PHOTOVOLTAIC SYSTEM

Contents
Certificate…………………………………………………………………………………..i
Abstract…………………………………………………………………………………....ii
Acknowledgement………………………………………………………………………...iii
Contents

1. Introduction………………………………………………………………………………...2
2. Problem formulation………………………………………………………………………..3
2.1 Historical overview.......................................................................................................3
2.2 Functioning of the photovoltaic cells............................................................................4
2.3 Types of solar photovoltaic cells...................................................................................6
2.4 Energy depreciation of photovoltaic cells...................................................................10
3. Result and discussion…………………………………………………………………….12
3.1 Photovoltaic system types...........................................................................................12
3.1.1 Network‐connected photovoltaic systems (on‐grid)............................................12
3.1.2 Network‐connected home systems (possibility for own consumption)...............14
3.1.3 Network‐connected solar power plants (farms)...................................................15
3.1.4 Standalone systems (off‐grid) or isolated systems...............................................16
3.1.5 Hybrid systems.....................................................................................................16
3.1.6 Independent systems for economic purposes.......................................................17
3.2 Solar radiation.............................................................................................................17
3.3 Advantages and disadvantages of photovoltaic system…………………………… 20
3.3.1 Advantages of photovoltaic system…………………………………………….20
3.3.2 Disadvantages of photovoltaic system………………………………………….21
3.4 Application of photovoltaic system…………………………………………………..22
4. Conclusion and future scope…………………………………………………………… 24
4.1 Legislative and institutional framework for producing of electric energy from RES 24
4.2 New solar photovoltaic panel technologies and development possibilities................25
4.2.1 Concentrating Photovoltaic Systems...................................................................27
4.2 .2 Carbon nanotube (CNT).....................................................................................28
4.3 Conclusion………………………………………………………………………….29
4.4 Reference…………………………………………………………………………...30
List of figures............................................................................................................................31

1
 CHAPTER 1.Introduction
Converting solar energy into electrical energy by Photovoltaic (PV) installations is the most
recognized way to use solar energy. Since solar photovoltaic cells are semiconductor devices, they
have a lot in common with processing and production techniques of other semiconductor devices
such as computers and memory chips. As it is well known, the requirements for purity and quality
control of semiconductor devices are quite large. With today's production, which reached a large
scale, the whole industry production of solar cells has been developed and, due to low production
cost, it is mostly located in the Far East. Photovoltaic cells produced by the majority of
today’s most large producers are mainly made of crystalline silicon as semiconductor material.

Solar photovoltaic modules, which are a result of combination of photovoltaic cells to

increase their power, are highly reliable, durable and low noise devices to produce electricity.
The fuel for the photovoltaic cell is free. The sun is the only resource that is required for the
operation of PV systems, and its energy is almost inexhaustible.

Typical photovoltaic cell efficiency is about 15%, which means it can convert 1/6 of solar energy
into electricity. Photovoltaic systems produce no noise, there are no moving parts and they do not
emit pollutants into the environment. Taking into account the energy consumed in the
production of photovoltaic cells, they produce several tens of times less carbon dioxide per unit in
relation to the energy produced from fossil fuel technologies. Photovoltaic cell has lifetime of more
than thirty years.

Figure 1 photovoltaic cell

2
 Photovoltaic systems require minimal maintenance. At the end of the life cycle, photovoltaic
modules can almost be completely recycled. Photovoltaic modules bring electricity to rural
areas where there is no electric power grid, and thus increase the life value of these areas.

Photovoltaic systems will continue the future development in a direction to become a key factor in
the production of electricity for households and buildings in general. The systems are installed on
existing roofs and/or are integrated into the facade. These systems contribute to reducing
energy consumption in buildings. A series of legislative acts of the European Union in the field of
renewable energy and energy efficiency have been developed, particularly promoting
photovoltaic technology for achieving the objectives of energy savings and CO2 reduction in
public, private and commercial buildings. Also, photovoltaic technology, as a renewable
energy source, contributes to power systems through diversification of energy sources and
security of electricity supply.

By the introduction of incentives for the energy produced by renewable sources in all
developed countries, photovoltaic systems have become very affordable, and timely return of
investment in photovoltaic systems has become short and constantly decreasing.

In recent years, this industry is growing at a rate of 40% per year and the photovoltaic
technology creates thousands of jobs at the local level.

3
 CHAPTER 2. Problem formulation
2.1Historical overview
The photovoltaic effect has been discovered in the first half of the 19th the century. In 1839, a
young French physicist Alexandre Edmond Becquerel observed a physical phenomenon or effect
that allows the conversion of light into electricity. The solar cells' work is based on this
principle of photovoltaic effect. In the following years, a number of scientists have contributed
to the development of this effect and technologies through their researches, the most relevant
among them are Charles Fritts, Edward Weston, Nikola Tesla and Albert Einstein, who has
been awarded the Nobel Prize for his work on "photoelectric effect" in the year 1904. The first
photovoltaic module was built by Bell Laboratories in 1954. It was billed as a solar battery
and was mostly just a curiosity as it was too expensive to gain widespread use. In the 1960s,
the space industry began to make the first serious use of the technology to provide power
aboard spacecraft. Through the space programs, the technology advanced, its reliability was
established, and the cost began to decline. During the energy crisis in the 1970s, photovoltaic
technology gained recognition as a source of power for non-space applications. Also, after the
crisis in the seventies, great efforts have been made in the development of solar cells for
commercial use in households. Independent solar cells systems (off‐grid) have been developed,
as well as network connected systems (on‐grid). In the meantime, a considerable increase in wide
use of solar cells has been recorded in rural areas where electricity network and infrastructure have
not been developed. Electricity produced in these areas is used for pumping water, cooling
energy, telecommunications and other household appliances and everyday life needs.

Photovoltaic modules technology and market development has grown rapidly by introducing
incentives for the production of electricity from renewable energy sources. Incentives are
implemented in all developed countries; the leaders are the European Union, the United States,
Japan, Australia, etc.
As already mentioned, today the industry of photovoltaic modules and related equipment is growing a t a
ra te of 40% per year, therefore, it is one of the fastest growing industry in the last decade. In the
Year 2010, the capacity of installed power has reached an enormous number of 17.5 GW.

4
 2.2. Functioning of the photovoltaic cells

The word photovoltaic consists of two words: photo, a Greek word for light, and voltaic, which defines
measurement value by which reactivity of electric field is expressed, i.e. the difference of potentials.

Photovoltaic systems use cells to convert sunlight into electricity. Converting solar energy into ele
ct - ricity in a photovoltaic installation is the most known way of using solar energy.

The light has a dual character according to quantum physics. Light is a particle and it is a wave.
The particles of light are called photons. Photons are massless particles, moving at light speed. The
energy of the photon depends on its wavelength and the frequency, and we can calculate it by the
Einstein's law, which is:
E=hϑ ……………………….(1)
Where: E ‐ photon energy
հ ‐ Planck's constant h = 6.626×10 − 34J
ϑ ‐ Photon frequency

Figure 2 photovoltaic cell

5
The photoelectric conversion in the PV junction. PV junction (diode) is a boundary between two
differently doped semiconductor layers; one is a P‐type layer (excess holes), and the second one is
an N‐type (excess electrons). At the boundary between the P and the N area, there is a
spontaneous electric field, which affects the generated electrons and holes and determines the
direction of the current.

Photons Photons

Metal contact Negative terminal

N type semiconductor

Voltage
Impoverished area

P type semiconductor Electricity

Metal contact Positive terminal

Recombination

Cavity = positive charge Electron =

negative charge

Figure 2 Functioning of the photovoltaic cell

To obtain the energy by the photoelectric effect, there shall be a directed motion of
photoelectrons, i.e. electricity. All charged particles, photoelectrons also, move in a directed motion
under the influence of electric field. The electric field in the material itself is located in
semiconductors, precisely in the impoverished area of PV junction (diode). It was pointed out for
the semiconductors that, along with the free electrons in them, there are cavities as charge carriers,
which are a sort of a byproduct in the emergence of free electrons. Cavities occurs whenever the
valence electron turns into a free electron, and this process is called the generation, while the
reverse process, when the free electron fills the empty spaces ‐ a cavity, is called recombination. If
the electron‐cavity pairs occur away from the impoverished areas it is possible to recombine
before they are separated by the electric field. Photoelectrons and cavities in semiconductors are
accumulated at opposite ends, thereby creating an electromotive force. If a consuming device is
connected to such a system, the current will flow and we will get electricity. In this way, solar
cells produce a voltage around 0.5‐0.7 V, with a current density of about several tens of
mA/cm2 depending on the solar radiation power as well as on the radiation spectrum.
The usefulness of a photovoltaic solar cell is defined as the ratio of electric power provided by the
PV solar cells and the solar radiation power.
The usefulness of PV solar cells ranges from a few percent to forty percent. The remaining energy
that is not converted into electrical energy is mainly converted into heat energy and thus warms the
cell. Generally, the increase in solar cell temperature reduces the usefulness of PV cells.
Standard calculations for the energy efficiency of solar photovoltaic cells are explained below.
Energy conversion efficiency of a solar photovoltaic cell (η "ETA") is the percentage of energy from
the incident light that actually ends up as electricity. This is calculated at the point of maximum
power, Pm, divided by the input light irradiation (E, in W/m2), all under standard test conditions
(STC) and the surface of photovoltaic solar cells (AC in m2).

E × Ac … …… … …2
¿
P
ŋ= ¿m
Where
ŋ=efficiency.
Pm =point of maximum power.
E=input light radiation.
A C =surface of photovoltaic solar cell.

2.3 Types of solar photovoltaic cells

Electricity is produced in solar cells which, as noted, consist of more layers of semi- conductive
Material. When the sun's rays shine down upon the solar cells, the electromotive force between th
ese layers is being created, which causes the flow of electricity. The highest solar radiation inten-
sity , the greater the flow of electricity.
The most common material for the production of solar cells is silicon. Silicon is obtained from sand and
is one of the most common elements in the earth's crust, so there is no limit to the availability of raw
materials.

Solar cell manufacturing technologies are:

• monocrystalline,

• polycrystalline,

• Bar‐crystalline silicon,

• Thin‐film technology.

Cells made from crystal silicon (Si), are made of a thinly sliced piece (wafer), a crystal of
silicon (monocrystalline) or a whole block of silicon crystals (multi-crystalline); their efficiency ranges
between 12% and 19%.
 Figure 3 photovoltaic cell.

 Monocrystalline Si cells: conversion efficiency for this type of cells ranges from 13% to
17%, and can generally be said to be in wide commercial use. In good light conditions
it is the most efficient photovoltaic cell. This type of cell can convert solar radiation of
1.000 W/m2 to 140 W of electricity with the cell surface of 1m2. The production of
monocrystalline Si cells requires an absolutely pure semiconducting material.
Monocrystalline rods are extracted from the molten silicon and sliced into thin chips
(wafer). Such type of production enables a relatively high degree of usability. Expected
lifespan of these cells is typically 25‐30 years and, of course, as well as for all
photovoltaic cells, the output degrades somewhat over the years.

 Multi-crystalline Si cells: this type of cell can convert solar radiation of 1.000 W/m2 to 130
W of electricity with the cell surface of 1m2. The production of these cells is
economically more efficient compared to monocrystalline. Liquid silicon is poured into
blocks, which are then cut into slabs. During the solidification of materials crystal
structures of various sizes are being created, at whose borders some defects may
emerge, making the solar cell to have a somewhat lower efficiency, which ranges from
10% to 14%. The lifespan is expected to be between 20 and 25 years.

 Ribbon silicon has the advantage in its production process in not needing a wafer
cutting which results in loss of up to 50% of the material in the process of cutting).
However, the quality and the possibility of production of this technology will not
make it a leader in the near future. The efficiency of these cells is around 11%.
 Sunlight
Upper contact Antiglare layer
Transparent layer Glass

DC current

Base
N type semiconductor P type
semiconductor Lower contact

Figure 4 Typical monocrystalline cells

 In the thin‐film technology the modules are manufactured by piling extremely thin layers
of photosensitive materials on a cheap substrate such as glass, stainless steel or plastic. The
process of generating modules in thin‐film technology has resulted in reduced production
costs compared to crystalline silicon technology, which is somewhat more intense.
Today's price advantage in the production of a thin‐film is balanced with the crystalline
silicon due to lower efficiency of the thin‐film, which ranges from 5% to 13%. The share
of thin‐film technology on the market is 15% and constantly increasing, it is also
expected an increase in years to come and thus reduce the adverse market ratio in
relation to the photovoltaic module of crystalline silicon. Lifespan is around 15‐20 years.
There are four types of thin‐film modules (depending on the active material) that are
now in commercial use:

1.Amorphous silicon
Amorphous Si Cells: Cell efficiency is around 6%, a
cell surface of 1m2 can convert 1.000 W/m2 of solar
radiation to about 50 watts of electric energy.
Progresses in research of this type of module have
been made and it is expected a greater efficiency in
the future.

Figure 6 thin-film, amorphous silicon

 Figure 5 scheme of silicon processing for the solar photovoltaics system production

2. Cadmium Tellurium (CdTe)

Figure 7 cdte thin-films

Cadmium tellurium (CdTe) cells: Cell efficiency is around 18%, a cell surface of 1m2 can convert solar
radiation of1.000 W/ m2 to 160 W of electricity in laboratory conditions. Cadmium teleurid is a
fusion of metal cadmium and tellurium semimetal. It is suitable for use in thin photovoltaic
modules due to the physical properties and low‐technology manufacturing.
3. Copper indium gallium selenide (CIS, CIGS)

.
 Figure 8 CIS thin‐film

CIS cells have the highest efficiency among the thin‐film cells, which is about 20%. This cell type can convert
Solar radiation of 1.000 W/m2 to 160 W of electricity with the cell surface of 1 m2 in laboratory condition.

4. Thermo sensitive solar cells and other organ cells (DSC)

The development of these organic cells is yet to come, since it is still testing and it is not
increasingly commercialized. Cell efficiency is around 10%. The tests are going in the
direction of using the facade integrated systems, which has proven to be high‐quality solutions
in all light radiation and all temperature conditions. Also, a great potential of this technology is in
low cost compared to silicon cells.

There are other types of photovoltaic technologies that are still developing, while others are to be
commercialized.

Regardless of the lifespan, the warranty period of today's most common commercial
photovoltaic modules is 10 years at 90% power output, and 25 years at 80% power output.

2.4Energy depreciation of photovoltaic cells

The period of energy depreciation of photovoltaic cells is the time period that must pass using
a photovoltaic system to return the energy that has been invested in the construction of all parts of
the system, as well as the energy required for the breakdown after the lifetime of a PV system. Of
course, the energy depreciation time is different for different locations at which the system is
located, thus it is a lot shorter on locations with a large amount of irradiated solar energy, up
to 10 or more times shorter than its lifetime. South Istria has approximately 1.700 kWh/m2
annual radiation, while the northern part of Istria has somewhere around 1.500 kWh/m2.
Figure 9 Roof photovoltaic system's energy depreciation at the location having the annual radiation of
1.700 kWh/m^2, optimally inclined photovoltaic module
Energy depreciation in years

Production year

Efficiency

Raw material
recycling
inverter
Mounting structures and wiring
cell
m Laminate
crystal + wafer

The figure shows the available data on the energy depreciation for the various technologies of
photovoltaic cells, with their respective efficiencies in given years of production.

In relation to the south of Istria, which is shown in Figure 9, the energy depreciation in the
city of Zagreb is, for example, about 20% longer , in southern Dalmatia is 10 to 15% shorter
than in Istria, which corresponds to solar radiation intensity‐insolation map, shown in Figure 13.

CHAPTER 3.Result and discussion

 3.1 Photovoltaic system types

Photovoltaic systems can be generally divided into two basic groups:

1. Photovoltaic systems not connected to the network, stand‐alone systems (off‐grid)

2. Photovoltaic systems connected to public electricity network (on‐grid)

There are lots of different subtypes of photovoltaic systems according to type and method of
connecting to the network, or a way of storing energy on independent systems.

3.1.1Network‐connected photovoltaic systems (on‐grid)

FN module produces
DC current

INVERTER
converts DC into AC
current

Counter counts the

electric power
production and
consumption

Figure 10 Network-connected photovoltaic system

The main components of PV systems are photovoltaic modules, photovoltaic inverter,

mounting sub-frame and measuring cabinet with protective equipment and installation.
Photovoltaic modules convert solar energy into DC current, while photovoltaic inverter
adjusts the produced energy in a form which can be submitted to the public grid. The AC
voltage is supplied to the electricity network through the protection and measuring equipment.

Photovoltaic inverter is usually located indoors, although there are inverters for outdoor
installation, where it must not be directly exposed to sunlight. Inverters produce high‐quality AC
current of corresponding voltage and are suitable for a network‐connected photovoltaic system.
Network inverters operate like any other inverter, with the difference that the
Network inverters must ensure that the voltage they supply is in phase with the network
voltage. This allows the photovoltaic systems to deliver the electricity to the electrical
network.

Electrical connection is usually located in the electrical control box, which is located in a separate
room, but can also be placed in the measurement and terminal box, which then connects to the
electrical control box. The meter is installed at the point of connection, a single phase, two‐tariff,
electronic system for single‐phase, and a three phase, two‐tariff, electronic system for two‐phase
and three phase systems. In such installations it is regularly proposed to setting up a fuse in front
of and behind the counters in order to permit replacement of the meter at a no‐load condition.
The exact conditions of connection are synchronized with the local distributor of electric
energy ‐ HEP ODS. Power OFF buttons must be provided both on the side of photovoltaic
modules as well as on the side of network connection.

The output voltage of the inverter must be in accordance with the Regulation on standardized
voltages for low voltage electricity distribution network and electrical equipment. Standard
sizes of the nominal voltage is 230V, up to 400V between phase and neutral conductor, between
phase conductors, the quad‐phase network nominal frequency of 50 Hz, and, under normal
conditions, it should not differ from the nominal value by more than ± 10%.

Due to the large exposures to lightning, besides being connected to the lightning protection
installation, the photovoltaic modules are protected by arresters and bias as well. Arresters are
installed immediately after the module in order to prevent the impact of bias on the
installation of the building. Grid-connected or utility-interactive PV systems are designed to
operate in parallel with and interconnected with the electric utility grid. The primary
component in grid-connected PV systems is the inverter, or power conditioning unit (PCU).
The PCU converts the DC power produced by the PV array into AC power consistent with the
voltage and power quality requirements of the utility grid, and automatically stops supplying
power to the grid when the utility grid is not energized. A bi-directional interface is made
between the PV system AC output circuits and the electric utility network, typically at an on-
site distribution panel or service entrance. This allows the AC power produced by the PV
system to either supply on-site electrical loads, or to back-feed the grid when the PV system
output is greater than the on-site load demand. At night and during other periods when the
electrical loads are greater than the PV system output, the balance of power required by the
loads is received from the electric utility This safety feature is required in all grid-connected
PV systems, and ensures that the PV system will not continue to operate and feed back into
the utility grid when the grid is down for service or repair.

3.1.2Network‐connected home systems (possibility for own consumption)

 Network‐connected home system
Solar
panel

Inverter
Network

Counter

Home appliances

Figure 11 Network‐connected home photovoltaic systems

These are the most popular types of solar photovoltaic systems that are suitable for home and
commercial installations in developed and urban areas. Connection to the local electricity
network allows selling to the local distributor of electric energy any excess of electricity
generated and not used in the household consumption, because the PV system is connected to the
network via a home installation in parallel operation with the distribution system. Also, the home
is supplied with electricity from the grid when there is no sunny weather. The inverter, as
already discussed, is used to convert direct current (DC) produced by the photovoltaic modules
into alternating current (AC) located in the electrical grid and used to drive all the household
appliances.

This system gives two choices to the user: to sell the entire electricity produced to the local
distributor, delivering all the electricity in the network (especially if there is a price incentive for
electricity produced from renewable sources according to the status of eligible producer of electric
energy ‐ feed‐in tariffs) or the electricity produced can be used to meet the current needs of
households and sell any surplus in the electricity grid. It is necessary to mention that the local
distributor in Croatia, ODS‐HEP, is currently trying to avoid the second solution and prefers
supplying of all the electricity produced into the network, without the possibility for the own
consumption.

The increase of interest in this type of connecting the photovoltaic system to the grid is
expected to happen with convergence of prices of the electricity produced in a conventional
Way with the price of the electricity produced from renewable energy sources. So far, the incentive
feed‐in tariffs are favoring network installations only, although the photovoltaic system produces
the most electricity at midday, when the sun is up, and can thus meet the energy needs and
thereby relieve the power system.

3.1.3Network‐connected solar power plants (farms)

Figure 12 Solar farm

These systems, also connected to the network, are generating large amounts of electricity by a
photovoltaic installation on a localized area. The power of such photovoltaic power ranges from
several hundred kilowatts to tens of megawatts, recently up to several hundred megawatts.
Some of these installations can be located on large industrial facilities and terminals, but more
often on large barren land surfaces. Such large installations are exploiting existing facilities to
produce electricity at the location and thus compensate part of the electric energy demand in the
area.

To have a feeling of size, talking about solar farms, it is worth to mention an example of a
large‐scale solar farm in the former military airport in Germany: 40Mwp p o w e r thin film
technology, surface area 110 hectares, which is equivalent to an area of 200 football stadiums,
the expected annual production of 40 million kWh of electricity, saving 25.000 tonnes of CO2,
and cost about 130 million €.
 3.1.4 Standalone systems (off‐grid) or isolated systems

FN modules
Figure 13 Standalone photovoltaic system

Voltage
Inverter regulator

Consumers

Solar
batteries

These systems are used in rural areas where there is no electricity network and infrastructure.
The systems are connected to a reservoir of energy (battery) by a control over the filling and
emptying. The inverter can also be used to provide alternating current for standard electrical
equipment and appliance. Typical stand‐alone photovoltaic installations are used to ensure the
availability of electricity in remote areas (mountain resorts, islands, rural areas in the developing
areas). Rural electrification means either small home solar photovoltaic installations covering
basic electricity needs of an individual household, or bigger solar photovoltaic network that
provides enough electricity for several households.

3.1.5 Hybrid systems

A solar photovoltaic system can be combined with other energy sources, such as biomass
generator, wind turbines, diesel generator, all to ensure a constant and sufficient supply of
electricity, since it is known that all renewable energy sources, including photovoltaic
systems, are not constant in energy production. It means that, when there is no sun, the system
does not produce electricity, although the need for energy is constant, and therefore must be met
from other sources. The hybrid system can be connected to a network, stand‐ alone or as a support
network.
3.1.6 Independent systems for economic purposes

Use of electricity produced in solar photovoltaic systems in remote installations far from electrical
networks is very common. An example is telecommunication equipment, especially for bridging
the rural areas with the rest of the country with built electric grid. CDMA mobile stations are
powered by photovoltaic or hybrid systems. Other photovoltaic installations, such as for traffic
signs and lights, are today competitive because the cost of bringing electricity infrastructure in
these remote places quite high.

3.2 solar radiation

The sun is the central star of the solar system in which the Earth is. It has a form of a large
glowing ball of gas, the chemical composition of mostly hydrogen and helium, but also other
elements that are in it to a lesser extent, like oxygen, carbon, iron, neon, nitrogen, silicon,
magnesium and sulfur.

Energy from the Sun comes to the Earth in the form of solar radiation. Nuclear reactions take place
in the interior of the Sun, during which hydrogen is transformed into helium by a fusion
process, accompanied by the release of large amounts of energy, where the temperature
reaches 15 million °C. Part of this energy comes to Earth in form of heat and light, and allows
all processes, from photosynthesis to the production of electricity in photovoltaic systems.

Under optimal conditions, the earth's surface can obtain 1.000 W/m2, while the actual value
depends on the location, i.e. latitude, climatological location parameters such as frequency of
cloud cover and haze, air pressure, etc.

Considering the sunlight and the productivity of photovoltaic systems, it is necessary to

understand the following concepts:

 Irradiation, average density of the radiant solar radiation power, which is equal to the ratio
of the solar radiation power and surface of the plane perpendicular to the direction of
this radiation (W/m2),
 Radiation, which represents the quantity of solar radiation that is radiated on the unit
surface at a given time (Wh/m2) or (J/m2). Besides expressing it in hourly values, it is often
expressed as daily, monthly or yearly radiation, depending on the time interval.
The solar radiation weakens on its way through the earth's atmosphere due to the interaction
with gases and vapors in the atmosphere and arrives at the Earth's surface as direct and
diffused. Direct sunlight comes directly from the sun, while scattered or diffused radiation reaches
the earth from all directions. Considering direct and diffused radiation on a flat surface, we are
talking about the total radiation. In case of an inclined surface, the rejected or reflected
radiation has to be added to the direct and diffused radiation. Rejected radiation can be reflected
from the ground or water.

Average annual irradiation on a

horizontal surface (M Wh/m2)

Figure 14 Average annual radiations to a horizontal plane in Croatia

The largest component of solar radiation is direct, and the maximum radiation should be on a
surface perpendicular to the direction of the sun's rays. The greatest radiation at any given moment
is only possible if the plane is constantly referred to the movement of the sun in the sky.

Photovoltaic modules can be mounted in various ways, fixed at a certain angle, or may be
moving to better monitor the angle of inclination of the sun during the day for greater energy
yield and better results in the production of electricity. Optimal value of the inclination angle
of the surface has to be determined for fixed mounted photovoltaic module. The optimum
angle of inclined PV module's surfaces is the angle at which it is inclined in relation to a
horizontal surface in order to obtain the highest possible annual irradiation.
The greatest energy yield of a fixed module system is achieved by placing the modules at the
optimal annual angle. As the sunlight radiation is a highly seasonal dependent variable, the average
daily radiation values to an inclined surface range from about 1 kWh/m 2 in December up to 7
kWh/m2 in June, which means that we obtain a higher energy yield in summer by setting a
module at a lower angle, and vice versa.

Figure 15 Photovoltaic modules with active monitoring of the Sun motion, Tracker

Influence of shading on solar power plant ‐ the maximum electric energy is produced when
sunlight directly crosses the PV modules. Shadows created by objects on the roof, wood or other
surrounding buildings and skyscrapers substantially affect electricity production. The shade also
negatively affects the stability of the system because modules located partially in the shade do not
have a linear production of electricity, resulting in voltage changes and inverter disturbances. If
only one cell in a module is located in the shade, it can reduce the power of all modules by 75%.
3.3Advantages of photovoltaic system
1. Electricity produced by solar cells is clean and silent. Because they do not use fuel

Other than sunshine.

2. PV systems do not release any harmful air or water, pollution into the environment,

Deplete natural resources, or endanger animal or human health.

3. Photovoltaic systems are quiet and visually unobtrusive.

4. Small-scale solar plants can take advantage of unused space on rooftops of existing

Buildings.

5. PV cells were originally developed for use in space, where repair is extremely expe-

nsive, if not impossible. PV still powers nearly every satellite circling the earth beca-

use it operates reliably for long periods of time with virtually no maintenance.

6.Solar energy is a locally available renewable resource. It does not need to be imported

from other regions of the country or across the world. This reduces environmental imp

Act associated with transportation and also reduces our dependence on imported oil.

And, unlike fuels that are mined and harvested, when we use solar energy to produce

electricity we do not deplete or alter the resource.

7. A PV system can be constructed to any size based on energy requirements. Furthermore,

the owner of a PV system can enlarge or move it if his or her energy needs change.

For instance, homeowners can add modules every few years as their energy usage and

financial resources grow. Ranchers can use mobile trailer-mounted pumping systems to

8. water cattle as the cattle are rotated to different fields. Because solar energy coincides with

energy needs for cooling, PV panels can provide an effective solution to energy demand peaks

–especially in hot summer months where energy demand is high.

9.Though solar energy panels’ prices have seen a drastic reduction in the past years, and are still

falling, nonetheless, solar photovoltaic panels are one of major renewable energy systems that

are promoted through government subsidy funding (FITs, tax credits etc.); thus financial incent-
 ive for PV panels make solar energy panels an attractive investment alternative.

10.Residential solar panels are easy to install on rooftops or on the ground without any interference

to residential lifestyle.

3.4 Disadvantage of photovoltaic system.

1.Some toxic chemicals, like cadmium and arsenic, are used in the PV production process.

These environmental impacts are minor and can be easily controlled through recycling and

proper disposal.

2.Solar energy is somewhat more expensive to produce than conventional sources of energy

due in part to the cost of manufacturing PV devices and in part to the conversion efficienc-

ies of the equipment. As the conversion efficiencies continue to increase and the manufact-

uring costs continue to come down, PV will become increasingly cost competitive with con-

ventional fuels.

3.solar power is a variable energy source, with energy production dependent on the sun.

Solar facilities may produce no power at all some of the time, which could lead to an

energy shortage if too much of a region's power comes from solar power.

4.As in all renewable energy sources, solar energy has intermittency issues; not shining

at night but also during daytime there may be cloudy or rainy weather.

5.Consequently, intermittency and unpredictability of solar energy makes solar energy panels

less reliable a solution.

6.Solar energy panels require additional equipment (inverters) to convert direct electricity

(DC) to alternating electricity (AC) in order to be used on the power network.

7.For a continuous supply of electric power, especially for on-grid connections, Photovol-

taic panels require not only Inverters but also storage batteries; thus increasing the inves-

tmen cost for PV panels considerably

8.In case of land-mounted PV panel installations, they require relatively large areas for dep-

loyment; usually the land space is committed for this purpose for a period of 15-20 years –

or even longer.

9.Solar panels efficiency levels are relatively low (between 14%-25%) compared to the effi-
 ciency levels of other renewable energy systems.

10.Though PV panels have no considerable maintenance or operating costs, they are fragile

and can be damaged relatively easily; additional insurance costs are therefore of ultimate

importance to safeguard a PV investment.

3.5Application of photovoltaic system.

1. Stand-Alone Systems Stand-alone systems directly use the generated produced electricity.

Stand-alone systems do not rely on utility/grid connections. When the requirement arises

during night time or poor sunlight, a battery storage system is used. In some situations,

stand-alone systems use conventional generators as backup systems. There are numerous

applications of stand-alone PV systems, some of which are mentioned below.

2. Lighting: With the invention of LED (light emitting diode) technology as low power lighting

sources, PV systems find an ideal application in remote or mobile lighting systems.

PVsystems combined with battery storage facilities are mostly used to provide lighting for bil-

lboards, highway in formation signs, public-use facilities, parking lots, vacation cabins, ligh-

ting for trains.

3. communication Signals required by communication systems need amplification after Various

relay towers are stationed to boost radio, television, and High grounds are mostly favoured as

the sites for repeater stations. These far from power lines. To reduce the difficulty and cost as-

sociated with generators systems are being installed as a viable alternative. repeater at an elev-

ated location can be powered by PV Signals required by communication systems need amplif-

ication after particular distance audio, television, and phone signals.

4. Electricity for remote areas: Some areas are quite far from the distribution network to

establish connection with the grid. Areas under construction also need power supply before

they are connected. PV systems are an attractive option for these cases. Furthermore, PV

systems can be backed up by conventional generators to provide uninterrupted supply.

5. Disaster Relief: Natural calamities often bring about an electricity crisis. As the disasters

such as hurricanes, floods, tornadoes, and earthquakes destroy electricity generation and
 distribution systems. In situations like these, where power will be out for an extended period,

portable PV systems can provide temporary solutions for light, communication, food and

water systems. Emergency health clinics opt for PV based electricity over conventional systems.

6. Scientific experiments: In various cases, scientific experiments are set up in areas far from

power supply. PV systems can be effectively used to carry out scientific activities in remote

areas. Systems monitoring seismic activities, highway conditions, meteorological information

and other research activities can be powered by PV systems.

7. Signal Systems: Navigational systems, such as light houses, highway and aircraft warning

signals can be far from the electric grid. PV systems can be a reliable power source for these

important applications. Even portable traffic lights can be powered by PV systems.

 CHAPTER4. Conclusion and future scope
4.1Legislative and institutional framework for producing of
electric energy from RES

There are two basic acts governing the issue of electricity generation from renewable energy
Sources (RES) and high‐efficiency cogeneration ‐ Energy Act (Official Gazette 68/01, 177/04,
76/07) and Act on Electric Energy Market (Official Gazette
177/04, 76/07). Energy Act stipulates that the RES usage is in the interest of the Republic of
Croatia, defines the eligible producer (EP) as an energy entity that in a single production
facility produces energy from RES. The Act states that all issues related to the use of
renewable energy are regulated by special Regulations. The Regulations on the use of
renewable energy sources and cogeneration (OG 67/07) sets out the terms of using renewable
energy and cogeneration plants, defined groups of RES and cogeneration plants, establishes the
conditions for registration of projects and facilities for the use of RES, the registration of eligible
producers, and defines all steps the energy subject must take in order to obtain the approval for
the construction of new plants. The Ministry of Economy, and Entrepreneurship (MELE) is
responsible for maintaining the Register. Based on the Energy Act the tariff system for electricity
production from RES and cogeneration has been declared. Eligible producers are entitled to an
incentive price, which is defined by the tariff system, and the price depends on the type and size of
plants. The eligible producer is entitled to an incentive price based on the electricity purchase
contract that is signed with the Croatian energy market operator (HROTE).

According to the Act on Electric Energy Market, the transmission system operator or the
distribution system operator shall provide redeeming of the total electricity produced by the
eligible producer under prescribed conditions. The status of eligible electricity producer is based on
a decision of the Croatian Energy Regulatory Agency (HERA) in accordance with the conditions
and procedures prescribed by the Regulation on granting the status of eligible producer (OG
67/07).

Besides MELE and HERA, the key institution in the system of encouraging the production of
electricity from renewable energy sources and cogeneration is the Croatian Energy Market
Operator (HROTE). The Act on Electricity Market defines its obligations, including signing the
contract with all suppliers, collecting fees for the stimulation of renewable energy and
cogeneration, as well as calculation and allocation of funds collected from fees to eligible
producers.
4.2New solar photovoltaic panel technologies and
development possibilities
Since 2004 Europe is the leader in the global photovoltaic market installations. In 2010
Europe holds about 40% of the global market, while the countries that have developed the best
support systems for photovoltaic installations are Germany, Italy Spain, France, and Czech
Republic.

So far, the market is dominated by crystalline silicon cells, while an increasing share of thin film
technology is expected in the future. Thin‐film technology enables significant savings in materials,
more flexible installation of photovoltaic cells since they can be bent. Furthermore, thin film
technology solar cells have a significantly shorter return of invested energy period, while, on the
other hand, the effectiveness is somewhat lower.

Silicon as base material is absolutely dominating, with a share of 98,3%, out of it mostly
crystalline silicon technology with a 93,7% share in total production. Until recently (year 2000),
monocrystalline silicon production technology was predominant, obtained by the so called
Czochralski process or technology of the floating zone. The production of monocrystalline
silicon is more expensive, but the cell efficiency is greater. Today this technology is losing a
step in comparison with the technology of multi-crystalline silicon (Mc‐ Si). The advantages of
multi-crystalline silicon are lower capital investment for production of wafer (a thin slab of a
semiconductor material), higher efficiency due to the use of square silicon wafers, which provide
greater active surface of the module compared with a circular or quasi‐circular shape of
monocrystalline wafer. In Mc‐Si technology it is easier to produce larger cell size of 150×150 and
200×200 mm, which simplifies their incorporation into modules. The Mc‐Si technology had a
share of 57.2% in the total production of solar cells in year 2003.

Ribbon silicon has the production process advantage in avoiding the need for cutting wafer, which
resulted in loss of up to 50% of the material in the process of cutting. However, the quality and
the possibility of production are not at a level on which this technology could take the lead in the
near future. The biggest technological disadvantage of crystalline silicon is in its semiconducting
character with a so‐called indirect band gap, which is why it needs a relatively large thickness
of the active layer in order to largely benefit from solar radiation. Semiconductors with a so‐
called direct band gap are applied in thin‐film technology and their thickness can be much
smaller, with significantly lower consumption of materials, which promises low cost and the
ability to produce large quantities of cells. Unfortunately,
although long awaited, these thin film solar cells technologies, with amorphous silicon, CIS, CdTe
and other, have not yet demonstrated its market ability and will need significant investment to
become competitive to crystalline silicon due to cost, low efficiency, stability, or environmental
acceptability of the module. The share of thin‐film technology (amorphous silicon, CdTe, CIS),
despite significant efforts in research, has remained relatively modest so far. However, strong
increase in production of solar cells from crystalline silicon can cause a rise in prices and shortages
of raw silicon, giving the possibility for a greater penetration of these technologies in the future.

Although photovoltaic systems are commercially available and widely extended, further research
and development of photovoltaic technology is essential to allow it to become a major source of
electricity. Considering future directions in the research of solar photovoltaic cells, as far as
crystalline silicon solar cells concern, a technology that has dominated since the beginning of
photovoltaics developing, there are six important features to take account of:

1 Increasing the efficiency of cells and modules, and, in long‐term, using of new and
integrated concepts
2 New and improved materials in all parts of the production chain
3 High throughput, high yield, integrated industrial processing
4 The discovery of new safer technologies for a reduced negative effect on the
environment as well as achieving a longer lifetime of the module

When it comes to thin film technology, which is relatively new and has great potential for
development, there are a few guidelines:

1. Reliability and a better balance between cost and quality of production equipment
2. Reducing the costs of packaging for rigid and flexible modules
3. More reliable modules through better procedures for quality assurance
(improvements in testing and improving module efficiency assessment)
4. Recycling materials and old modules
5. Replacement of the rare chemical elements such as indium, gallium, tellurium

It is crucial for all the photovoltaic cells technologies and for the entire photovoltaic industry to
ensure a greater decrease in price in the next several years. This goal will be accomplished
as soon as conditions for new technological innovations and improvements, that will increase
the efficiencies of photovoltaic cells and prolong their lifespan, are provided at all social levels.
Indirectly, it will lead to a reduction of production costs.

Specific efficiency targets by the year 2020, issued by EPIA (European Photovoltaic Industry
Association), are:

1. Commercial crystalline silicon cells:

‐ Mono‐crystalline silicon, cells must achieve efficiency of 22%, although some present
commercial cells have already its efficiency in the range 19‐22%,
‐ Multi‐crystalline silicon, cells must achieve an average efficiency of 20%.

2. Commercial modules in thin‐film technology

‐ Amorphous silicon (a‐Si), must reach the efficiency of 10‐16%,
‐ Cadmium tellurium (CdTe), must reach the efficiency of 15‐20%,
‐ Copper indium gallium selenide (CIS, CIGS), must reach the efficiency of 16‐22%.

4.2.1Concentrating Photovoltaic Systems

Research on concentrating photovoltaic systems has begun

in the seventies of the twentieth century. Today, small,
medium and high concentrating photovoltaic systems
are in use, and are able to increase the solar radiation
from 2 to even 300 times.

Figure 16 Concentrating Photovoltaic Systems

As it is well known from the photoelectric effect, photovoltaic cells produce the more
electricity the more they are exposed to sunlight. The problem occurs with the cell efficiency,
because its effectiveness decreases by the temperature increase.

This means that, if you would like to increase the production by increasing solar radiation,
lowering of the consequently increased temperature should be ensured. Another problem with
concentrating photovoltaic systems is the optical lenses and sun movement tracking system price,
which often exceeds the savings in the number of cells in relation to traditional photovoltaic
systems.

Challenges at concentrating photovoltaic system’s functioning are how to operate with

maximum efficiency at concentrating radiation, which means how to ensure adequate system
cooling. Also, one of the disadvantages is the inability to concentrate diffused radiation, when
direct radiation is not available, such as during cloudy weather. The conclusion is that such
systems are optimal and cost‐effective only on those locations that have the necessary direct solar
radiation on an annual basis.

4.2.2Carbon nanotube (CNT)

Carbon nanotube (CNT) is a nano structure which consists in carbon atoms (C) in the form of an
empty cylinder. The ends of cylinders are usually sealed by semi‐fullerene structures.

Figure 17 CNT photovoltaic cell

The ratio of length to diameter in nanotubes construction is up to 132.000.000:1, more than any
other material
There are three types of carbon nanotubes ‐ the so‐called "armchair" (chair), zig‐zag and spiral
(helical) nanotubes. These three types have different symmetries. Carbon nanotubes can be long
several hundred nanometers. Some of them are considered special forms of fullerenes. To
produce macroscopic materials that are built from carbon nanotubes, carbon nanotubes are arranged
in bundles next to each other in order to form a triangular lattice. These are Single‐Walled Carbon
Nanotubes (SWNT).

The second type is Multi‐Walled Carbon Nanotubes ‐ MWNT, made by placing the tube of a
smaller diameter in a tube of a larger diameter and then again in a third tube that has a larger
 diameter, etc. Carbon nanotubes are already used in some commercial technologies such as
displays.

Carbon nanotubes are one of the most mentioned building blocks in nanotechnology. They have a
hundred times greater resistance to stretching in relation to steel, thermal conductivity is better
than the purest diamond has, electrical conductivity is similar to copper.

Previous studies have succeeded to produce nanotubes that respond to the light of a certain
spectrum range, but never responsive to the entire visible spectrum. Nanotubes are filled with three
types of chromophores that change shape when they are illuminated with light color. Each species
responds to a single color: red, green or blue. Modifying the form of chromophores alters the
electrical conductivity of nanotubes, which can be measured and converted into digital
information.

Although CNT has the potential in relation to photovoltaic systems, a cell which efficiency is
greater than 6.5% has not yet been produced. CNT technology is still in the initial stage of
research and there is plenty of room for future improvements.

4.3 Conclusion

It has been highlighted that there is a vast resource available and PV

technology is one of the most feasible renewable energy’s for electricity
generation within the urban environment. Successful deployment of PV cells
on building facades or roofs will greatly reduce the need for additional land for
electricity generation from new generation stations.

The Government is committed to expanding its supporting programme for

renewables including research, development, demonstration and dissemination.
The main current hurdle preventing large-scale manufacture in the UK is the
current market or lack of it. The understanding and potential of photovoltaics is
improving, but further Research and Development is required to capture cost-
reductions. It is important that strong partnerships are established between
industry and government. Increasing environmental concerns and the need to
achieve emission reduction targets should help the technology to become
further established as a marketable and economically viable product. The
British Government signed up to Agenda 21, a global environment and
development action plan, at the Rio Earth Summit in 1992.

4.4 Reference
[1] E. Clarke, Circuit Analysis of AC Power Systems, vol. I. New York: Wiley, 1950, p. 81.
[2] G. O. Young, "Synthetic structure of industrial plastics," in Plastics, 2nd ed., vol. 3, J. Peters,
[3] Ed. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1964, pp. 15-64.
Technical Reports:
[4] E. E. Reber, R. L. Mitchell, and C. J. Carter, "Oxygen absorption in the Earth's atmosphere,"
[5] Aerospace Corp., Los Angeles, CA, Tech. Rep. TR-0200 (4230-46)-3, Nov. 1968.
Papers from Conference Proceedings (Published):
[6] The Amazon transmission," in Proc. 1991 IEEE Power Engineering Society
[7] Transmission and Distribution Conf., pp. 315-320.
Dissertations:
[8] S. Hwang, "Frequency domain system identification of helicopter rotor dynamics
[9] incorporating models with time periodic coefficients," Ph.D. dissertation, Dept.
[10] Aerosp. Eng., Univ. Maryland, College Park, 1997.
Standards:
[11] IEEE Guide for Application of Power Apparatus Bushings, IEEE Standard
[12] C57.19.100-1995, Aug. 1995.
Patents:
[13] G. Brandli and M. Dick, "Alternating current fed power supply," U.S. Patent 4 084 217,
[14] Nov. 4, 1978.
 List of figure
Figure 1 photovoltaic cells…………………………………………………………………………….1
Figure 2 Functioning of the photovoltaic cell...................................................................................5
Figure 3 photovoltaic cell................................................................................................................. 7
Figure 4 Typical monocrystalline cells..............................................................................................8
Figure 5 Scheme of the silicon processing for the solar photovoltaic systems production................9
Figure 6 thin‐film, amorphous silicon.............................................................................................10
Figure 7 CdTe thin‐film..................................................................................................................10
Figure 8 CIS thin‐film.....................................................................................................................11
Figure 9 Roof photovoltaic system's energy depreciation at the location having the annual radiation
of 1.700 kWh/m^2, optimally inclined photovoltaic module..........................................................12
Figure 10 Network‐connected photovoltaic system........................................................................13
Figure 11 Network‐connected home photovoltaic system...............................................................15
Figure 12 Solar farm.................................................................................................................16
Figure 13 Standalone photovoltaic system......................................................................................17
Figure 14 Average annual radiation to a horizontal plane in Croatia...............................................19
Figure 15 Photovoltaic modules with active monitoring of the Sun motion, Tracker.....................20
Figure 16 Concentrating Photovoltaic System................................................................................24
Figure 17 CNT photovoltaic cell.....................................................................................................25