Algebra

I. POLYNOMIALS
Rational numbers ​– any number that can be expressed as the quotient of two integers p and q where the denominator is not
equal to 0.

Illustrative Examples: 0, 24610283, 19.65, and 0.333333333…

Irrational numbers​ – any real number whose decimal expansion continues forever without repeating (i.e. non-terminating,
non-repeating decimal)

Illustrative Examples: π ​, Φ and 1.2345678910111213…

Algebraic Expression ​- a combination of numbers and letters with the signs of operations and/or grouping symbols.

Illustrative Examples:
 

and .

Constant ​–​ ​a symbol that does not change its value in a particular problem or discussion. It is usually represented by a number
symbol. In the algebraic​ ​expression 4x2 − 3y , the constants are 4 and -3.

Variable ​–​ ​a symbol that may change its value in a particular problem or discussion. It is usually represented by a letter. In the
algebraic expression 2x − 3y , the variables are ​x​ and ​y​.

and − signs ​–​ ​break up an algebraic expression into smaller parts called terms. Each + or − sign is part of the term that
follows it.

Exception​:​ ​An expression within grouping symbols is considered as a single part even though it may contain + or − ​signs.

Illustrative Examples: The number of terms in an algebraic expression

3 + 2m – 1 has three terms

3 + (2m – 1) has two terms

(3 + 2m – 1) has one term

Factors ​–​ ​the numbers and letters that are multiplied to give a product. One (1) is a factor of every number.

Coefficient ​–​ ​In a term having two factors, the coefficient of one factor is the other factor. In a term having more than two
factors, the coefficient of each​ ​factor is the product of all the other factors in that term.

Numerical Coefficient ​–​ ​a coefficient that is a number.

Literal Coefficient ​–​ ​a coefficient that is a letter or product of letters.
Illustrative Examples:
 7​v v ​is the literal coefficient of 7
7 is the numerical coefficient of ​v
 16​ab2​ ab2​ ​ ​is the literal coefficient of 16
16 is the numerical coefficient of ​ab​2

 ab = 1(ab) ab is the literal coefficient of 1

it is assumed to have ‘1’ as its numerical coefficient even without being explicitly written

A polynomial in ​x​ is an algebraic expression having only terms of the form ​axn​ ,​ ​ where ​a​ is any real number and ​n​ is a whole
number.
Note: Polynomials never have variables in the denominator.

Types of polynomial algebraic expressions:

Monomial ​–​ ​a polynomial with one term (e.g. )
 Binomial ​–​ ​a polynomial with two unlike terms (e.g. )

Trinomial ​–​ ​a polynomial with three unlike terms (e.g. )

Multinomial ​–​ ​a polynomial with more than three unlike terms (e.g. )

Polynomials often have terms containing more than one variable. A polynomial in ​x​ and ​y​ is an algebraic expression having only
terms of the form ​ax​n​ym
​ ​, where ​a​ is any real number, and ​n​ and ​m​ are whole numbers.

Degree of a term ​– sum of the exponents of the term’s variables

Illustrative Examples: Degree of a term
 5​x3​ 3​rd​ degree
14= 14x​0​ =
 14*1 = 0​th​ degree
 2​u3​​ vw2​ 6​th​ degree
Not a term due to a negative
 5x​-2​y​5 exponent

Degree of a polynomial ​– same as that of the polynomial’s highest-degree term (provided like terms have been combined)

Illustrative Examples: Degree of a polynomial

 9x​3​ - x​2​ + 9 3​rd​ degree polynomial

 x​9​ - x​8​ + x 9​th​ degree polynomial
 
II. REMOVING GROUPING SYMBOLS​:
The following rules apply in removing symbols of grouping.
1) If the grouping symbol is preceded by a plus (+) sign, remove the grouping symbol and copy exactly the terms inside it.
2) If the grouping symbol is preceded by a minus (-) sign, the sign of each enclosed term is changed when the grouping
symbol is removed.
Note: this is the same as multiplying -1 to all the terms inside the parentheses, hence the negation of signs
3) When several sets of grouping symbols are contained within each other, start with the innermost set and finish with the
outermost set.
4) Rules 1 and 2 are similar to applying the distributive axiom.
5) After removing all symbols of grouping, combine similar terms to simplify.
Illustrative Examples:

III. ADDITION AND SUBTRACTION OF ALGEBRAIC EXPRESSIONS

Addition and subtraction can be done with the use of grouping symbols, removing them and then combining like terms. Or the
expressions can be arranged

in columns, rearranging the terms in each expression so that similar terms are in the same column, then add or subtract by
column. Then, because ​a​ – ​b​ = ​a​ + (-​b​), we mentally replace each term in the lower expression by its negative and then add.

Examples:

Find the sum:

1 + 3x - 2y and x - 2y + 2
Solution:
(1 + 3x - 2) + (x - 2y + 2) = 1 + 3x - 2y + x - 2y + 2
= 3x + x - 2y - 2y + 1 + 2
 = x(3 + 1) - y(2 + 2) + (1 + 2)
= x(4) - y(4) + 3
= 4x - 4y +3

A. Subtract the quantity ​x - 2y + 2​ from 1​ +3x-2y

Solution: ​1 + 3x - 2y - (x - 2y + 2) = 1 + 3x - 2y - x + 2y - 2
= 3x - x - 2y + 2y + 1 - 2
= x(3-1) - y(2-2) + (1-2)
= x(2) - y(0) + -1
= 2x - 0 - 1
= 2x - 1
IV. ​LAWS OF EXPONENTS

Recall that ​b​n​ , the ​nt​ h power of ​b,​ where ​n​ is a positive integer, denotes a product of ​n​ equal factors. That is:

Each factor is ​b,​ the base, and the number of such factors is ​n​, the exponent. The laws for working with positive-integral
exponents are summarized as follows:

If ​a​ and ​b , and ​m​ and n

​ ​ are positive integers, then:

 If and ,

Avoid making the following mistakes!

 Do not multiply exponents
 Do not multiply base numbers

36
​ ​
32
≠33 ≠14 ​ Do not divide exponents and base numbers

 Do not add exponents raised to other exponents

 Do not misread parentheses

 Do not misread definition of a​⁰


 Adding of exponents does not apply because of the addition operation

  Exponents cannot be distributed

V. MULTIPLICATION AND DIVISION OF ALGEBRAIC EXPRESSIONS

Multiplication: The use of the distributive property is fundamental in multiplying algebraic expressions.
Monomial by Multinomial:
2x​3​(3x​5​) + 2x​3​(-4x​3​) + 2x​3​(5x​2​) + 2x​3​(-2)

2x​3​(3x​5​ - 4x​3​ + 5x​2​ - 2) = 6(x​3​)(x​5​) - 8(x​3​)(x​3​) + 10(x​3​)(x​2​) - 4x​3

= 6x​8​ + 8x​6​ + 10x​5​ - 4x​3
Binomial by Binomial:

More than two expressions involved:

=​
=​
=​
=​
Binomials can also be multiplied using the FOIL method.

Consider the product ​(x+2)(x+3)

Multiply the first (F) terms: ​x* x = x​2
Multiply the outer (O) terms: ​3 * x = 3x
Multiply the inner (I) terms: ​2 * x = 2x
Multiply the last (L) terms: ​2 * 3 = 6

2​
Add these all up to get the product: ​x​ + 3x + 2x + 6 = x​2​ + 5x + 6
Dividing: In dividing an algebraic expression with a monomial, we simply apply the distributive property and the laws of
exponents.
Example:

The following are the steps in finding the quotient Q and the remainder R in the process called ​long division:
1. Arrange the terms in the dividend (N) and divisor (D) in descending powers of the variable. If a coefficient in N is zero,
leave a space or insert 0
2. Divide the first term in N by the first term in D to get the first term in the quotient Q.
3. Multiply D by the first term in Q and write this under the dividend keeping similar terms in one column.
4. Subtract this product from the dividend.

5. While the divisor remains the same, treat the result in Step 4 as the new dividend and repeat Steps 2, 3, and 4 until the
remainder is no longer divisible by the divisor or the remainder has lower degree than the divisor.
Synthetic division ​is a short and simple method of dividing a polynomial where the divisor is of the form​ ​x​ ​–​ ​c.​ ​The following are
the steps:

1. With the dividend in descending powers of the variable, write the coefficients, including any zeroes, in the first row.
2. To the left of the first row, write the number ​c​ from the divisor in the form ​x​ ​–​ ​c.
 3. Bring down the first coefficient to the third row. Multiply it by ​c and put it in the second row under the second coefficient.
Add this product to the number above it in the first row and write the sum in the third row.
4. Continue this multiply-and-add procedure.
5. Sum up the third row.

6. The last number in the third row is the remainder; the other numbers from left to right, are the coefficients of the quotient,
which is of degree one less than the dividend.

Example:
Solution: ; ​c​ = 2
2] 1 5 -7 8
+ 2 14 14
_____________________________________________
1 7 7 22

Quotient:

Remainder: 22

 
Final Answer:

VI. ​FACTORING
For simplifying algebraic fractions and solving equations

To factor-out means to rewrite the expression in completely factored form. A polynomial is said to be in completely
factored form when each of its polynomial factors is prime.

Types of factoring:

Common Monomial Factoring

(uses GCF)
Examples:

− a5 b − 4a2 b2 + 5a3 b3 =− a2 b(a3 + 4b − 5ab2 )

Common Binomial Factoring

Examples:

6x2 (y + z ) + 21(y + z )2 = 3(y + z )(2x2 + 7y + 7z) 7y + 7z] 6x2 (y + z ) + 21(y + z )2 = 3(y + z )(2x2 + 7y + 7z)

Difference of Two Squares:

Sum/Difference of Two Cubes:

Example:
 Perfect Square Trinomial

Examples:

Quadratic Trinomial:

Examples:

Genius Tip!

The more difficult factoring problems usually require you to split and regroup certain terms just so that you can come up with some
of the more common forms as shown above.
For example: Factor x​2​ – y​2​ + 2x – 6y – 8
= x​2​ + 2x – y​2​ – 6y + 1 – 9 (split the -8)
= (x​2​ + 2x + 1) – (y​2​ + 6y + 9) (group)
= (x + 1)​2​ – (y + 3)​2​ (perfect square trinomials)
= (x + y + 4)(x – y – 2) (difference of two squares)

Note that the last two steps are familiar types of expressions, but they would not have been easily done if not for the splitting and
grouping. Be creative with moving your numbers around.

VII. ​ALGEBRAIC FRACTIONS:

An ​algebraic fraction​ is a quotient of algebraic expressions, provided that the divisor is not zero. A ​rational expression​ is the
quotient of two polynomials. Since these also represent real numbers, any of the operations (addition, subtraction, multiplication
and division) can be done with them. And for these, a thorough knowledge of factoring is essential.

 
Simplification of Algebraic Fractions

Simplification or reduction of a fraction to lowest terms is always possible by multiplying or dividing both numerator and
denominator by the same quantity not equal to zero.

Procedure:
1. Factor both numerator and denominator.
2. Determine the Greatest Common Factor (GCF).
3. Divide the numerator and denominator by the Greatest Common Factor (GCF).
1
(a−b)(a2 +ab+b2 )(a+b)(a2 −ab+b2 ) ( ) (a2 +ab+b2 )(a2 −ab+b2 )
a6 −b6
Example: 5a2 −5b2
=( 5(a−b)(a+b)
) ( (a−b)(a+b)
1 )
= 5
(a−b)(a+b)

Multiplications of Algebraic Fractions

Procedure:
1. Multiply numerators to get the numerator of the product.
2. Multiply denominators to get the denominator of the product.
3. Simplify the resulting algebraic fraction.

x+1 x+3 (x+1)(x+3) x2 +4x+3

Example: ( x+2 )( x+2 ) = (x+2)2
= (x+2)2

Division of Algebraic Fractions

Procedure:
1. Get the inverse of the divisor.
2. Change the operation to multiplication.
3. Multiply and simplify.

x2 wx2 2 y4 z2
Example: wy 4 z 2
÷ y4 z2
= ( wyx4 z2 )( wx2 ) = 1
w2

Addition and Subtraction of Algebraic Fractions

Similar fractions ​are fractions with the same denominators. We add or subtract similar fractions as follows.
Procedure:
1. Copy the denominator.
2. Add or subtract the numerators.
3. Simplify.
1 x 1+x
Example: x+1
+ x+1
= x+1
=1

Dissimilar fractions ​are fractions with different denominators. We add or subtract dissimilar fractions as follows.
Procedure:
1. Factor all denominators.
2. Determine the Least Common Denominator (LCD), collect the highest powers of all prime factors appearing in the
denominator.
3. Write the equivalent fractions having the LCD as the new denominator.
4. Add or subtract similar fractions.

1 1 1 1 1(y+1) y y+1−y 1
Example: y 2 +y
− (y+1)2
= y(y+1)
− (y+1)2
= y(y+1)2
− y(y+1)2
= y(y+1)2
= y(y+1)2

VIII. ​PROBLEM SOLVING IN ALGEBRA

Coin Problems:
A piggy bank contains 35 coins consisting of 10-centavo and 25-centavo coins. If the value of the coins in the box is P5.90, how
many of each kind are there?

Solution: Let x = the number of 10-centavo coins and 35 - x = the number of 25-centavo coins.

The value of the total number of 10-centavo coins is (0.10)x while the value of the total number of 25-centavo coins is
(0.25)(35-x). The total value of money in the piggy bank is therefore,
(0.10)x + (0.25)(35-x) = 5.90 → x = 19. Therefore, there are nineteen 10-centavo coins and sixteen 25-centavo coins.

Number Problems:

1. Three consecutive odd integers have a sum of 45. Find the smallest integer.

Solution: Represent the integers x, x + 2, and x + 4.

Write an equation indicating their sum.

Therefore, x = 13.

2. The difference of the reciprocal of two positive numbers is , and one of the numbers is 3 times the other. Find the
numbers.
Solution:
Let x = the lesser number and 3x = the greater number.

Since x > 0, 3x > x. Thus, and .

6x( 1x − 3x1 ) = 6x( 16 )
[Greater Reciprocal] – [Lesser reciprocal] = Difference
6x/x - 2x/x = x
6-2=x
4=x

Thus x = 4, and 3x = 12.

Therefore, the numbers are 4 and 12.
*​We are lucky that in this case, we were told to take positive numbers. However, should there have been no
restriction, it should become apparent that we should make a restriction x != 0 since that would be undefined
(division by 0 is undefined)

Age Problem:

Problems of this type usually involve a comparison of ages at the present time, several years from now, or several years ago. A
person’s age x years from now is found by adding x to his present age. A person’s age x years ago is found by subtracting x from
his present age.

Sheryl was 12 years old y years ago. Represent her age b years from now.

Solution: Her present age is 12 + y. In b years, her age will be 12 + y + b.

Another example (taken from purplemath.com)

● One-half of Heather's age two years from now plus one-third of her age three years ago is twenty years. How old
is she now?
● This problem refers to Heather's age two years in the future and three years in the past. So I'll pick a variable and label
everything clearly:
○ age now: ​H
○ age two years from now: ​H​ + 2
○ age three years ago: ​H​ – 3
● Now I need certain fractions of these ages:
○ one-half of age two years from now:​ (​ 1​/​2​ )(​H​ + 2) = H​ /​​ 2​ + 1
○ one-third of age three years ago:​ (​ 1​/​3​ )(​H​ – 3) = H​ ​/​3​ – 1
● The sum of these two numbers is twenty, so I'll add them and set this equal to ​20​:
H​
○ /​2​ + 1 + H​ /​​ 3​ – 1 = 20
H​
○ /​2​ + H​ ​/​3​ = 20
○ 3​H​ + 2​H​ = 120
○ 5​H​ = 120
○ H​ = 24
● Heather is 24 years old.

Investment Problem:

The annual amount of interest paid on an investment is found by multiplying the amount of principal invested by the rate (percent) of
interest paid. (Principal) x (Rate) = Interest Income.

A man invested part of P 25,000 at 5% annual interest and the remainder at 8% annual interest. If his total annual interest
is P 1,520, how much did he invest at each rate?

Solution: Let x = amount invested at 5% and P 25,000 – x = amount invested at 8%. The amount of interest he will receive
from the 5% investment is 0.05x while the amount he will receive from the 8% investment is 0.08 (25,000 – x), thus we have
0.05x + 0.08 (25,000 – x) = 1,520 ​→ ​ x = 16,000.
Therefore, P16,000 is the amount invested at 5% and P9,000 is the amount invested at 8%.

Mixture Problems:

There are two kinds of mixtures with which you should be familiar. ​The first is sometimes referred to as dry mixture, in which dry
ingredients of different values are​ ​mixed.​ ​ ​Also solved by the same method are problems such as those dealing with tickets at
different prices.

How many kilograms of rice which sells at P10 per kilo must be mixed with rice which sells at P1.50 to make a 100-kilo mixture
which sells at P8.50?
Solution: Let x = number of kilos of P10 per kilo rice and 100 – x = number of kilos of P7.50 per kilo rice. 10x + 7.5(100 – x) =
​ Therefore, x = 40.
8.5(100) ​

The second type of mixture problem concerns chemical mixtures. ​This type of mixture problems deals with percents rather than
prices and with amounts instead of​ ​values.

How much water must be added to 20 ml of a solution that is 30% alcohol to dilute it to a solution that is only 25% alcohol?

Solution:
 No. of mL x % of alcohol = amount of alcohol

Original 20 0.30 0.30(20)

Added x 0 0

Mixture 20 + ​x 0.25 0.25(20 + ​x)​

​ he percent of alcohol in water is 0. Had you added pure​ ​alcohol to strengthen the solution,
Note: T

The percent would have been 100. The equation again comes from the last column. The amount of

Alcohol added (none in this case) plus the amount you had to start with must equal the amount of alcohol in the new solution.
0.30(20) = 0.25(20 + x)  6 = 5 + 0.25x  x = 4.

Motion Problems:

Just remember! ​Rate x Time = Distance​. The problems at the level of this examination usually derive their equations from
relationships concerning distance. Most problems fall into one of three types.
Motion in opposite directions:​ When two objects start at the same time and move in opposite directions, or when two objects
start at points at a given distance apart and move toward each other until they meet, the total distance travelled equals the sum
of the distance travelled by each object.

In either of the above cases, ​d1​ ​+ d2​ ​= Total Distance​.

Motion in the same direction:​ This type of problem is sometimes called the “catch-up” problem. Two objects leave the same place
at different times and different rates, but one “catches up” to the other. In such a case, the distances must be equal.

Round trip:​ In this type of problem, the rate going is usually different from the rate returning. The times are also different. But if
you go somewhere and then return to the starting point, the distances must be the same.

To solve any motion problem, it is helpful to organize the data in a box with columns for rate, time and distance. Use a
separate line for each moving object.

Remember that units for each column are the same.

Example:
 Mara leaves home for school, riding her bicycle at a rate of 12 mph. Twenty minutes after she leaves, her mother sees
Mara’s research paper on her bed and leaves to bring it to her. If her mother drives at 36 mph, how far must she
drive before she reaches Mara?

Solution:

Rate x Time =Distance

Mara 12 x 12​x

Mother 36 x – 1/3 36( ​x​ ​–​ ​1/3)

 
1
Notice that the 20 minutes has been changed to 3
of an hour. In this problem the times are not equal, but the distances are.

12x = 36x - 12
12x = 36(x-⅓)
12 = 24x
x = 1/2
Therefore, if Mara rode for 1/2 hour at 12 mph, the distance covered was 6 miles.

Work Problems:
 Illustrative Examples:

 Justin alone can finish a certain job in 6 days and Ronald alone can do the same job in 4 days. If they work together,
how many days will it take them to finish the job?

Solution: If multiple choice answers are given, you should realize that the correct answer must be smaller than the shortest
time given, for no matter how slow a helper may be, he will do some of the work. Therefore, the job will be completed in less
time than it would take for one person working alone.
Workers Time (days) Amount of work done per unit time
Justin 6

Ronald 4

Together x

⇨ ⇨ .

Get the reciprocal of both sides of the equation. ⇨

⇨ days.​

A swimming pool can be filled by pipe A in 15 hours, and by pipe B in 10 hours. The pool can be emptied by pipe C
in 12 hours. If all three pipes are opened when the pool is empty, in how many hours will the pool be of full
capacity?
Solution:

Pipes Time (hours) Amount of work done per unit time

A 15

B 10

C ​*Note that pipe C drains, not fills 12

All pipes are open x

1/15 + 1/10 -1/12 = 1/x

Get the reciprocal of both sides of the equation.
→ 12 = x x = 12hrs
IX. ​RADICALS AND RATIONAL EXPONENTS

When we talk of roots of expressions, we are talking about radicals. For example, the entire expression √ n
a is a ​radical​ where the
number ​a​ is the ​radicand​ and the number ​n​ is the ​index​ that indicates the order of the radical. If there is no index, then it is
understood to be equal to 2.

Rules
If ​a​ and ​b​ are real numbers:
m m
1) a n = (√ n
a)
n n
2) √ n
a·√b = √ab
n
3) n√√ba = √ n a
b
 n
if b>0, then √b is the positive number x such that x​n​ ​= b.
n
if b<0 and ​n​ is odd, then √b is the negative number x such that x​n​ = b.
n
if b<0 and ​n​ is even, then √b is not a real number.
1
 For any real number b and any positive integer ​n,​ then b n = √n b .
In order to add or subtract radicals, they must have the same index and the same radicand.

Rationalizing the denominator of a fraction consists of eliminating a radical from the denominator. This can be done by either
multiplying some term or conjugate to both the numerator and denominator of a fraction.

Examples:
5 2 5 5
√x 3 √x2 3 √x2
✓ √
3
√
3
5 3 = ( 5 3 )( 5 2 ) =
√ 5 5
√x
= x
x x x
2−3√x 2−3√x 2− 3√x
✓ 1
2+ 3√x
= ( 2+ 13√x )( 2−3√x
) = (2+ 3√x)(2−3√x)
= 4−9x
✓
A radical is in simplified form when
1. The index of the radical is greater than any exponent in the radicand
2. There are no fractions in the radical
3. There are no radicals in the denominator of a fraction
X. ​LOGARITHM

1. If ​b​ y​ ​ = ​x​ then log​b​ ​x​ = ​y​ (read as the logarithm of ​x​ to the base ​b​ is equal to ​y)​

2. Laws of Logarithm: If M and N are positive real numbers, ​b > 0​ and ​b ≠ 1,​ then

log ​b​ ​MN​ = log ​b​ ​M​ x log​b​ ​N

log ​b M
N ​ = log ​b​ ​M​ - log​b​ ​N

log ​b​ ​Nk​ ​ = ​k​ log​b​ ​N

XI. ​ABSOLUTE VALUE

The absolute value of a certain expression is always positive (or greater than zero). To solve for absolute value
inequalities, cases are considered. ​Example​:

|x – 2| ≥ 3

Case a:

x – 2 ≥3 x ≥ 5

Case b:
-(x – 2) ≥ 3
-x + 2 ≥ 3
-x≥1
x≤ -1 *​Note that the inequality changes when the terms are being multiplied/divided by a negative number​ .
Thus, x ≥ 5 or x ≤ -1

XII. ​RATIO AND PROPORTION

A ​ratio​ is a comparison between two quantities while a ​proportion​ is a statement of equality between two ratios.

A. Direct Proportion or Direct Variation

Two quantities vary directly if an increase in one would mean an increase in the other, in the same way that a decrease in one would
make a corresponding decrease in the other.

Example​:

Mark’s car uses 20 liters of gas to drive 100 miles. At this rate, how many liters of gas will he need approximately for a trip of
1,000 miles?

Method I:
 20 L / 100 mi = x / 1000 mi

[20 L(1000
mi)] / 100 mi
= 20 L (10)
200 L = x

Method II:
20 L : 100 mi = x : 1000 mi

Means
Extremes

Following the rule that the product of the means is equal to the product of the extremes, 100 mi (x) = 1000 mi (20 L)

x = [1000 mi (20 L)] / 100 mi = 200 L

B. Inverse Proportion or Inverse Variation

Two quantities are said to be inversely proportional if an increase in one will mean a decrease in the other, or vice versa. ​Example​:

A field can be plowed by 8 machines in 6 hours. If 3 machines are broken and cannot be used, how many hours will it take to plow
the field? Method I:

8 : 1/6 = 5 : 1/x 5/6 = 8/x

  = 8(6) = 48 x = 48/5 = 9 3/5

5x
Method II:

Instead of division (as in direct

variation), we use multiplication.
8(6) = 5(x)

48/5 = 9 3/5 = x

XIII. ​PERCENT
Percent means “per hundred” or hundredths. It also represents a fraction with a denominator of 100. For example, 25% = 25/100 =
0.25.

A. Finding a Percent of a Number

1. One way of solving percent problems

is by using the proportion %/100 =
part/whole
2. Another way is by changing the percent to a decimal and then multiplying.
3. Or percent may be changed to fraction before multiplying.
Example​: Find 25% of 80.

Proportion method: 25/100 = x/80

100x = 25(80)
x = 2000/100
x = 20

Decimal method: x = 25%(80)

x = 0.25(80)
x = 20

Fraction method: x = 25%(80)

x = 25/100 x
80
x = ¼ x 80
 x = 20

B. Solving Other Percent Problems

It is always easiest to convert the mathematical statement to an equation.
Examples
1. 25 is what percent of 1250?

25 = n x 1250 Divide both sides by 1250.

25/1250 = n 0.02 = n 2% = n

2. 72 is 12% of what number?

72 = 12% x n
72 = 0.12n

Divide both sides by 0.12. 72/0.12 = n

600 = n
3. What is 42% of 67?

n = 42% x 67 n = 0.42 x 67 n = 28.14

C. Interest Problems
Interest = principal x rate x time
I = PRT

Example​:

Merchant’s Bank offers a 5% annual interest on savings. If a person deposits an initial amount of P20,000, how much will he get if
he withdraws his money after 2 ½ years?

​ ​ p x r x t ​= (P20,000)(0.05)(2.5)​ I =
I= ​ P2,500

Total amount = ​I​ + ​p​ = P2,500 + P20,000 = P22,500

D. Percent of Increase or Decrease

The percent of increase or decrease can be solved by dividing the amount of increase or decrease by the original amount. Then
move the decimal point two places to the right and affix the percent sign.

Example​:

The enrolment of Kennedy High School dropped from 1,200 to 1,000 over a three-year period. What was the percent of decrease
 during this time? Amount of decrease = 1200 – 1000 = 200
% decrease = 200/1200 = 2/12 = 1/6
= 0.166… ≈ 16.7%

E. Discount

A discount is usually expressed as a percent of the marked price, which will be deducted from the marked price to determine the
selling price. If an item is sold at a 10% discount, then the buyer pays 90% of the original price.

Example​:

A store offers a 25% discount on all appliances for paying cash. How much will a microwave oven marked at $400 cost if payment is
made in cash? If the discount is 25%, then the buyer pays for 75% of the marked price. Therefore,

x = 75%($400) = 0.75(400) x = $300

F. Commission

Commission is a percentage of the sales given to sales people as share.

Example​:

Mr. Davison receives a salary of $100 per month plus a commission of 3% of his sales. What was the amount of his sales in a
month in which he earned a total salary of $802?

Commission = $802 - $100 = $702

Let x = Mr. Davison’s sales for the month
0.03x = 702
x = $702/0.03 = $23,400

G. Profit and Loss

Percent profit is the percentage of the original cost which is added to the same cost to determine the selling price. If a percentage of
the cost is deducted from the cost, then a loss is incurred.

Example​:

A radio sells for $40, giving the dealer a 25% profit. What was the radio’s cost? If the profit is 25%, then the selling price is 125% of
the original cost. Let x = original cost

125%(x) = $40 1.25x = $40

x = $32

XIV. ​SYSTEMS OF LINEAR EQUATIONS

Example: Solve for the solution set of:

2x + 3y = 7 x + y = 10

2x + 3y = 7
2 x + 2y = 20 ​Multiply the second equation by 2 to cancel the term 2x from the first equation

2x + 3y = 7
2 x + 2y = 20 ​Subtract the first equation from the second equation. So you will get,
y= -13

Substitute this value of y to either equation. Using the second equation, you will get

x + (-13) = 10 → x= 23

Check if these values for x and y also satisfy the other equation.
2(23) + 3(-13) ?= 7

46 – 39 ?= 7→ 7=7

Answer is (23, -13). This is also the point of intersection of the two equations (which in turn shows us that they are intersecting
lines).

XV. Functions
​Definition: A function is a relationship wherein there is a single output for each input. It is usually denoted by f(x) (read as “f of x”)
wherein x is the input value. This means that for every x, we get exactly one y.

Example: The set {(1,2),(5,5)} is a function because for every x, there is different y. Meanwhile, the set {(5,6), (1,4), (5,9)} is NOT a a
function because (5,6) and (5,7) have the same x-coordinate.

*​We use the vertical line test to check if the given graph is a function or not. Should there be any vertical line that passes
through two points on the graph, then it is NOT a function.

To evaluate a function, we substitute x with the input value.

Example: Given f(x) = 4x+2, find f(2)
Solution: Substitute all instances of x by the input value, which is 2, then evaluate.
4(2) + 2 = 8+ 2 = 10
Since functions can only have one output for each input, this means that no vertical line should pass through more than one point if
the function is plotted on an x-y plane. This test for identifying functions is called the ​vertical line test​.
Example:

Function Function NOT a function

Domain and range of a function
Definition: The domain is the set of all possible values of x in a function. Meanwhile, the range is the set of all possibly values of y
in a function.

If an algebraic expression is given, the domain is any value of x that

● If given a fraction, x does not make the denominator become zero, and
● If given a radicand, x does not make the radicand negative.

2
Example: Find the domain of f (x) = x+1
Solution: Since only x=-1 can make the denominator zero, only -1 is not included in the domain. Therefore, the domain of the
function is all real numbers except -1, or x≠ − 1

Functions and their graphs

1. Linear Functions – have a form of f(x) = ax+b or f(x)=mx+b wherein the graph is linear.
2. Quadratic Functions – have a form of f (x) = ax2 + bx + c . The graph is a parabola opening downward if a<0 and upward if
qqqqq​a>0.
a xn +a xn−1 …a x+a
3. Rational Functions – have a form of bmnxm +bn−1 xm−1 …b1 x+boo . The graph is curves with asymptotes.
m−1 1
​4.Radical Functions – function that contains a radical.
​ ​x
Example: f(x)=​ √

5.Logarithmic Functions – A function containing logarithms.

Example: f(x)=log x

Operations involving Functons

1. (f+g)(x) = f(x) + g(x)
2. (f-g)(x) = f(x) – g(x)
3. (f·g)(x) = f(x) · g(x)
4. (f/g)(x) = f(x) / g(x)
5. (f o g)(x) = f(g(x))

Example: Given f(x) = 2x+3 and g(x) = 3x, find (f o g)(x).

Solution: In f(x), substitute all instances of x with 3x.
(f o g)(x) = 2(3x) +3 = 6x+3

Inverse Functions
A function in which its dependent and independent variables (x and y) are interchanged is the inverse function.

1
Example: Find the inverse of f (x) = x−5
1
Solution: f(x) = y = x−5 : Interchange x and y, then solve for y.
1
x = y−5 → y − 5 = 1x → y = 5x+1
x