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Transistor Operation
Transistor Configuration
Datasheet explanation
References
INTRODUCTION AND HISTORY
INVENTION
The first patent for the field-effect transistor principle was filed in
Canada by Austrian-Hungarian physicist Julius Edgar Lilienfeld on October 22, 1925,
but Lilienfeld published no research articles about his devices, and they were ignored
by industry. In 1934 German physicist Dr. Oskar Heil patented another field-effect
transistor. There is no direct evidence that these devices were built, but later work in the
1990s show that one of Lilienfeld's designs worked as described and gave substantial
gain. Legal papers from the Bell Labs patent show that William Shockley and a co-
worker at Bell Labs, Gerald Pearson, had built operational versions from Lilienfeld's
patents, yet they never referenced this work in any of their later research papers or
historical articles.
The first transistor
The Bell team made many attempts to build such a system with various
tools, but generally failed. Setups where the contacts were close enough were invariably
as fragile as the original cat's whisker detectors had been, and would work briefly, if at
all. Eventually they had a practical breakthrough. A piece of gold foil was glued to the
edge of a plastic wedge, and then the foil was sliced with a razor at the tip of the
triangle. The result was two very closely spaced contacts of gold. When the plastic was
pushed down onto the surface of a crystal and voltage applied to the other side (on the
base of the crystal), current started to flow from one contact to the other as the base
voltage pushed the electrons away from the base towards the other side near the
contacts. The point-contact transistor had been invented.
On 15 December 1947, "When the points were, very close together got
voltage amp about 2 but not power amp. This voltage amplification was independent of
frequency 10 to 10,000 cycles".
On 16 December 1947, "Using this double point contact, contact was made
to a germanium surface that had been anodized to 90 volts, electrolyte washed off in
H2O and then had some gold spots evaporated on it. The gold contacts were pressed
down on the bare surface. Both gold contacts to the surface rectified nicely... The
separation between points was about 4x10-3 cm. One point was used as a grid and the
other point as a plate. The bias (D.C.) on the grid had to be positive to get
amplification... power gain 1.3 voltage gain 15 on a plate bias of about 15 volts".
Brattain and H. R. Moore made a demonstration to several of their
colleagues and managers at Bell Labs on the afternoon of 1947,23 December often
given as the birth date of the transistor. The "PNP point-contact germanium transistor"
operated as a speech amplifier with a power gain of 18 in that trial. In 1956 John
Bardeen, Walter Houser Brattain, and William Bradford Shockley were honored with
the Nobel Prize in Physics "for their researches on semiconductors and their discovery
of the transistor effect".
The way I provided the name, was to think of what the device did. And at that time, it
was supposed to be the dual of the vacuum tube. The vacuum tube had
transconductance, so the transistor would have 'transresistance.' And the name should
fit in with the names of other devices, such as varistor and thermistor. And. . . I
suggested the name 'transistor.'
The Nobel Foundation states that the term is a combination of the words "transfer"
and "resistor"
Types of
Transistor
Bipolor
Field effect
junction transistor
TRIAC THRISTOR
Transistor
NPN
PNP
The symbol of a PNP Bipolar Junction Transistor.
Transistors in circuits
NPN BJT with forward-biased E–B junction and reverse-biased B–C junction
β = Ic / Ib
α = Ic / Ie
so Ic = α Ie +Icbo
and relatioshipbetween alphaand beta is
α = β/(1+ β) and β = α /(1- α)
Regions of operation
▐
Bipolar transistors have five distinct regions of operation, defined
mostly by applied bias:
Transistor Characteristics
In the active region emitter and collector junction are kept in forward bias.generally
amplifier is used in active region only.
Ib = - (Ic+Ib)
Saturation Region
typically used as a voltage amplifier. In this circuit the base terminal of the transistor
serves as the input, the collector is the output, and the emitter is common to both (for
example, it may be tied to ground reference or a power supply rail
APPLICATION
Low frequency voltage amplifier
Characteristics
Input characteristics
Output characteristics
Applications
Application
Voltage buffer
The common collector circuit can be shown to have a voltage gain of almost unity.
Intuitively, this behavior is understood by realizing that the base-emitter voltage in the
bipolar transistor is very insensitive to bias changes, so any change in base voltage is
transmitted (to good approximation) directly to the emitter. Hence the name, emitter
follower. Mathematically, the gain is:
Therefore a small voltage change on the input terminal will be replicated at the output
(depending slightly on the transistor's gain and the value of the load resistance; see gain
formula below). This circuit is useful because it has a large input impedance, so it will
not load down the previous circuit:
(Typically, the emitter resistor is significantly larger and can be removed from the
equation):
This allows a source with a large output impedance to drive a small load impedance; it
functions as a voltage buffer.
In other words, the circuit has current gain (which depends largely on the hFE of the
transistor) instead of voltage gain. A small change to the input current results in much
larger change in the output current supplied to the output load.
One aspect of buffer action is transformation of impedances. For example, the Thévenin
resistance of a combination of a voltage follower driven by a voltage source with high
Thevenin resistance is reduced to only the output resistance of the voltage follower, a
small resistance. That resistance reduction makes the combination a more ideal voltage
source. Conversely, a voltage follower inserted between a small load resistance and a
driving stage presents a large load to the driving stage, an advantage in coupling a
voltage signal to a small load.
Power amplifier
This configuration is commonly used in the output stages of class-B and class-AB
amplifier — the base circuit is modified to operate the transistor in class-B or AB mode.
In class-A mode, sometimes an active current source is used instead of RE to improve
linearity and/or efficiency.
Application
a simple, low-cost, and low-power alpha-particle detection system for
environmental radioactivity monitoring. The system exploits a previuosly-developed
high- resistivity-silicon detector with internal amplification capability based on the
bipolar-transistor (BJT) effect and readout electronics based on commercial IC's. Two-
dimensional numerical device simulations are adopted to assess the feasibility of the
BJT detector as an alpha-particle detector that can be operated, without losing its
internal signal amplification capability, with floating base and low collector voltages, so
that device technology can be kept simple, very small DC power consumption can be
achieved, and a single 5-V power-supply voltage can be used for readout electronics
and detector biasing. The charge amplification accomplished by the BJT detector allows
a single, commercial chip to be adopted, to perform charge preamplification and 20-bit
A/D conversion. The digital output is sent to a low-cost microcontroller that can be
periodically interrogated through the IR port. The cost of the readout electronics is in
the order of 60$ and it can operate with standard Li-ion battery for about 60 hours.
Amplification
Oscillating Circuits
Sensors
DATA SHEET
REFERENCES
BOOKS
Integrated Electronics : By Millman & Halkias
Electronics devices & circuits : By Robert Boystead
Electronics devices & circuits Part I : By A P Godse and U A Bakshi
EDC BY G K MITHAL
Useful WESITES
• http://www.intel.com/intel/museum/25anniv/hof/hof_main.htm
• http://infopad.eecs.berkeley.edu/CIC/die_photos/
• http://micro.magnet.fsu.edu/chipshot.html
– • http://Whatis.techtarget.com