now will be sodium and chlorine with
sodium chloride being the reactant.
2NaCl → 2Na + Cl2
If we are looking to reverse a reaction, we first need to understand what the various steps are
involved in a particular reaction. Let us observe the first reaction for better understanding.
The first reaction is leading to the formation of an Ionic compound. Ionic compounds are
compounds made up from transfer of electrons. Transfer of electrons lead to formation of ions
which then bond together to give an Ionic compound.
Question1. What are the various steps in the formation of Magnesium Chloride? How can the reaction
be reversed?
2. Oxidation-Reduction or Red-ox reactions

A chemical reaction is characterized by change in the chemical configuration of the reactants. A
change in the chemical configuration implies a change in the number of electrons a substance
possesses. Such a change can be brought about by either sharing of electrons or by transfer of
electrons. If the change has been brought about by transfer of electrons, the following reaction can
be understood better if we divide the reaction into two parts.
 The species (A) which accepts electrons and gets reduced in the process. This species is said
to be reduced by a reducing agent.
 The species (B) which donates electrons and gets oxidized in the process. This species is said
to be oxidized by an oxidizing agent.
 The species (A) which gets reduced acts as the oxidizing agent as this species (A) is
responsible for the oxidizing agent (B) donating electrons. Similarly, the species (B) that gets
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oxidized is called the reducing agent as this species (B) supplies the electrons which reduce
the other species (A).
Question2. Show how Sodium Chloride is made using the half reactions approach. Identify the
oxidizing agent and reducing agent.
Question3. What do you understand by reduction and oxidation? Why it is sometimes collectively
called as Red-ox reactions?
3. What is electrolysis?
The term “Electrolysis” was introduced by Faraday. It’s a Greek word made up of two smaller
words, Electro meaning “flow of electrons” and lysis which means “separating”. Electrolysis is a
process in which a substance breaks up when electricity is passed through it.
Do all substances allow electricity to pass through them?
Before we look for the substances that can conduct electricity, we must first understand how
electricity exactly travels. Electricity by convention is taken as the opposite direction in which
electrons flow.
Figure 5: Direction of Electricity
Hence, electricity is nothing but the flow of electrons or charged particles in general. For
electricity to travel, we need:
 Electrons or charged particles.

 Freedom of movement of these electrons or charged particles.
 Based on the above two requirements, electricity is found to travel in two types of substances:
conductors and electrolytes.
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Question4. How are conductors different from electrolytes in the way in which they conduct
electricity?
Question5. Explain the process of electrolysis of molten sodium chloride.
Some important terms:
 Electrolysis: The process by which a compound in its molten state or in aqueous solution
breaks down when electricity is passed through it is known as Electrolysis.
 Electrolytes: Compounds which allow passage of electricity in their molten state or aqueous
solution are called electrolytes.
 Electrodes: Metal plates, carbon rods, or wires which are used to connect the cell with the
electrolyte and also provides a path for electricity to enter or leave the solution is called
Electrodes.
How is an electrochemical cell different from an electrolytic cell?
4. Theory of Electrolytic Dissociation
After studying the process of electrolysis, Svante Arrhenius in 1887 gave a theory explaining the
process in some points.
 An electrolyte in aqueous state or molten state dissociates into ions which are free to move.
Thus, these electrolytes allow the passage of current through them.
 These ions are charged particles and are responsible for the flow of current in the solution.
 Since these ions conduct electricity, the conductivity of the solution is directly proportional to
the number of ions in the solution.
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 Electrolytes are neutral compounds. When these compounds dissociate in solution, they
discharge equal number of positive and negative charges, thus maintaining the chemical
equilibrium.
 Non-electrolytes do not ionize and hence their solutions only have molecules which cannot
conduct electricity.
Question6. Differentiate between Ionization and Dissociation with the help of examples.
Question7. Explain the process of electrolysis step by step, with the help of a diagram.
5. Selective discharge and electrochemical series
Electrolysis of Molten NaCl gives us Sodium and chlorine, but electrolysis of dilute aqueous
solution of NaCl leads to the evolution of Chlorine, Hydrogen and alkaline Sodium hydroxide.
This tells us that it is not necessary that ions in the electrolyte will always be discharged. When
there are more than one set of ions in a solution, as in the case of aqueous sodium chloride
solution, certain factors decide which ion gets discharged. This is known as selective discharge
and it depends on three factors:
 The relative position of the ions in the electrochemical series.

 The relative concentration of ions.
 The nature of electrodes.
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Question8. What is an electrochemical series? How does this and the other factors decide which ion
gets discharged first?
Examining the process of electrolysis, we understand that the ions which are lower in the
electrochemical series get discharged first. This seems logical as well. The electrochemical series
is a measure of the reactivity of the metal ions. Metals have a tendency to lose electrons and
hence, the metal which is most reactive will always try to lose electrons and stay in the ionic state.
In such cases, if there is another ion which is less reactive, it basically implies that the less
reactive ion has lesser tendency to stay as an ion and hence will get reduced to its free state.
Hence, ions lower in the reactivity series have a stronger tendency to get reduced.
Question9. What do you understand by active and inert electrodes?
Question10. Draw the basic setup used in general electrolysis processes. Explain the setup.
6. Examples of Electrolysis
Electrolysis of Molten Lead Bromide:
 Ions in solution:
 Reaction at Cathode:
 Reaction at Anode:
 Overall Reaction:
Electrolysis of Acidified Water:
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Electrolysis of Copper Sulphate solution with inert electrodes:
Electrolysis of Copper Sulphate with active electrodes:
7. Applications of Electrolysis
Due to its precious property of reversing chemical reactions by passing electricity, electrolysis
has several technical and commercial uses. Some of these are:
a. Electro refining of Metals
Electro refining is a process in which impure metals and their compounds are purified
electrolytically to give pure metal. This use is one of the biggest applications of Electrolysis. The
importance of this application lies in the use of Copper as electrical wires. The presence of small
amounts of impurity can reduce its conductivity by a large extent.
Question11. How is pure copper obtained by electro refining? What other metals can be refined in a
similar manner?
b. Extraction of metals
Highly active metals have a tendency to lose electron and become positively charged ion. Because
of this, they are rarely found in the Free State and more commonly in the combined state. For
such reasons, these metals are generally extracted by electrolysis.
A less reactive metal is always preferred for discharge still highly active metals are extracted by
Electrolysis. How is this possible?
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c. Electroplating
The process by which an element is coated with a thin layer of any other metal during electrolysis
is known as Electroplating. Electroplating is a useful application of Electrolysis for mainly two
reasons:
 Decorative purposes: Objects which are used for decorative purposes are usually electroplated
with silver to give them shining appearance and beauty of a silver article.
 For Protection: Some metals react with atmosphere in an undesirable manner leading to
weakening of their structure. Such metals are electroplated with an inert metal which do not react
with atmosphere. The electroplated metal is thus protected and can still display its properties.
Question12. Show how an article gets electroplated with silver with the help of a diagram and
respective equations. Why isn’t a silver nitrate solution used as an electrolyte for such processes?
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X ICSE Chemistry – Metallurgy
Instructions: This booklet can be used while watching videos. Keep filling the sheet as the
videos proceed.
1. Introduction
Everything that occupies space and has mass is called matter. But what is this matter made up of?
See around yourself. Whether it is the furniture, your clothes, vehicles, the building or even we,
all of these have 1 thing in common; each and everything at a microscopic level is made up of
atoms. Atoms of different elements behave differently and that is why the furniture is hard, you
clothes are soft, vehicles and building are huge, and we, we have a special gift called Life. But at
the microscopic level, we are no different from our surroundings.
These elements are broadly classified into two main categories: Metals and Non-Metals.
a. Metals
The word metal is derived from the Greek word “Metallon” which means something that has been
dug up. Most of these elements were excavated from the Earth’s crust and hence, were called
metals. Chemically, a metal is a substance that tends to lose electrons to attain stability. They
generally have 1, 2 or 3 electrons in their outer most shell. Because of their electropositive nature,
these elements are commonly found in the combined state where they are bound to other non-
metals via. an Ionic bond. Some common applications of metals are:
 Making jewelry and coins
 Making utensils and furniture
 Construction of heavy machinery, tools and vehicles
 They are also used as catalysts
Can you think about the properties of metal which are exploited in these applications?
Broadly, these metals are classified into four groups:
 Alkali metals
 Alkali Earth metals
 Transition metals
 Inner-Transition metals
Question1. What do you understand by metallic nature? How does it vary in the periodic table?
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Question2. Compare the common physical and chemical properties of Alkali and Alkali Earth metals.
What unique property distinguishes transition metals from these metals?
i. Transition Metals
These metals occupy the middle region of the periodic table (group 3 to group 12). The metals
which are used for the above-mentioned applications are generally transition metals and not alkali
or alkali earth metals.
Characteristics
 These metals have high melting and boiling points
 They are good conductors of heat and electricity
 Some of these are magnetic in nature
 Most of these metals are used as catalysts in various reactions
ii. Inner transition metals
These are two rows of metals which are placed outside the periodic table. The two groups are
called Lanthanides and Actinides.
Question3. What are the characteristics of the inner transition metals?
b. Non-metals
The non-metals are placed in the right side of the periodic table. Only two non-metals, Hydrogen
and Boron, are placed in the left side along with the alkali metals and third group metals
respectively due to similar valence configuration.
These non-metals make up the majority of the Earth’s crust with Oxygen and Silicon being the
two most abundant elements constituting 46.6% and 27.7% respectively. The blanket of air that
we call the atmosphere is also made up of non-metals. Nitrogen (78%) and Oxygen (21%) are the
two most abundant elements in our atmosphere.
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Question4. How are the non-metals different from metals? Explain with the help of properties.
2. The reactivity series of metals

All metals take part in reactions by losing electrons. Some do this very readily while others have
to be forced to take part in the reaction. Due to the difference in their reactivity, an arrangement of
metals in the decreasing order of their reactivity was made. This was called the reactivity series of
metals. Even hydrogen, a non-metal was included in this series because it could form positive
ions similar to metals. According to the series, Potassium is the most reactive metal and gold is
the least.
Main points of the Activity Series

 The electropositive character of the metals decreases on moving down the series.
 The ability of the metals to react with water to evolve hydrogen decreases down the series.
 Reducing ability of the metals also decreased on moving down the series.
 Consequently, their ability to get oxidized also reduces on moving down the series.
Question5. On what basis was this reactivity series made? What are some important applications of
this series?
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3. Metallurgy
Before we dive into the various steps involved with metallurgy, let us first have a glance at
some commonly used terms in metallurgy
 Metallurgy –The process which involves the extraction of pure metals from their ores is
called Metallurgy
 Minerals – Naturally occurring compounds of metals mixed with other matter such as soil,
sand, rocks, etc. are called minerals.
 Gangue – Earthly impurities including silica, mud, etc. which is present in ores are called
Gangue
 Ores – The minerals from which a metal can be extracted profitably are called Ores
 Flux – A flux is something that is added to the crushed ore to remove gangue.
 Slag – When flux is added to remove gangue, the flux and gangue form a fusible mass which
can be easily removed. This fusible mass is called Slag
 Smelting – The process of reducing an oxide and removing the gangue by adding flux is
called smelting.
Generally, extraction of any metal goes through the same general steps with only a few variations.
These steps are:
Figure 1: Common steps for Metallurgy
i. The first step in the extraction of any metal is crushing or grinding. In this step, the
ore is crushed into small pieces so as to get a larger surface area.
ii. The crushed ore is then passed to the concentration step where the concentration of
the metal is increased by removing earthly impurities. There are various ways of
concentrating an ore, one of which is Magnetic separation in which the magnetic
property of metal is exploited against the non-magnetic impurities. If the metal
compound is soluble in a particular solvent where the impurities are insoluble, the
impurities can be removed by filtering the solution. This is called Leeching
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Question6. Explain the process of froth floatation and gravity separation.
iii. After the ore has been concentrated by any one of the methods, it is then converted to its
oxide by either roasting it or calcinating it. Ores in this stage are generally in the form of metal
sulphides, carbonates or hydrated oxide. The sulphides are converted to oxides by heating them in
the presence of air. This process is called Roasting.
If the concentrated ore is in the form of carbonate or hydrated oxide, the ore is heated at high
temperatures in the absence of air. This is called Calcination
Question7. Write respective reactions for roasting and calcination processes.
iv. The oxide is then reduced to get the metal. The method of reduction depends on the reactivity
of the metal as reactive metals have high affinity for oxygen and cannot be reduced easily.
Question8. How are metals of different reactivity reduced?
v. The last step in the process of extraction is purifying or refining the metal from residual
impurities such as silicon, phosphorous and the unreduced oxides and sulphides of the metal. This
can be done by either of the below mentioned processes:
(a) Distillation (b) Liquation (c) Oxidation (d) Electro-refining
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4. Extraction of Aluminium
Aluminium is one the most useful metals when it comes to applications. The metal is strong yet
light, good conductor of heat and also corrosion resistant. Due to this, aluminium is used in a
variety of areas. Some applications are:
 For making utensils.

 In building and construction work.
 Aluminium is highly malleable; its thin sheets are used for packaging and wrapping eatables.
 Applying a paint of this metal on electric and telegraphic poles makes them corrosion
resistant.
 Due to its strength and light weight, aluminium is a major component of aircrafts.
Due to these useful applications, the extraction and study of aluminium is valuable. Aluminium is
the most abundant metal in the Earth’s crust and its main ore is Bauxite (Al 2O3.2H2O). Just like
any other metal, the extraction of aluminium goes through the same phases that were mentioned
in the previous sub topic. It was developed in 1885 by Hall and Heroult.
i. Bauxite is first crushed and heated to remove volatile impurities.

ii. The ore is then concentrated by leeching. The crushed ore is then heated under pressure with
conc. Caustic soda for 2 to 8 hours at 140O C to 150O C. The following reaction occurs:
Al2O3.2H2O + 2NaOH → 2NaAlO2 + 3H2O
Sodium aluminate, the product of the reaction is soluble and dissolves in the solution leaving
behind earthly impurities called red mud. The salt is then hydrolyzed and aluminium hydroxide is
formed.
iii. Al(OH)3 undergoes calcination and gets converted into Al2O3.
iv. Due to high reactivity of aluminium, it can’t be reduced by reducing agents. The metal is
reduced by electrolysis by a process called Hall – Heroult’s process.
v. Aluminium then undergoes electrolytic refining in a special chamber. The process is called
Hoope’s electrolytic process.
Question9. What difficulty is faced in obtaining aluminium from Alumina?
Question10. Explain (a) Hall-Heroult’s process (b) Hoope’s electrolytic process
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5. Uses of metals and alloys
i. Iron, one of the most important metals, is extracted as cast iron (Carbon content 2.5 – 5%) or
wrought iron (Carbon content 0.1 – 0.25%) or steel.
Cast iron has less tensile strength due to high carbon content and is used in drain pipes, gutter
covers, weights and railings. Wrought iron is used in chains, electromagnets and horse shoes.
Steel is used in construction of buildings and heavy machinery, automobiles, instruments and
various alloys.
ii. Zinc, a strong electropositive element is used in galvanizing, alloys, in dry cells as negative
electrode. It is also used for reduction of many organic compounds such as drugs, dyes and
perfumes. It is used as antiseptics for paints and a preservative for leather materials.
Question11. What is the purpose of making alloys? How are they made?
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X ICSE Chemistry – Organic Chemistry
videos proceed.
1. Introduction
The term Organic chemistry is derived from the term “organism” which literally means living beings.
Initially, it was believed that organic compounds are those compounds which were derived from
living organisms and not from minerals or non-living beings. But one reaction changed it all.
In 1828, a German chemist, Friedrich Wohler managed to produce an organic compound from a non-
living source. He managed to create Urea (excreted via urine) from an inorganic compound
Ammonium Cyanate according to the reaction:
NH4CNO → NH2CONH2 (urea)
This led to the conclusion that organic compounds need not necessarily be extracted from only
organisms but can even be manufactured from minerals.
Question1. What is the modern definition of organic chemistry? What all compounds of carbon are
not included in this group? What are some of the common sources of organic compounds?
Question2. Why does carbon form such large number of compounds? Why can’t silicon also form
such variety of compounds even though they are in the same group?
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2. Types of Organic Compounds
The simplest forms of organic compound are the hydrocarbons which are made up of only
hydrogen and carbon. When one or more of the hydrogen gets substituted by some other group,
the compounds are called derivatives and can be classified as alcohol, aldehyde, acids, halides,
etc.
As we have seen earlier, the variety of compounds is mainly due to the catenation and tetravalent
nature of carbon. This enables carbon to form long chains with itself. If carbon forms open ended
chains, the compounds are called aliphatic hydrocarbons. If the chain gets connected from both
ends, the result is a closed chain carbon compound. These compounds are called cyclic
hydrocarbons. In this chapter, we will learn about aliphatic hydrocarbons in detail.
Hydrocarbons are classified based on the bonds that are present in them. Aliphatic hydrocarbons
are divided into:
 Alkanes: These are saturated hydrocarbons which have only single covalent bond linkages
between the carbon-carbon atoms. They have a general formula of CnH2n+2.
 Alkyls: An alkyl group is a hypothetical group that we encounter in organic chemistry. These
groups get attached to main carbon chains or have a substituent added to them. They have the
general formula of CnH2n+1 as they are formed by removing 1 H from an alkane.
 Alkenes: The unsaturated hydrocarbons which have at least 1 double bond between two
carbon atoms are called Alkenes. They have the general formula of CnH2n.
 Alkynes: If a hydrocarbon has at least 1 triple bond between two carbon atoms, these
unsaturated hydrocarbons are called Alkynes and are represented by CnH2n-2.
Question3. Compare the properties of saturated and unsaturated hydrocarbons. Why does having a
double or triple bond make the unsaturated hydrocarbons reactive?
Question4. What is a homologous series and what are its properties?
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3. Functional groups and Isomerism
We know that organic chemistry covers a variety of compounds. These varieties of compounds
are formed when an external group gets attached to a hydrocarbon, either by addition reactions or
by substitution reactions. If any such group which when added to the hydrocarbon defines the
structure or the property of the hydrocarbon, the group is called a Functional group. Even the
presence of a double or triple bond makes the hydrocarbon reactive, and in such cases should be
considered as a functional group. Some of the major functional groups are:
 Halide (X) – A halide is a halogen which gets attached to an alkyl group. It can be formed by
addition reactions of unsaturated compounds or by substitution reaction of saturated
compounds. They have a general formula of R – X, where R is an alkyl group and X is a
halide.
 Hydroxyl (OH) – When a hydroxyl group gets attached to a hydrocarbon, the hydrocarbon
becomes an alcohol and is commonly represented by R – OH.
 Aldehyde (CHO) – An aldehyde group has a C=O double bond and a C – H single bond. The
fourth bond is made between the carbon and the main chain. Such compounds are called
aldehydes and have the common formula of R – CHO.
 Ketones (C=O) – A ketone group is similar to an aldehyde group with a single difference. In
ketones, two alkyl groups are attached to the carbon forming double bond with oxygen
whereas in an aldehyde, at least 1 H is added to the carbon atom forming the double bond.
They are represented by R1 – (CO) – R2.
 Carboxyl (COOH) – One of the most important functional groups; adding a carboxylic group
to a compound makes the compound acidic in nature. These have the general formula of R –
COOH and are called carboxylic acids.
 Ethers (C – O – C) – Presence of C – O – C bond in a compound makes them an ether.
Question5. What are some characteristics of functional groups? Does there exist a hierarchy among
the various functional groups?
ISOMERS
Isomers are compounds having the same molecular formula but different structural forms.
Due to difference in the structures, the isomers differ in their physical and chemical
properties. The word ISOMER is made up of ISO – Same and MERS – parts implying that
they have the same composition. Isomerism can either be Structural Isomerism or Stereo
Isomerism
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Question6. What are the different types of Structural isomers? Explain with the help of examples.
4. Nomenclature
Due to its large variety, naming organic compounds were pretty confusing. IUPAC (International
Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry) laid down some conventions while naming the compounds
so as to make their study easier. In general, an IUPAC approved name has three parts:
 Prefix: It tells about the nature and location of any substituent which is attached to the main
chain. It does not include the functional groups. No prefix implies no substituent is added. If a
prefix is applied but no number is added, it means that the substituent is in the first Carbon atom.
 Root: It indicates the number of Carbon atoms present in the longest carbon chain. The root
includes the carbon atoms present in the functional groups. 1 carbon atom chain is represented by
Meth, 2 by Eth, 3 by Prop and so on.
 Suffix: The location and nature of the functional group is contained in the end of the name. In
case the compound has two functional groups, the functional group with higher priority is inserted
in the suffix while the other is treated like a substituent and is included in the prefix.
Before we start naming a compound, you should be aware of the different roots, the various
suffixes and prefixes that are used for particular groups. Once you are comfortable with that,
following these simple rules will help you name a compound according to IUPAC standards:
i. Identify the longest carbon chain. The chain which has the most number of C atoms is taken
as the longest chain and whatever is not included in this chain is either a substituent or a
functional group. This will give you the root for your name.
ii. Number the longest chain. Any chain can be numbered either from right to left or from left to
right. We number it in such a way that the functional group gets the lowest number. In case there
are two functional groups, the one with a higher priority should be getting a lower number. This
will give you the suffix for your name.
iii. Lower number to substituents. If the hydrocarbon has only substituents, the substituents
should be numbered in such a manner so as to get a lower sum of numbers. In case the sum is also
same, the numbering system that leads to an alphabetical order of substituents is followed.
iv. Multiple substituents are labeled di, tri, etc. If two similar substituents are present, di is added
before the substituent and its location is repeated twice to indicate the presence of two
substituents. This gives us the prefix to our name.
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Similarly, if we want to draw the structure of the compound from its name the above steps should
be followed. From the name, use the root to find the length of carbon chain, the prefix for the
nature and position of substituents and the suffix for the position and nature of functional groups.
Question7. Draw the structures of the following compounds:

(i) 2 – Bromo – 4 – methyl pent – 2 – ene (ii) 2, 3 – dimethyl butane
(iii) Pentane – 1 – 5 dial (iv) 2 – ethyl butan – 1 – oic acid
5. Alkanes
Study of hydrocarbons is very similar to the study of periodic table. In the periodic table, the
property of the first element in a group helped us predict the properties of the other elements in
the same group. Similarly, if we can understand the property of any alkane, for e.g. Methane, we
can predict the properties of other alkanes because they form a homologous series of compounds.
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Due to being saturated, these compounds are fairly unreactive and are called Paraffins, meaning
having little affinity. The first alkane is Methane having the formula CH4
a. Sources of Methane
 Methane or Marsh gas is formed at the bottom of marshes by special bacteria which
decomposes the cellulose.
 It is exhaled by animals whose food contains cellulose.
 Cavities in coal contain 90% methane. It is called Fire-damp.
 Methane is also produced in the dry distillation of wood, coal.
b. Structure of Methane
Methane (CH4) has a three-dimensional geometry. The four valence electrons of carbon bond with
hydrogen atoms and move away from each other as far as possible to minimize the repulsion
between them. Geometrically, these electrons will be the farthest away from each other when the
central atom takes up a Tetrahedral Geometry. In a tetrahedral geometry, the angle between C – H
bonds are 109.5O
Question8. What is the laboratory preparation of Methane? Mention some other methods of
preparation of methane and ethane.
c. Physical Properties of Methane

 It’s a colorless and odorless gas.
 Being a covalent compound, it has low M.P and B.P of -183O C and -162O C respectively.
 It is negligibly soluble in water but soluble in organic solvents.
Ethane also has similar properties with slight gradation as they form the homologous series of
compounds. Ethane is also a colorless, odorless gas which is also tasteless and non-poisonous. It
has a higher B.P and M.P of -89O C and -172O C. It is relatively insoluble in water but completely
soluble in organic solvents.
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Question9. Write down reactions along with the favorable conditions for methane undergoing:
(i) Reaction with Halogens (ii) Reaction with Oxygen (iii) Decomposition of methane
(iv) Catalytic oxidation (v) Slow combustion
d. Uses of Methane
i. Methane is a source of carbon monoxide and hydrogen.
ii. It is employed as a domestic fuel.
iii. It is used in the preparation of ethyne, methanol, methanol, chloro-methane and tetra-chloro
methane.
6. Alkenes
These are unsaturated hydrocarbons with at least 1 double bond. They are also called olefins since
the lower member of alkenes form oily products when they are treated with chlorine or bromine.
The first alkene is Ethene as there needs to be at least 2 carbon atoms for them to have a double
bond.
a. Occurrences
Due to their unsaturated state, alkenes are mostly found in the combined state. Lower alkenes
occur in trace quantities in coal gas. They are also a side product in the cracking of petroleum.
b. Structure
In Ethene, each carbon atom is bonded to two hydrogen atoms and also shares a double covalent
bond with another C atom. Overall, there are 4 single covalent bonds and 1 C=C double bond.
This makes the molecule planar in shape with the bond angles being 120O.
Question10. What are the various ways in which Ethene can be prepared?
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c. Physical properties of Ethene

i. Ethene is colorless and inflammable gas with a peculiar sweet odor.
ii. It has a boiling point of -102O C and melting point of -169O C.
iii. It is sparingly soluble in water but soluble in organic solvents.
iv. Upon inhalation, it produces an anaesthetic effect.
Question 11. Write reactions for Ethene undergoing
(i) Addition reactions (ii) Ozonolysis

(iii) Polymerization (iv) Oxidation (v) Combustion
d. Uses of Ethene
i. It is used to manufacture synthetic chemicals.
ii. It is used for ripening of fruits.
iii. It is used for producing oxy-ethylene flame which is used for welding and cutting purposes.
iv. It is used for manufacturing Epoxy ethane which is used in detergents.
v. It is used for making polythene bags.
7. Alkynes
The aliphatic hydrocarbons which have at least 1 triple bond are called Alkynes. These unsaturated
hydrocarbons are highly reactive due to their triple bond which acts as an electron-rich center for
positively charged reagents to attack.
These compounds are highly reactive due to their triple bond and are not found in the Free State.
These compounds can be prepared from distillation of petroleum and natural gas. Ethyne, the first
alkyne is present in coal gas and is also obtained as a by-product in certain complex organic
reactions. It is also obtained from cracking of alkanes from various fractions of petroleum.
a. Structure of Ethyne
Ethyne is a linear molecule with each carbon having a single bond with hydrogen and a triple
bond with the other carbon atom. This gives the molecule a liner shape.
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Question12. Write down the laboratory preparation of Ethyne. How do you prepare Ethyne from alkyl
halides?
b. Physical properties of Ethyne

i. It is lighter than air and has a vapor density of 13.
ii. It is a colorless gas with ether like smell when it is pure.
iii. It is negligibly soluble in water but highly soluble in organic solvents.
iv. It liquefies at -84O C and boils at -75O C
Question13. Write reactions for ethyne undergoing (i) Oxidation (ii) Addition (iii)
Ozonolysis
c. Uses of Ethyne
i. It is used as for oxy-acetylene welding and cutting at high temperatures.
ii. As an illuminant in oxy-acetylene lamps.
iii. For artificial ripening and preservation of fruits.
iv. Manufacturing of important organic chemicals like acetic acid, rubber, etc.
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X ICSE Chemistry – Study of Sulphuric Acid
videos proceed.
1. Introduction
Presently known as the king of acids due to its extensive use by a number of key industries,
Sulphuric acid was earlier known as Oil of Vitriol
One of the strongest and well-known acid of all time, it was obtained first in the later middle ages
when crystals of green vitriol were heated. It was observed that an oily viscous liquid was
obtained on heating crystals of green vitriol. Hence, it was also known as Oil of Vitriol.
2FeSO4.7H2O → Fe2O3 + SO2 + SO3 + H2O
The SO3 formed dissolves in water to form Sulphuric acid (H2SO4).
Naturally, the acid is found in certain mineral springs and is formed by the action of water on
metal sulphides.
Question1. Name some natural sources of Sulphuric acid in the combined state.
2. Preparation of Sulphuric Acid
There are numerous methods of preparation of Sulphuric acid. It can be obtained by displacement
reactions of metal sulphates with other acids. It can also be prepared by the following ways:
 Oxidation of SO2 solution by oxygen, chlorine or bromine.

2SO2 + 2H2O + O2 → 2H2SO4
SO2 + 2H2O + Cl2 → H2SO4 + 2HCl
SO2 + 2H2O + Br2 → H2SO4 + 2HBr
The color of chlorine and bromine disappears indicating the formation of Sulphuric acid.
 Oxidation of S by conc. Nitric acid.

S + 6HNO3 → H2SO4 + 6NO2 + 2H2O
 By dissolving sulphuryl chloride in water.

SO2Cl2 + 2H2O → H2SO4 + 2HCl
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Question2. Explain the industrial process for the formation of Sulphuric acid.
Favorable conditions for Contact’s process
 Since the reaction proceeds with evolution of heat, the reaction will give a maximum yield at
low temperatures of around 410O to 450O C.
 Ideally, a high pressure favors the forward reaction. This happens because the reaction
proceeds with reduction of volume. But towers which are acid-resistant cannot build up high
pressures and hence a pressure of 1 to 2 atm is used.
 A metal is used as a surface for the reaction to proceed. The catalyst can be Pt or V2O5. Pt is
more efficient but is also costly and gets easily poisoned by arsenic traces. Hence vanadium
pentoxide is used.
3. Properties of Sulphuric Acid.
Question3. Mention the physical properties of oil of vitriol.
Sulphuric acid is called the king of acids due to its extensive use, but a 100% pure dihyrogen
sulphate solvent does not behave like an acid.
Sulphuric acid in its pure state does not ionize, and hence, does not act as an acid. But even then it
displays some other useful characteristics. Chemically, sulphuric acid behaves differently in dilute
and concentrated solutions.
a. Dilute Sulphuric Acid.
In dilute solution, Sulphuric acid acts like a dibasic acid. It ionizes in the presence of water to give
two H+ ions. Hence similar to all acids, dilute Sulphuric acid reacts with metals above hydrogen
in the reactivity series to produce the respective metallic sulphate and hydrogen gas.
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Question4. Write equations for the reaction of Sulphuric acid with:

(a) Metal oxides (b) Metal bicarbonates (c) Metal Sulphides (d) Metal Sulphites
b. Concentrated Sulphuric Acid
Sulphuric acid in its concentrated solution displays a variety of characteristics.
i. Non-Volatile nature
Concentrated Sulphuric acid boils at a temperature of 338O C and due to its high boiling point is
considered non-volatile. Due to this, it is used in the manufacture of other acids from double
decomposition reactions. The non-volatile nature is helpful for the collection of a volatile acid
through distillation.
ii. Oxidizing nature

Concentrated Sulphuric acid undergoes thermal dissociation producing nascent oxygen. This
nascent oxygen enables it to act as an oxidizing agent.
H2SO4 → H2O + SO2 + [O]
Question5. Write reactions for the oxidation of (i) C (ii) Cu (iii) Zn (iv) HBr
by concentrated Sulphuric acid.
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Question6. How does Sulphur dioxide act as a weak bleaching agent?
iii. Dehydrating Agent

Due to its strong affinity for water, concentrated Sulphuric acid removes the elements of water
from other compounds.
HCOOH + conc. H2SO4 → CO + H2SO4.H2O
C2H5OH + conc. H2SO4 → C2H4 + H2SO4.H2O
iv. Insoluble sulphates

Metal sulphates are insoluble in aqueous solution. Sulphuric acid for this reason is used to
precipitate soluble metallic salts from their solutions.
BaCl2 + H2SO4 → BaSO4 + 2HCl
Question7. What is the proper method of diluting concentrated Sulphuric acid?
4. Tests for Sulphuric acid
 When conc. Sulphuric acid reacts with NaCl, pungent fumes of HCl is observed
 When barium chloride solution is added to concentrated Sulphuric acid, a white precipitate of
barium sulphate is obtained.
 Concentrated Sulphuric acid reacts with Cu to release a gas which turns acidified potassium
dichromate solution green.
Cu + 2H2SO4 → CuSO4 + 2H2O + SO2
3SO2 + H2SO4 + K2Cr2O7 → Cr2(SO4)3 + K2SO4 + H2O
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Question8. Mention the uses of Sulphuric acid across industries.
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X ICSE Chemistry – Study of HCl
videos proceed.
1. Introduction
Hydrochloric acid is one of the strongest acids there is when the compound is dissolved in water.
In aqueous phase, 0.1M solution of HCl has a pH value of 1.1.
But the same compound doesn’t exhibit acidity in the gaseous phase. Why?
The acid first came into picture when Glauber prepared the acid by heating common salt with
concentrated sulphuric acid. Since then, it has become one of the most important chemicals in the
modern world. Naturally:
 Hydrochloric acid is present in the gastric juices of mammals and helps in their digestion.
 Volcanic eruptions also emit hydrochloric gas naturally.
2. Hydrogen Chloride, the GAS
Hydrogen chloride, in its natural state is a gas formed by the sharing of electrons between a
hydrogen atom and a chlorine atom. Both are non-metals and hence, they go for a covalent bond.
i. Methods of preparation
a. By synthesis reactions
When moist hydrogen gas combines directly with chlorine in the presence of sunlight, a direct
combination reaction takes place.
H2(g) + Cl2(g) → 2HCl(g) (in presence of diffused sunlight)
b. By displacement reactions
Hydrogen can be displaced from any of its acids by a metal higher than it in the activity series.
NaCl + H2SO4 → NaHSO4 + HCl (at temp < 200O C)
2NaCl + H2SO4 → Na2SO4 + 2HCl (at temp > 200O C)
Question1. How is hydrochloric gas prepared in the laboratory? Explain the entire process.
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ii. Properties of hydrochloric gas

Hydrogen chloride is a colorless gas with a pungent choking smell. It is sour in taste and becomes
corrosive when it comes in contact with water. Since it is heavier than air, it is collected by
upward displacement of air. Being covalent, it has a boiling point of -83O C and melting point of -
113O C. Due to polarity, HCl is highly soluble in water and forms an acidic solution.
Chemically, HCl is neither combustible nor a supporter of combustion. Instead, it extinguishes a

burning splint. It dissociates into its constituting elements when heated above 500O C.
2HCl → H2 + Cl2
Question2. How does hydrochloric gas react with metals and ammonia? Support your answer with
equations.
3. Hydrochloric Acid
One of the strongest acids, HCl when dissolved in water almost entirely dissociates into H+ and
Cl- ions. The H+ combines with water to form a hydronium ion (H3O+). This happens due to the
polar nature of the compound. The electronegativity difference of hydrogen and chlorine polarizes
the compound. When dissolved in water, the compound breaks up and gets stabilized by water.
HCl + H2O → Cl- + H3O+
Hence, in order to exploit the acidic properties of this compound, we always take an aqueous
solution. Dry hydrogen chloride gas or liquefied hydrogen chloride gas does not affect the litmus
as it needs water to display its acidic property (H+). For the same reason, HCl gas does not
conduct electricity, but its
Question3. How is hydrochloric acid prepared in the laboratory? What is back-suction and how is it
avoided?
i. Physical Properties
Hydrochloric acid is a colorless solution with pungent choking smell. It is acidic in nature and in
high concentrations becomes corrosive and can cause blisters. Due to its polarity, it is highly
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soluble in water with a boiling point of 110O C.
ii. Chemical Properties

a. Action on indicators
Aqueous solution of the compound reacts with the indicators. It turns moist litmus from blue to
red, methyl orange from orange to pink and maintains the colorless phenolphthalein as colorless.
b. Action of Metals
Hydrogen gets displaced by metals higher than it in the reactivity series, getting released in the
process.
Ca + 2HCl → CaCl2 + H2
Zn + 2HCl → ZnCl2 + H2
c. Action on metal oxides and hydroxides

Metal oxides and hydroxides are generally basic in nature. When HCl reacts with such
compounds, it undergoes a neutralization reaction leading to formation of a salt and water
MgO + 2HCl → MgCl2 + H2O
NaOH + HCl → NaCl + H2O
Fe2O3 + 6HCl → 2FeCl3 + 3H2O
d. Oxidation of Hydrochloric acid

Concentrated solutions of the acid can get readily oxidized by strong oxidizing agents such as
MnO2, Pb3O4, etc.
MnO2 + 4HCl → MnCl2 + 2H2O + Cl2
Pb3O4 + 8HCl → 3PbCl2 +4H2O + Cl2
Question4. Write reactions for hydrochloric acid reacting with:
(a) Carbonates (b) Sulphites (c) Sulphides (d) Thiosulphates (e) Nitrates
iii. Uses of hydrochloric acid

 It is used in the laboratory for preparation of Aqua Regia.
 For manufacturing dyes, paints, drugs, photographic chemicals.
 Formation of glucose from starch.
 To remove rust from iron sheets.
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 In the extraction of glue from bones.

 In industry to pickle steel. HCl dissolves the oxides and is used to purify steel before it gets
plated.
 Dilute HCl is prescribed to patients having low activity of gastric juice.
 HCl acid helps in the digestion of proteins and also in destroying microorganisms.
Question5. What are some tests for the identification of hydrochloric acid and gas?
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X ICSE Chemistry – Study of Ammonia
videos proceed.
1. Introduction
Ever wondered what the pungent odor was you encountered near decaying organic matter or
near toilets?
Organic matter and urine in general contains Urea (NH2CONH2). This urea gets decomposed due
to bacterial activity and releases water, carbon dioxide and ammonia. The ammonia produced
gives the pungent odor.
NH2CONH2 + 2H2O → 2NH3 + CO2 + H2O
Ammonia in its free state is only found in trace amounts in natural water. It is much more
abundant in nature in its combined state mainly in the form of Ammonium salts such as
ammonium chloride and ammonium sulphate.
Question1. What are the forms of Ammonia in which it is commonly used?
2. Preparation of Ammonia
a. Preparation of Ammonia Gas
Generally, ammonia gas can be prepared when ammonium salts are reacted with alkalis. The
result is the formation of water and ammonia along with a metal salt.
2NH4Cl + Ca(OH)2 → CaCl2 + 2NH3 + 2H2O
Question2. How is ammonia produced in the laboratories? Explain the process from start to end.
Another method for production of Ammonia is reaction of nitrides with water. This reaction tends
to be costly due to unavailability of metal nitrides at low cost.
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Mg3N2 + 6H2O → 3Mg(OH)2 + 2NH3
b. Preparation of aqueous ammonia.
Ammonia is highly soluble in water and dissolves readily, forming a basic solution of ammonium
hydroxide. Due to its high solubility, back-suction of water is possible, and this can be avoided by
using a funnel at the water-end.
Question3. How is ammonia prepared industrially? Mention the necessary conditions required for this
process.
3. Properties of Ammonia
a. Physical properties
Ammonia is a colorless gas with a strong pungent choking smell. It is bitter in taste as it is a basic
gas. It is a non-poisonous gas with a boiling point of –33.5O C and melting point of –77O C. It is
lighter than air with a vapor density of 8.5. The gas is also highly soluble in water.
Question4. Show the high solubility of ammonia in water with the help of an experiment.
b. Chemical Properties
i. Thermal Dissociation
Ammonia gas undergoes decomposition at high temperatures or by electric sparks.
2NH3 ⇆ N2 + 3H2
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ii. Basic Properties

Dry Ammonia gas is polar covalent compound due to large electronegativity difference between
N and H. Due to this N attains a slight negative charge and tries to donate its lone pair to attain
stability.
Due to this, the gas has a basic nature. It reacts with indicators in its aqueous solution to turn red
litmus blue, methyl orange yellow and phenolphthalein pink.
iii. Reaction with acids

Being basic in nature, it reacts with acids to form salts via the neutralization reaction.
NH3 (g) + HCl (g) → NH4Cl (s)
Question5. Show the reaction of aqueous solution of ammonia with the following metal salts along
with respective observations:
(a) Ferrous salt (b) Ferric salt (c) Plumbous salt (d) Zinc salt (e) Copper
salt
iv. Reaction with Oxygen

Ammonia burns in oxygen with a yellowish green flame to give nitrogen gas and water. It is not a
supporter of combustion and extinguishes a burning splint and neither does it burn in air.
4NH3 + 3O2 → 2N2 + 6H2O
Ammonia gets oxidized to nitrogen monoxide in the presence of a catalyst (Pt) and a temperature
of 800O C. The nitrogen monoxide formed combines with the available oxygen to form a brown
gas NO2.
v. Reaction with Carbon dioxide

Ammonia is used in the manufacture of urea which is an important nitrogenous fertilizer. It
combines with CO2 at 150O C and 150 atm to form urea.
2NH3 + CO2 → NH2CONH2 + H2O
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Question6. Give reactions to show the reducing nature of Ammonia gas.
4. Identification of Ammonia
All ammonium salts react with alkalis like NaOH to produce the respective salt and ammonia gas
along with water. It is one of the few gases which are basic in nature and it can be easily
recognized due to its following properties:
 It has a pungent choking smell.
 It turns moist litmus blue, methyl orange yellow and phenolphthalein colorless.
 It produces a white solid when reacted with the colorless HCl gas.
 It forms a blue precipitate when the gas is dissolved in aqueous solution of copper sulphate.
This precipitate gets dissolved in excess of ammonia solution.
 Ammonium salts give a brown color precipitate with Nessler’s solution (K2HgI4)
5. Uses of Ammonia
Question7. How is ammonia used as a refrigerant? What are the advantages of using ammonia
above the conventional refrigerants?
 Aqueous Ammonia emulsifies or dissolves fats, grease, etc. and hence, is used to clean
clothes, windows and tiles, etc.
 Ammonia is used in the manufacture of nitrogenous fertilizers, explosives, polymers like
rayon and nylon, sodium carbonate by Solvay process and is also used to manufacture ammonium
carbonate and ammonium chloride which are important industrial chemicals.
 Ammonia solution is one of the most important chemical reagents and is extensively used in
qualitative analysis of various metals.
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Question8. Explain the preparation of nitric acid from ammonia from Ostwald’s process.
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X ICSE Chemistry – Study of Nitric Acid
videos proceed.
1. Introduction
Hydrogen Nitrate, or more commonly known as nitric acid, is one of the most useful chemicals in
the modern day. Though it is primarily an acid, its uses in industries ranges from being used in the
manufacture of explosives, dyes, polymers to be a major component of fertilizers. The principal
chemical product obtained from nitric acid is ammonium nitrate which is used in fertilizers and
explosives.
Some plants can automatically absorb nitrogen and convert them into useful compounds. These
plants are called leguminous plants.
In the Free State, it is found in the rain water, where it occurs in traces after lightning. In
combined state, it occurs as metallic nitrates such as Chile Saltpetre (NaNO3), Nitre (KNO3) and
Calcium nitrate [Ca(NO3)2]
Question1. How does nitrogen help plants by being used as fertilizers?
2. Preparation of Nitric Acid
Glaubar was the first chemist to synthesis nitric acid by distilling potassium nitrate, naturally
found as Nitre. Naturally, nitrogen combines with oxygen during lightning discharge to form
nitrogen monoxide. This nitrogen monoxide further gets oxidized to NO2 which dissolves water to
form nitric acid. This phenomenon is known as Acid rain.
Question2. How is nitric acid prepared in the laboratories?
Pure nitric acid is a colourless liquid but the aqueuos solution of nitric acid obtained in the above
process has a yellowish colour. This colour is due to the dissolved nitrogen dioxide present in the
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solution. This gas is produced by the thermal decomposition of a portion of the acid present in the
solution.
Question3. How is the yellow colour of the solution removed?
Precautions:
 All glass apparatus is used because nitric acid vapors attack rubber and cork.
 Non-volatile acid should be used for this process so that no mixing happens while collection
of nitric acid vapors.
 The temperature of the reaction should not exceed 200O C as at high temperatures:
i. The glass apparatus may get damaged.
ii. Nitric acid undergoes thermal decomposition.
iii. Efficiency of the process is reduced due to wastage of fuel.
3. Properties of Nitric Acid
Question4. Mention some physical properties of nitric acid.
Chemical Properties
a. Stability
Pure nitric acid undergoes thermal decomposition very easily. It is unstable in the presence of heat
and sunlight. The yellow color observed earlier was due to the same reason.
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b. Acidic properties
Nitric acid is one of the strongest monobasic acids and almost completely ionizes in water to
produce H+ and NO3- ions.
Like all acids, it turns blue litmus red, methyl orange pink and the phenolphthalein remains
colorless.
Write down equations for the following reactions:

(i) Reaction with alkalis
(ii) Reaction with carbonates and bicarbonates
(iii) Reaction with sulphites and bisulphites
c. Oxidizing Properties
Nitric acid is a strong acid, but in its concentrated form, the acid acts like an Oxidizing agent,
vigorously oxidizing non-metals, and metals, inorganic and organic compounds. Its oxidizing
properties are due to the nascent oxygen it gives out on decomposition
2HNO3 → 2NO2 + H2O + [O]
Even dilute acid acts as an oxidizing agent in some cases giving off nascent oxygen.
2HNO3 → 2NO + H2O + 3[O]
Nitric acid is used to oxidize non-metals to their respective acids.
C + 4HNO3 → CO2 + 2H2O + 4NO2
S + 6HNO3 → H2SO4 + 2H2O + 6NO2
P4 + 20HNO3 → 4H3PO4 + 4H2O + 20NO2
Question5. Write reactions for action of cold and hot nitric acid on metals. Why do some metals
become inert when reacted with concentrated nitric acid?
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Question6. How can you obtain hydrogen from nitric acid? What is Aqua regia and what is it used
for?
d. Properties of Nitrates
Nitrates of different metals undergo different reactions. This may be accounted to the
difference in their reactivity which leads to difference in affinity of these metals with other
non-metals.
Sodium and Potassium nitrates decompose to give Oxygen gas and a colorless liquid.
2NaNO3 → 2NaNO2 + O2
Silver and mercury nitrates decompose to give the metal while releasing nitrogen dioxide and
oxygen.
2AgNO3 → 2Ag + 2NO2 + O2
All other metal nitrates decompose to give their respective oxides, nitrogen dioxide and
oxygen.
2Ca(NO3)2 → 2CaO + 4NO2 + O2
Ammonium nitrate explosively decomposes leaving behind no residue.

NH4NO3 → N2O + 2H2O
Question7. What are some important uses of nitric acid?
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4. Identification of Nitric acid and nitrates

 Brown fumes of nitrogen dioxide are evolved on heating concentrated nitric acid.
 Nitrates on heating releases a reddish-brown gas.
 Addition of Cu to nitric acid leads to evolution of nitrogen dioxide.
Question8. Explain the brown ring test for identification of nitric acid or nitrates.
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X ICSE Chemistry – Pollution
videos proceed.
1. Introduction
Pollution, now a frequently discussed term was relatively unheard off a couple hundred years
earlier. 4.5 billion years ago, when Earth was formed, nature and all life forms existed in mutual
harmony. Back then, the planet was covered with trees and plants and there was enough for
survival of all life forms. With time, man got over the basic purpose of survival and started to
evolve using whatever he could use from nature.
How is the evolution of man related to pollution?
Before we understand what pollution is, let us first understand what an ecosystem or environment
means. Man, along with the animals, trees, plants, water, land and air constitute our environment.
In other words, all living being along with their surroundings forms an ecosystem.
Look around and note down the parts of your environment which are polluted according to you?
Polluted Component Possible Reason of Pollution
Question1. What do you mean by the term ‘Food Web’?
The first level of any ecosystem consists of the producers or the plants. These plants are
eaten by herbivores which in turn are eaten by carnivores. These carnivores are eventually
consumed by the predators who return the nutrient back to earth when they die and
decompose. The food web pyramid clearly depicts the hierarchy among producers and
consumers.
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Figure 1- Hierarchy of Food-chain
Plant takes in water and nutrients from the soil, and in the presence of sunlight undergoes
photosynthesis producing Glucose or Chemical energy. This chemical energy is then transferred
to herbivores who consume the plants. But did you know that only a fraction of this energy is
transferred to the next level?
Question2. What is meant by the 10% rule?
Pollution by definition is the introduction of contaminants into the natural environment that
causes adverse change. Pollution can take the form of chemical substances or energy, such as
noise, heat or light. By now you would have already guessed that as man evolved, his practices
led to the degradation of his surroundings.
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Question3. How does agriculture lead to pollution?
2. Commercial Hunting
Question4. What is commercial hunting and how does it affect the environment?
3. Industrial Revolution
The industrial revolution changed the way we used to live. It introduced machines that could
transport us, make cloths and make household appliances, etc that previously wasn’t
affordable for the general public. It helped us make our lives much more convenient and
comfortable. But all this came at a very hefty price which was pollution of our environment.
Industries started discharging their wastes on land and water, polluting them in the process.
The gases that were allowed to escape contributed to air pollution.
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Figure 2: Pollution caused by Industries
Question5. How can we control Industrial pollution?
Did You Know?
6. Americans make up an estimated 5% of the world’s population. However, the US

uses 25% of the world’s resources - burning up nearly 25% of the coal, 26% of the
oil, and 27% of the world’s natural gas.
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4. Atmospheric Pollution
Air pollution occurs when the air contains gases, dust, fumes or odor in harmful amounts.
That is, amounts which could be harmful to the health or comfort of humans and animals or
which could cause damage to plants and materials.
The substances that cause air pollution are called pollutants. Pollutants that are pumped into our
atmosphere and directly pollute the air are called primary pollutants. Primary pollutant examples
include carbon monoxide from car exhausts and sulfur dioxide from the combustion of coal.
Pollution can also be cause by natural sources such as volcanoes which releases dust and
poisonous oxides during eruption.
Question6. What are air pollutants? How do they affect the environment?
Question7. Is the air in cities more polluted than the air in villages? Give reasons to support your
answer.
5. Acid Rain
Acid rain is the phenomenon where the rain water or any other form of precipitation is
unusually acidic. Presence of oxides of nitrogen, carbon and sulfur get converted into acids
and makes the rain water highly acidic. It causes environmental harm, chiefly to forests and
lakes. The lakes become acidic and the aquatic ecosystem suffers. The buildings get corroded
due to high acidity of water.
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Question8. Show reactions of oxides that contribute towards Acid rain.
The oxides that contribute in acid rain are released by various industries and by locomotives.
These industries and locomotives release gases into the environment before properly treating
them. Acid rain itself is a contributor of water and land pollution because of its acidic nature.
Question9. How does acid rain cause land pollution?
 Misconception: CO2 is not an air pollutant as we breathe out CO2 which is

taken in by the plants.
 Clarification: When CO2 dissolves in seawater, it increases the hydrogen ion
concentration though the chemical reaction CO2 + CO32- + H2O → 2HCO3-,
thus decreasing the pH of the oceans. CO2 has also been recognized as a
major air pollutant. Not only does it contribute to Greenhouse effect but it
is also a major contributor of Global warming.
Question10. How can acid rain be prevented?
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6. Global Warming
The global temperature of Earth has been rising from the past few decades. The global
temperature has risen from 13.59o Celsius in 1901-1910 to 14.47o Celsius in 2001-2010 which has
resulted in a global sea level rise of about 17 centimeters (6.7 inches) in the last century. The rate
in the last decade, however, is nearly double that of the last century.
Global warming has been a global issue for some time. The rise in temperature has led to melting
of ice caps and a growing number of weather-related catastrophes.
Question11. What causes Global warming?
Greenhouse effect has been recognized as one of the major contributors of Global warming. The
effect is similar to a greenhouse where plants are grown. In a greenhouse, the heat which enters
the house is not allowed to escape. The radiations entering the greenhouse have shorter
wavelength but when these radiations are emitted back from earth, the emitted radiations have
longer wavelength and are not allowed to escape.
Figure 3 - Global Warming
Something similar is happening where our Earth is acting like a greenhouse and some gases in the
troposphere are not allowing the heat to escape leading to continuous rise in temperature.
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Question12. Which common gases act as greenhouse gases?
Greenhouse effect was considered beneficial until it got out of hand. It earlier played an important
role in the evolution of Earth as it helped trap the heat energy we got from Sun. It also ensured
that continuous evaporation took place leading to rain.
Question13. What are the disadvantages of Greenhouse Effect?
Question14. How can we reduce Global warming?
7. Ozone layer Depletion
Ozone is a bluish gas found in the stratosphere. It is formed when ultraviolet rays of the sun
react with oxygen.
3O2 (g) 2O3 (g)
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Question15. Why is Ozone layer depletion a concern for us?
In 1980, scientists found a hole in the Ozone layer above Antarctica. Some intense research on the
subject concluded what the problem was. Some gases that found application in various cooling
industries were reacting with ozone, depleting it in the process.
Question16. What are the chemical compounds responsible for Ozone layer depletion?
Question17. What are the harmful effects of Ozone?
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X ICSE Chemistry – Practical Chemistry
videos proceed.
1. Introduction
Practical chemistry is the branch of science that involves the identification and recognition of
various substances. It can be an identification of a gas, a cation, an anion or even a salt. Various
reagents are used and tests are conducted to differentiate between various substances.
The chemicals can be differentiated or identified by their color, odor, physical state, action of
heat, solubility in various solutions or even by the flame they generate when ignited.
2. Preparation and Identification of gases
a. Hydrogen
i. Preparation: Hydrogen can be prepared by adding dilute HCl or H2SO4 to reactive metals
(metals above hydrogen in reactivity series):
ii. Identification: The evolved gas is colorless, odorless and neutral to Litmus. The gas burns
with a pale blue flame along with a pop sound when a burning splint is brought near it.
b. Oxygen
i. Preparation: Oxygen gas is released when higher metallic oxides or nitrates are heated in the
absence of air.
2Pb3O4 → 6PbO + O2
ii. Identification: The gas is colorless, odorless and stays neutral to Litmus. It rekindles a
glowing splint and is absorbed in colorless alkaline solution of pyrogallol and turns it dark green.
Question1. How would you prepare and identify the following gases:
a. CO2 b. Cl2 c. SO2 d. NO2
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c. Hydrogen Chloride
i. Preparation: Hydrochloric gas is released when concentrated H2SO4 is added to salts such as
KCl or NaCl.
ii. Identification: It’s a colorless gas with a pungent choking smell. It turns blue litmus red and
combines with ammonia to form dense white fumes. It also turns a moist starch Iodide blue black.
d. Hydrogen Sulphide
i. Preparation: Hydrogen sulphide can be prepared by adding dilute HCl or H2SO4 to metallic
sulphides such as Suns or FeS
ii. Identification: The gas is colorless but has a pungent rotten egg smell. It turns moist blue
litmus red and turns lead nitrate solution black due to the formation of lead sulphide. It also turns
lead acetate paper black due to similar reasons.
e. Water Vapor
i. Preparation: Water vapor is evolved when a hydrated crystalline salt is heated. An example
of hydrated salt is Blue vitriol.
ii. Identification: It’s a colorless, odorless gas that condenses into a clear liquid on the cold side
of the apparatus. It is neutral to litmus and the liquid turns anhydrous copper sulphate from white
to blue.
f. Ammonia
i. Preparation: Ammonium salts liberate ammonia gas when reacted with alkalis.
ii. Identification: The evolved gas is colorless with a strong pungent odor. It turns moist red
litmus blue. The gas turns the Nessler’s reagent colorless.
Question2. Name some substances which can be identified by their:

(a) smell (b) state (c) color
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3. Identification of Ions
Question3. How can the different cations be identified by the action of alkalis?
a. Tests for Anions:

 A small amount of salt is added to a solution to which conc. H2SO4 is added. A colorless gas
with pungent choking smell is evolved. Thus, the anion in salt is a Chloride ion (Cl-).
 A pinch of manganese dioxide is added to the salt. This is followed with a few drops of conc.
H2SO4. A greenish yellow gas is evolved which has a pungent odor. The gas turns a moist
starch iodide paper blue black. Thus, the anion is confirmed as Cl-
 A small amount of salt is taken in a test tube to which conc. H2SO4 is added and warmed
gently. Reddish brown fumes are evolved, and these fumes become thick on adding copper
turnings. The evolved gas is NO2 and the anion is confirmed as a nitrate ion (NO3-).
 To the salt solution, acetic acid and lead acetate are added. A white precipitate is formed
which is soluble in excess of ammonium acetate solution. This confirms the anion as SO42-.
 To the salt solution, little nitric acid is added which is followed with barium chloride solution.
A white precipitate is formed which is insoluble in mineral acids. The formation of Barium
sulphate confirms the anion as Sulphate ion (SO42-)
Question4. Write a short note on the solubility of different salts.
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Question5. How is dilute H2SO4 used in the identification of various anions. Explain with the help of
observations.
b. Flame Test for cations

This test is carried out for the identification of cations in a salt. The salt is converted to its
chloride since chlorides are generally volatile and ionize when heated to give characteristic colors.
This can be done by adding conc. HCl to the salt.
A thin platinum wire is first cleaned with conc. HCl and then heated in the non-luminous flame of
the burner. When no color is observed, the wire can be used for testing. Little pastes of different
salts are then introduced to the non-luminous flame of the burner.
Color of Flame Color through blue glass Metal ion

Golden yellow
Violet or pink
Brick Red
Copper Ion
(Cu2+)
4. Identification of compound
Manganese dioxide and copper oxide have similar physical properties and are usually confused
with one another. The two compounds can however be differentiated chemically.
i. Conc. HCl is added to the clack powder and heated. In case of manganese dioxide, a greenish
yellow gas (Cl2) is evolved while no gas is released in case of CuO.
ii. The above solution is passed through a filter paper. A brownish and bluish filtrate is observed
in the case of manganese dioxide and copper oxide respectively.
iii. Finally, ammonium hydroxide is added to the filtrate. A pale blue precipitate is formed in the
case of copper oxide which is soluble in excess of the alkali. No precipitate is observed in
the case of manganese dioxide.
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Question6. How can acids and bases be differentiated by using indicators? Can the acids and bases be
differentiated by any chemical tests?
©BYJU’S

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4

X ICSE Chemistry – Periodic Classification of Elements

Question1. What do you understand by the term 'elements'?

2. Early Models of the Periodic Table

X ICSE Chemistry – Periodic Classification of Elements

Question2. Why do we not follow the periodic table suggested by Newland?

c. Mendeleev’s Periodic Table

X ICSE Chemistry – Periodic Classification of Elements

Figure 1 - Mendeleev's Periodic Table

Question3. What was the periodic law given by Dmitri Mendeleev?

d. Limitations of Mendeleev’s Periodic Table

X ICSE Chemistry – Periodic Classification of Elements

3. The Modern Periodic Table

Question4. Write down the Modern Periodic Law.

Question6. Discuss the key features of the modern periodic table.

X ICSE Chemistry – Periodic Classification of Elements

a. Alkali Metals/Alkali Earth Metals

Give a few examples of transition metals.

c. Lanthanides and Actinides

X ICSE Chemistry – Periodic Classification of Elements

Give a few examples of Lanthanides and Actinides.

Question7. Why are noble gases considered unreactive?

X ICSE Chemistry – Periodic Classification of Elements

4. Trends in the Modern Periodic Table

Define the terms, covalent radius and ionic radius.

X ICSE Chemistry – Periodic Classification of Elements

Figure 2 - Covalent and Ionic Radii

b. Ionization Energy (ionization potential)

Figure 3 - Ionization Energy of an Element

X ICSE Chemistry – Periodic Classification of Elements

X ICSE Chemistry – Periodic Classification of Elements

Discuss the variation of metallic character in the modern periodic table.

Importance of understanding the Periodic Properties of Elements

Figure 4 - Summary of Periodic Trends in Properties

X ICSE Chemistry – Chemical Bonding

What is Chemical Bonding?

Question 1. What is an atom? How is it different from a molecule?

2. Why do Atoms Combine?

To understand why atoms 172.16.12.118

Fill in the blank spaces

X ICSE Chemistry – Chemical Bonding

Question3. Does a lower energy state point to greater stability? Discuss.

X ICSE Chemistry – Chemical Bonding

Question4. Explain the trend of electronegativity in the modern periodic table.

Question5. Why is Francium the most electropositive element?

When the difference in electronegativity is considerable, the more electropositive element

X ICSE Chemistry – Chemical Bonding

Figure 1 - Process of Ionic Bonding

Question6. Show the ionic bonding in calcium chloride.

Figure 2 - Covalent Bonding in Water

X ICSE Chemistry – Chemical Bonding

Show the bonding of atoms in a molecule of CCl4 (carbon tetrachloride).

i. Polar Covalent Bond

What do you understand by a polar covalent bond?

X ICSE Chemistry – Chemical Bonding

Figure 3 - Polarity in Water

ii. Non-Polar Covalent Bond

Figure 4 - Non-polar H2 and polar HF

Question8. Which of the following compounds exhibit polarity?

(a) NH3 (b) CH4 (c) HCl (d) KF (e) CO2

X ICSE Chemistry – Chemical Bonding

Figure 5 - Dative Bonding (coordinate bonding)

5. Properties of Ionic and Covalent Bonding