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Earth and life science

EARTH AND LIFE SCIENCE


Covers all the aspects of life on earth such as complex and dynamic process in solid earth, the oceans, the
atmosphere, the natural world and organisms including humans.
Earth science vs. life science
Origin of the universe
cosmology
Understanding of the origin, evolution, structure and fate of the universe.
Universe
All existing matter and space considered as a whole; the cosmos.
Galaxy
Is a system of solar system and other stars.
Held together by gravity.
The galaxy that contains the earth and its solar system is called the Milky Way.
Solar system
Consists of our star, the Sun, and everything bound to it by gravity — the planets Mercury, Venus, Earth,
Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune, dwarf planets such as Pluto, dozens of moons and millions of
asteroids, comets and meteoroids.
The hymn of creation of Rigveda (Rigveda 10:129)
Indians believed that the universe had an origin and pondered about how and where the world and
everything else began.
Ancient Greeks
The cosmos always been in existence.
Neither created nor perishable, the cosmos was timeless and infinite in extent.
They have the idea of the universe having a center.
Philolaus (470-385 bc)
Stated that the Earth was not the center of the universe, but a central fire, around which other celestial
object, such as the Sun, moon, and other planets revolved uniformly.
Aristarchus (310-230 bc)
Seconded Philolaus, but said that the central fire was the Sun.
Proposed the heliocentric model of the universe.
Aristotle (384-322)
One of the greatest mind of Classical Antiquity.
The center of the cosmos is Earth.
Proposed the geocentric model of the universe.
Claudius ptolemy (100-170 ad)
Elaborated the geocentric model, wherein the celestial bodies revolved around the Earth. The geocentric
model was later called the Ptolemaic model.
Epicycle used to explain the variation in speed and direction of the apparent motion of the Moon, the Sun
and planets.
Theory of general relativity by albert Einstein
The universe was a finite and 4 dimensional sphere.
Universe was homogeneous, where matter spread smoothly throughout space.
Explains that what we perceive as the force of gravity, in fact arises from the curvature of space and time.
Explains the motion of the planets.
Describe the history of the expansion of the universe.
Big bang theory
Most accepted theory about the birth of the universe.
Era’s of history of the universe
The Planck Era
The Grand Unified Era
The Electroweak Era
The Particle Era
The Era of Nucleosynthesis
The Era of Nuclei
The Era of Atoms and Galaxies
How did the solar system form?
Telescope
device used to form magnified images of distant objects.
Types of telescope
Reflecting telescopes, also known as Newtonians, are possibly the type of telescope most novice
enthusiasts go for. This simple design uses mirrors to gather and focus light.
Refracting telescopes use lenses in place of mirrors.
Compound or catadioptric telescopes considered hybrids of the reflecting and refracting telescopes that
combine the best of both worlds. They have a shorter length overall and are easily portable. They also do
well in correcting the aberrations the separate telescopes suffer from
In 1609 an Italian physicist and astronomer named Galileo Galilei became the first person to point a
telescope skyward. Although that telescope was small and the images fuzzy, Galileo was able to make out
mountains and craters on the moon, as well as a ribbon of diffuse light arching across the sky -- which
would later be identified as our Milky Way galaxy.
Sir Isaac Newton's time, astronomy flourished as a result of larger and more complex telescopes.
In the 19th century, using a new instrument called a spectroscope, astronomers gathered information
about the chemical composition and motions of celestial objects.
Spectroscope helps us find out what stars are made of. It disperses, or separates, white light from a star
into a very wide spectrum of colors — much wider than a normal prism does.
Mass distribution
The mass of the system is not evenly distributed. Most of the mass is concentrated in the sun.
Angular momentum distribution
The angular momentum (tendency to rotate) is concentrated more among the planets to the sun.
Angular momentum is the measure of the tendency of a rotating body to remain rotating. Angular
momentum is always conserved.
The value of the angular momentum of an object swinging around in a circle is something like the mass
times the speed at which the mass is moving, times the radius, squared. So when an ice-skater spins, then
pulls in their arms, their rate of rotation increases, because they have reduced
So the rotational angular momentum of the Sun, which is 1.1e42, is less than 4% that of the total orbital
angular momentum of the planets, which is 3.1e43.
Shape and alignment of orbits
The planets move in nearly circular orbits that nearly align with the equator of the sun in the same
direction.
The orbits of the planets are ellipses with the Sun at one focus, though all except Mercury are very nearly
circular. The orbits of the planets are all more or less in the same plane (called the ecliptic and defined by
the plane of the Earth's orbit). The ecliptic is inclined only 7 degrees from the plane of the Sun's equator.
The above diagrams show the relative sizes of the orbits of the eight planets (plus Pluto) from a
perspective somewhat above the ecliptic (hence their non-circular appearance). They all orbit in the same
direction (counter-clockwise looking down from above the Sun's north pole); all but Venus, Uranus and
Pluto also rotate in that same sense.
Chemical composition
The planets and the sun have similar chemical composition, although in varying proportions. Planets are
subdivided into two groups: the small, heavy, and nonvolatile planets; and the large, light, and volatile
planets.
The two largest planets, Jupiter and Saturn, have nearly the same chemical makeup as the Sun; they are
composed primarily of the two elements hydrogen and helium, with 75% of their mass being hydrogen
and 25% helium.
The eight bodies officially categorized as planets are often further classified in several ways:
by composition:
terrestrial or rocky planets: Mercury, Venus, Earth, and Mars:
The terrestrial planets are composed primarily of rock and metal and have relatively high densities, slow
rotation, solid surfaces, no rings and few satellites.
jovian or gas planets: Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune:
The gas planets are composed primarily of hydrogen and helium and generally have low densities, rapid
rotation, deep atmospheres, rings and lots of satellites.
by size:
small planets: Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars.
The small planets have diameters less than 13000 km.
giant planets: Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune.
The giant planets have diameters greater than 48000 km.
The giant planets are sometimes also referred to as gas giants.
by position relative to the Sun:
inner planets: Mercury, Venus, Earth and Mars.
outer planets: Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune.
The asteroid belt between Mars and Jupiter forms the boundary between the inner solar system and the
outer solar system.
by position relative to Earth:
inferior planets: Mercury and Venus.
closer to the Sun than Earth.
The inferior planets show phases like the Moon's when viewed from Earth.
Earth.
superior planets: Mars thru Neptune.
farther from the Sun than Earth.
The superior planets always appear full or nearly so.
by history:
classical planets: Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn.
known since prehistorical times
visible to the unaided eye
in ancient times this term also referred to the Sun and the Moon; the order was usually specified as:
Saturn, Jupiter, Mars, Sun, Venus, Mercury and Moon, based on the time for them to go "all the way
round" the sphere of the "fixed" stars).
modern planets: Uranus, Neptune.
discovered in modern times
visible only with optical aid
Earth.
The IAU decided that "classical" should refer to all eight planets (Mercury thru Neptune, including Earth
but not Pluto). This is contrary to historical usage but makes some sense from a 21st century perspective.
The nebula theory
This states that the solar system developed out of an interstellar cloud of dust and gas, called a nebula .
This theory best accounts for the objects we currently find in the Solar System and the distribution of
these objects. The Nebular Theory would have started with a cloud of gas and dust, most likely left over
from a previous supernova. The nebula started to collapse and condense; this collapsing process
continued for some time. The Sun-to-be collected most of the mass in the nebula’s center, forming
a Protostar .
A protostar is an object in which no nuclear fusion has occurred, unlike a star that is undergoing nuclear
fusion. A protostar becomes a star when nuclear fusion begins. Most likely the next step was that the
nebula flattened into a disk called the Protoplanetary Disk ; planets eventually formed from and in this
disk.
Three processes occurred with the nebular collapse:
Temperatures continued to increase
The solar nebula spun faster and faster
The solar nebula disk flattened
The orderly motions of the solar system today are a direct result of the solar system’s beginnings in a
spinning, flattened cloud of gas and dust.
How did our planet COME TO BE?
During the earlier formation of the earth, heavier elements like iron and nickel settled down at its center,
while lighter materials occupied the surface. This gave rise to the core as the innermost layer and the
crust or the lithosphere as the outer rock layer. The middle layer is the mantle.
The composition of the earth
The crust
The outermost layer of the planet.
It is composed of a great variety of igneous, metamorphic and sedimentary rocks.
The oceanic crust of the Earth is different from its continental crust.
The oceanic crust is 5 km (3 mi) to 10 km (6 mi) thick and is composed primarily of basalt, diabase, and
gabbro.
The continental crust is typically from 30 km (20 mi) to 50 km (30 mi) thick, and it is mostly composed
of less dense rocks than is the oceanic crust.
The mantle
Is composed mainly of iron and magnesium silicates. The temperature increases with depth from 870 deg
to 2200 deg C.
Is the mostly-solid bulk of Earth's interior. The mantle lies between Earth's dense, super-heated core and
its thin outer layer, the crust. The mantle is about 2,900 kilometers (1,802 miles) thick, and makes up a
whopping 84% of Earth’s total volume.
Plays an important role in the evolution of the crust and provides the thermal and mechanical driving
forces for plate tectonics.
The core
The outer core of the Earth is a liquid layer about 2,260 kilometers thick. It is made of iron and nickel.
This is above the Earth's solid inner core and below the mantle. Its outer boundary is 2,890 km (1,800
mi) beneath the Earth's surface.
It is responsible for the generation of Earth's magnetic field. The core contains information regarding the
earliest history of accretion of the planet.
The earth:
a habitable planet
The age of the earth is 4.53 billion years old.
The 3rd planet from the sun and the fifth largest planet on the solar system.
Its atmosphere, weather and many other factors are just right to keep us alive.
Has complex system of air, water and land.
It has one moon named Luna.
It is continuously changing.
Earth’s subsystem are the Geosphere, hydrosphere, atmosphere, cryosphere and the biosphere.
Each subsystem may be independent from one another but are interconnected through a biogeochemical
cycle.

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