Reinforced Concrete Analysis and Design PDF

This book covers the analysis and design
of reinforced concrete elements in
foundations and superstructures in a
logical, step-by-step fashion. The theory of
reinforced concrete and the derivation of
the code formulae have been clearly
explained.
The text is backed up by numerous
illustrations, design charts and tables
referring frequently to the relevant codes of
practice. A large number of worked
examples cover almost all types of
reinforced concrete elements.
The step-by-step approach will ensure
that:
• all design requirements are logically
adhered to
• a standardised approach is established
in a design office
• a simplified procedure for checking
and for quality assurance can be
implemented.
REINFORCED CONCRETE
Analysis and Design
REINFORCED CONCRETE
Analysis and Design
S.S. RAY
BE (Cal), CEng, FICE, MBGS
b
Blackwell
Science
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Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988,
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without the prior permission of the publisher.
Library of Congress
First published 1995
Cataloging in Publication Data
Set by Setrite Typesetters, Hong Kong
Ray, S.S.
Printed and bound in Great Britain by
Bell and Bain Ltd., Glasgow Reinforced concrete: analysis and
design/S.S. Ray.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and
index.
ISBN 0-632-03724-5
1. Reinforced concrete construction.
I. Title.
TA683.R334 1994
624.1'8341-dc20 94-13306
CIP
Dedicated to my father Professor K. C. Ray
Contents
Preface XIII
References xv
Chapter 1 Theory of Reinforced Concrete 1

1.0 Notation 1
1.1 Introduction 2
1.2 Characteristic strength of materials 3
1.3 Material factors 3
1.4 Material stress-strain relationship 4
1.5 Design formulae for reinforced concrete sections 6
1.5.1 Singly reinforced rectangular section 6
1.5.2 The concept of balanced design and redistribution
of moments 7
1.5.3 Doubly reinforced rectangular section 8
1.5.4 Singly reinforced flanged beams 9
1.6 Ultimate limit state - shear 11
1. 7 Serviceability limit state - crack width 17
1.8 Serviceability limit state - deflection 18
1.9 Ultimate limit state - torsion 18
1.10 Ultimate limit state - columns 19
1.11 Ultimate limit state - corbels 31
1.12 Wood- Armer combination of moment triads 32
1.13 Serviceability limit state - bending and direct loads 34
Chapter 2 Design of Reinforced Concrete Beams 41

2.0 Notation 41
2.1 Analysis of beams 43
2.2 Load combinations 47
2.3 Step-by-step design procedure for beams 50
2.4 Worked examples 65
Example 2.1: Simply supported rectangular beam 65
Example 2.2: Three span continuous beam 73
Example 2.3: Design of beam with torsion 85
2.5 Figures for Chapter 2 99
Figure 2.1: Values of ~t 99
Figure 2.2: Simplified detailing rules for beams 100
vii
viii Contents
Chapter 3 Design of Reinforced Concrete Slabs 101

3.0 Notation 101
3.1 Analysis of slabs 103
3.3 Step-by-step design procedure for slabs 107
3.4 Worked example 120
Example 3.1: Design of a two-way slab panel 120
3.5 Figures and Tables for Chapter 3 130
Figures 3.1 and 3.2: Elastic and elasto-plastic unit resistances
for one-way elements, and support shears 130-1
Figures 3.3. to 3.17: Moment and deflection coefficients for
two-way elements 132-6
Figures 3.18 to 3.33: Location of yield-lines for
two-way elements 137-44
Figure 3.34: Simplified detailing rules for slabs 145
Table 3.1: Graphical summary of two-way elements 146
Table 3.2: Ultimate unit resistance for two-way
elements (symmetrical yield-lines) 147
Table 3.3: Ultimate unit resistance for two-way
elements (unsymmetrical yield-lines) 148
Table 3.4: Ultimate support shears for two-way
elements (symmetrical yield-lines) 149
Table 3.5: Ultimate support shears for two-way
elements (unsymmetrical yield-lines) 150
Chapter 4 Design of Reinforced Concrete Columns 151

4.0 Notation 151
4.1 Analysis of columns 152
4.3 Step-by-step design procedure for columns 155
4.3.1 Rectangular columns 155
4.3.2 Circular columns 161
4.3.3 Rectangular and circular columns 164
Example 4.1: Design of a biaxially loaded slender column 164
Example 4.2: Design of a column with predominant
moment about the major axis 169
Example 4.3: Design of a member with uniaxial moment
and tension 176
Example 4.4: Design of a member with biaxial moment
and tension 183
Chapter S Design of Corbels and Nibs 193

5.0 Notation 193
5.2 Step-by-step design procedure for corbels 194
5.3 Step-by-step design procedure for nibs 197
Contents ix
Example 5.1: Design of a corbel 200

Example 5.2: Design of a concrete nib 208
5.5 Figures and Tables for Chapter 5 212
Figure 5.1: Chart for determining z/d 212
Table 5.1: Allowance for effects of spalling at supports 213
Table 5.2: Allowance for effects of spalling at
supported members 213
Table 5.3: Allowance for construction inaccuracies 213
Chapter 6 Designof Pad Foundations 215

6.0 Notation 215
6.1 Analysis for bearing pressure on soil 218
6.1.1 Isolated single column pad 218
6.1.2 Single column pads connected by ground beams 219
6.1.3 Isolated multiple column pad 222
6.1.4 Multiple column pads connected by ground beams 223
6.2 Analysis for ultimate load 223
6.2.1 Isolated single column pad 223
6.2.2 Single column pads connected by ground beams 224
6.2.3 Multiple column pads 224
6.4 Sign convention 226
6.5 Essentials of soil mechanics 226
6.5.1 Ultimate bearing capacity 226
6.5.2 Settlement of foundation 229
6.5.3 Sliding resistance 231
6.6 Bearing pressure calculations 232
6.6.1 Rectangular Pad - uniaxial bending - no loss of
contact 232
6.6.2 Rectangular Pad - uniaxial bending - loss of contact 234
6.6.3 Rectangular Pad - biaxial bending - no loss of contact 234
6.6.4 Rectangular Pad - biaxial bending - loss of contact 235
6.6.5 Multiple column - biaxial bending - no loss of contact 238
6.6.6 Circular pad - biaxial bending - no loss of contact 238
6.7 Step-by-step design procedure for pads 239
Example 6.1: RC pad with single column 250
Example 6.2: RC pad with multiple columns 264
Example 6.3: Mass concrete pad - side bearing in cohesive
soils 277
Example 6.4: Mass concrete pad - side bearing in
cohesionless soils 283
Figure 6.1: Values of Ne, Nq and Ny 289
Figure 6.2: Calculation of mean vertical stresses in soil 290
Figure 6.3: Plan on base showing different zones 291
Figure 6.4: Pressures under rectangular base - biaxial
bending 292
x Contents
Chapter 7 Design of Piled Foundations 293

7.0 Notation 293
7 .1 Vertical load - single pile capacity 296
7.2 Horizontal load - single pile capacity 299
7 .3 Pile group effects 301
7.4 Analysis of pile loads and pile caps 302
7.4.1 Rigid pile cap 302
7.4.2 Flexible pile cap 306
7.6 Step-by-step design procedure for piled foundations 310
Example 7.1: Pile cap for an internal column of a building 326
Figure 7 .1: Determination of pile efficiency 354
Figure 7.2: Bearing capacity factors for deep foundations 354
Chapter 8 Design of Walls 355

8.0 Notation 355
8.1 Analysis of walls 357
8 .1.1 Walls and properties of walls 357
8.1.2 Modelling for structural analysis 368
8.2 Step-by-step design procedure for walls 370
Example 8.1: Reinforced concrete cell 385
Chapter 9 Design of Flat Slabs 403

9.0 Notation 403
9.1 Definitions 403
9.2 Analysis of flat slabs 404
9.3 Design of flat slabs 406
9.4 Step-by-step design procedure for flat slabs 412
Example 9.1: Flat slab construction for a sports hall 413
9.6 Tables and Graphs for Chapter 9 435
Tables 9.1 to 9.6: Bending moment coefficients for design
of flat slabs 438-43
Table 9.7: Bending moment coefficient for design of columns
in flat slab construction 444
Graphs 9.1 to 9.18: Correction factors for bending moments
in flat slabs 445-53
Graphs 9.19 to 9.26: Correction factors for bending moments
in columns 454- 7
Chapter IO Design of Connections 459

10.0 Notation 459
10.1 Introduction 459
10.2 Contents: type of connections 460
10.3 Anchorage and bond 460
Contents xi
10.3.1 Basic rules of anchorage and laps 461

10.3.2 Design of tension laps 463
10.3.3 Design of compression laps 464
10.3.4 Curtailment and anchorage of bars 465
10.4 Building ties 467
10.4.1 Peripheral ties 467
10.4.2 Internal ties 468
10.4.3 Horizontal column and wall ties 469
10.4.4 Vertical ties 470
10.5 Connections 470
Chapter 11 General Figures, Tables and Charts 487

Figure 11.1: Coefficient of moment of inertia of cracked sections 488
Figure 11.2: Values of Ve for fcu = 25 N/mm2 489
Figure 11.3: Values of Ve for !cu= 30 N/mm2 490
Figure 11.4: Values of Ve for fcu = 35 N/mm2 491
Figure 11.5: Values of Ve for fcu = 40N/mm2 and above 492
Table 11.1: Area of steel reinforcement for various spacings 493
Table 11.2: Sectional properties 494
Table 11.3: Basic span/effective depth ratios for rectangular and
flanged beams 495
Chart 11.4: Modification factor for compression reinforcement 496
Chart 11.5: Modification factor for tension reinforcement 496
Table 11.6: Nominal cover to all reinforcement including links to
meet durability requirements 497
Table 11.7: Nominal cover to all reinforcement including links to
meet specified periods of fire resistance 497
Tables 11.8 to 11.17: Design tables for rectangular columns 498-517
Tables 11.18 to 11.27: Design tables for circular columns 518-37
Index 538
Preface
I believe that the contents of this book will prove to be extremely valuable
to practising engineers, students and teachers in the field of reinforced
concrete design. There are many excellent books available dealing with the
design of reinforced concrete elements but, in my opinion, they lack
completeness in certain ways. The design of a reinforced concrete
member requires many checks in a systematic structured manner and the
step-by-step approach adopted in this book is intended to ensure that the
design process is complete in all respects. It is my view that the member
itself, when fully designed, does not constitute a complete design because
it ignores the connections to other members and to the foundation that are
needed to provide true completeness of design for the structure. I have
attempted here to elucidate the necessary global analysis. Also, most
books on reinforced concrete design do not deal with the aspects of soil
structure interaction problems and are hence incomplete.
The highly structured step-by-step methodology I have used makes the
book fully comprehensive and user-friendly. Accordingly, the task of quality
assurance becomes less arduous and the product or output of a design
office becomes fully standardised if this approach is strictly followed. For
students, the book should prove to be invaluable because the essential
elements of the theory of reinforced concrete are discussed, followed by a
structured approach to the design of all elements in a building, including
foundations and the connections of the reinforced concrete members to
each other to create a complete building. The numerous worked examples
should be very useful to students and practitioners alike. The book also
presents practical advice on designing reinforced concrete elements and
the student should benefit from learning the methods adopted in a design
consultancy.
My intention has been to illustrate the design principles at each stage by
using a profusion of sketches. The book includes many more illustrations
than a standard textbook on reinforced concrete because it was felt necessary
to clear all ambiguities in the codes of practice by the use of diagrams, an
approach which should appeal to both practising engineers and students.
The book includes a lot more new design aids than are usually found in
the available books. For instance, the tables and charts included in this
book for the design of solid slabs and flat slabs cannot be found in other
published textbooks on the subject. References to many published books
on the subject of reinforced concrete are also given.
I would like to thank the British Standards Institution for their kind
xiii
xiv Preface
•
perrmssion to reproduce some of the essential tables from the codes of
practice. I also wish to thank the US Army Armament Research and
Development Centre, Picatinny Arsenal, NJ and Amman and Whitney,
Consulting Engineers, New York for granting permission to reproduce the
extremely useful charts on the yield-line design of slabs in Chapter 3.
Finally this undertaking could not have been successfully achieved without
the active encouragement of my wife.
S.S. Ray
Great Bookham
Surrey
The opmions expressed in this book are those of the author and the
correctness or otherwise of the text is the author's responsibility. Taylor
Woodrow and its Group of Companies are in no way associated with the
productionof this book and they have not adoptedthe book or any part of it
as their in-house standard.
References
l. British Standards Institution (1985) Structural use of concrete. Parts l , 2

and 3. BSI, London, BS8110.
2. British Standards Institution (1986) Foundations. BSI, London, BS8004.
3. British Standards Institution (1979) Code of practice for design of composite
bridges. Part 5. BSI, London, BS 5400.
4. American Concrete Institute (1983) Building code requirements for rein-
forced concrete. M83. ACI, Detroit, Michigan, USA, ACl318.
5. Tomlinson, M.J. (1982) Foundation Design and Construction, 3rd edn.
Pitman Publishing, London.
6. Bowles, J.E. (1982) Foundation Analysis and Design, 3rd edn. McGraw-
Hill International, Tokyo.
7. Tomlinson, M.J. (1987) Pile Design and Construction Practice, 3rd edn. E.
& F.N. Spon, London.
8. US Army Armament Research and Development Centre (1987) Structures

to resist the effects of accidental explosions, Volume IV: Reinforced concrete
design. US Army ARDEC, N.J., USA, US Army Standard ARLCD,
SP 84001.
9. Moody, W.T. Moments and Reactions for Rectangular Plates. US Depart-
ment of the Interior, Engineering Monograph No. 27, Denver, Colorado,
USA.
to. Reynolds, C.E. & Steedman, J.C. (1988) Reinforced Concrete Designer's
Handbook, 10th edn. E. & F.N. Spon, London.
11. Wood, R.H. (1968) The reinforcement of slabs in accordance with a pre-
determined field of moments. Concrete, 2, No. 2, Feb. pp. 69- 76.
12. Armer, G.S.T. (1968) Discussion of Reference 16. Concrete, 2, No. 8,
Aug. pp. 319-20.
13. Cheng-Tzu Thomas Hsu (1986) Reinforced concrete members subject to
combined biaxial bending and tension. AC/ Journal, Jan./Feb. American
Concrete Institution, Detroit, Michigan, USA.
14. British Standards Institution (1972) Wind loads. CP3: Chapter V: Part 2.
BSI, London.
xv
xvi References
General references
Allen, A.H. (1983) Reinforced Concrete Design to BStlJIO - Simply

Explained. E. & F.N. Spon , London.
Batchelor & Beeby (1983) Charts for the design of circular columns to
BSSI JO. British Cement Association, Slough, UK.
British Standards Institution (1987) Design of concrete structures to retain
aqueous liquids. BSI, London, BS8007.
Park, R. & Paulay, T. (1975) Reinforced Concrete Structures. John Wiley
& Sons, New York.
Puchcr, A. (1977) lnfiuence Surfaces of Elastic Plates. Springer Verlag,
Vienna, Austria.
Roark, R.J. & Young, W.C. (1975) Formulae for Stress and Strain, 5th
cdn. McGraw-Hill International, Tokyo.
Chapter 1
Theory of Reinforced Concrete
1.0 NOTATION
au Deflection of column due to slenderness

Ac Net area of concrete in a column cross-section
A, Area of steel in tension in a beam
A~ Area of steel in compression in a beam
A,b Area of hent shear reinforcement
A,c Area of steel in column
Asv Area of steel in vertical links
b Width of reinforced concrete section
b; Width of web in a beam
c0 Effective crack height at 'no slip' at steel
C Internal compressive force in reinforced concrete section
d Effective depth of tensile reinforcement
d' Effective depth of compressive reinforcement
Ee Modulus of elasticity of concrete
E, Modulus of elasticity of steel
fc Service stress in concrete
A Characteristic strength of material
fm Mean strength of material from test results
f, Service stress in steel
fy Characteristic yield strength of steel
!cu Characteristic cube strength of concrete at 28 days
h Overall depth of a concrete section
hf Thickness of flange in a T-bcam
h0 Initial crack height in reinforced concrete member
hmax Maximum overall dimension of a rectangular concrete section
hmin Minimum overall dimension of a rectangular concrete section
I Moment of inertia
M Applied bending moment
M' Maximum moment of resistance of concrete section
Mr Moment of resistance of concrete in flange
Mw Moment of resistance of concrete in web
N Ultimate axial load on column
p Percentage of tensile reinforcement in a beam= lOOAJbd
p Percentage of total reinforcement in a column= lOOAJbh
q Shear flow (kN/m)
Q First moment of area above plane of interest
I
2 Reinforced Concrete
Curvature of a member in bending

s Standard deviation
s Spacing of shear reinforcement
T Internal tensile force in steel reinforcement
\' Shear stress in concrete (N/mm2)
Design concrete shear stress (N/mm2)
\'1 Shear stress in concrete due to torsion (N/mm2)
v Shear force in concrete section
Design concrete shear capacity
Design shear capacity of shear reinforcement
Depth of neutral axis from compression face
Distance from neutral axis
Depth of lever arm
Angle of inclination to horizontal of shear reinforcement

Angle of inclination to horizontal of concrete strut in truss analogy
Empirical factor governing deflection of slender columns
Ratio of redistributed moment over elastic analysis moment
Factor governing moment of resistance of concrete T-scction
., llll Material factor
i) Deflection of beam
Strain at yield of steel reinforcement
1.1 INTRODUCTION
The criteria which govern the design of a structure for a particular purpose
may he summarised as follows:
Fitness for purpose

Safety and reliability
Durability
Good value for money
External appearance
User comforts
Robustness.
Fitness for purpose is generally covered by the overall geometry of the

structure and its components. It should be possible lo have unrestricted
and unhindered use of the structure for the purpose for which it is built.
Safety and reliability arc assured by following the Codes of Practice for
loading. materials. design, construction and fire-resistance.
Durability is taken care of by the choice of the right material for the
purpose and also by bearing in mind during the design process. the require-
ments for proper maintenance.
Theory of Reinforced Concrete 3
Good value for money is perhaps the most important criterion. The designer
should take into account not only the cost of materials but also the
buildability, the time required to build, the cost of temporary structures,
the cost of maintenance over a period of time and in some cases the cost of
demolition/decommissioning.
External appearance of structures changes over a period of time. The

designer should be aware of the effects of cracking, leaking, staining,
spalling, flaking, etc. of the materials in use. The designer should make
appropriate allowances to avoid the degradation of appearance.
User comforts arc influenced by the vibration of the structure due to wind,
road/rail traffic or vibrating machinery. Large deflections under load also
cause alarm to the users. The designer should pay adequate attention to
alleviation of these anticipated discomforts.
Robustness comes with the chosen structural form and is determined by

the additional inherent strength of the structure as a whole to withstand
accidental loadings. Collapse of one key member in the structure must not
initiate global collapse. The design must foresee the 'domino effect' in the
structure and avoid it by careful planning.
1.2 CHARACTERISTIC STRENGTH OF MATERIALS
The characteristic strength of a material is defined as the strength below

which I in 20 test results arc likely to fall.
The value of the characteristic strength is defined statistically by the
following formula
where f• strength of material

= characteristic
f111 mean strength of material from test results
=
1.64 is a factor which defines the 1 in 20 test results falling
below A
s is the standard deviation.
The characteristic strength of concrete, f~u' is the cube strength of concrete

at 28 days.
The characteristic strength of reinforcing steel, j~ is the strength at yield.
1.3 MATERIAL FACTORS
To obtain the design strength of materials a further factor called the

material factor y111 is applied. The material factor takes into account the
tolerances associated with the geometry, the variability of materials on
site, the inconsistency in the manufacture and curing on site and the effects
of long-term degradation.
The values of Ym for the ultimate limit state are as follows:
reinforcement 1.15
concrete in flexure or axial load 1.50
concrete in shear 1.25
bond strength in concrete 1.40
bearing stress 1.50
For exceptional loads and for localised damage, Ym may be taken equal to
1.3 for concrete and 1.0 for reinforcement.
1.4 MATERIAL STRESS-STRAIN RELATIONSHIP
1.4.1 Short-term design stress-strain curve for normal weight concrete
PARA BOU C CURVE

0.67fcu /llm
w
>
;;:; (f)
(f) (f)
WW
a: a:
CL I-
~(I)
0
u
5. 5 Jf cu /8m kN/ m2
I
2.4xlo-• ~ 0.0035 SK 1/1 Short-term design stress-

strain curve for normal weight
STRAIN concrete.
The features of this design curve are as follows:
• The initial elastic modulus of concrete may be defined as the initial

tangent to the parabolic curve which is given by:
1
Ee= 5.5 (fcu)

Ym kN/ mm1 2
• The ultimate stress in concrete for design purposes is defined as:
Ou = 0.67 !cu
- N I mm 2
Ym
• The ultimate strain in concrete for design purposes is taken as 0.0035.
Beyond that strain level the concrete loses its compressive stiffness.
The strain in concrete when the parabolic stress-strain relationship

reaches the ultimate stress level is given by:
I
Ey = 2.4 X 10-4(~cj 2
Note: Concrete can withstand compressive stresses only. The tensile stress in
concrete is ignored in the design.
1.4.2 Short-termdesign stress-strain curve for reinforcement
TENSION
fy llim
STRESS
200 kN/mm'
STRAIN
SK 112 Short-term design stress- fy ll!m

strain curve for reinforcement. COMPRESSION
The features of this design curve are as follows:
• The elastic modulus of steel reinforcement regardless of grade of steel

may be assumed as 200kN/mm2, which is the slope of the curve up to
yield.
• The yield stress of steel reinforcement is /y. but for design purposes it
will be taken as /ylYm·
• The stress after yield remains constant and is represented by a constant
stress line.
The stress-strain relationship is identical in tension and compression.
Ey
= 0.87 ]!__
200
= 2.0 x 10-3 for fy = 460 N/mm2
1.5 DESIGN FORMULAE FOR REINFORCED CONCRETE SECTIONS
I.5.1 Singly reinforced rectangular section
SK 113 Stress-strain diagrams of a

reinforced concrete section subject
to bending moment.
Plane section remains plane.

Applied moment on the section= M; Ym = 1.5 for concrete, 1.15 for steel.
C = compressive force in section
= (-
0.67) /cub(0.9x) = 0.402/cubx
1.5
T = force in steel reinforcement
where As = area of tensile steel in section

d = effective depth from outer compressive fibre to centroid of
steel reinforcement.
By internal force equilibrium,
C=T
or 0.402fcubx = 0.87[yAs
or x = 2.164(/yA,)
fcub
z = d - 0.45x = d 1 - ( ( fYA'))
0.97 --·
fcubd
or ~ = 1 - 0.97(/yAs)
d fcubd
or A-
s - ( 1-- dZ) ( --0.97/y
fcubd)
Maximum moment of resistant of concrete section is obtained for redistri-

bution not exceeding 10%, when x = d/2.
or z = d - 0.45x = 0.775d
Moment of resistance of concrete (maximum), M', is given by
M' = 0.402fcubxz
= 0.402fcub(~)(0.775d)
= 0.156fcubd2
Where redistribution exceeds I 0%,
x :s (~b - 0.4)d
Similarly,
M' = 0.402fcubxz
= 0.402fcub(~b - 0.4)d[d - 0.45(~b - 0.4)d)
= [0.402(~b - 0.4) - 0.18(~b - 0.4)2]fcubd2
or K' = 0.402(~b - 0.4) - 0.18(~b - 0.4)2
(moment after redistribution)

where ~b = ( . . ) < 0.9
moment before redistribution
1.5.2 The concept of balanced design and redistribution of moments
In a singly reinforced section, if the yield strain in steel Ey = 0.002 and the
ultimate strain in concrete ( = 0.0035) are simultaneously reached then a
balanced failure condition exists.
COMPRESSION
FAILURE
SK 114 Strain diagramsof STRAIN DIAGRAM FOR COMPARATIVE
reinforcedconcrete section. BALANCED FAILURE STRAIN DIAGRAM
From strain diagram,
x 0.0035
1.75 for /y = 460N/mm2
(d - x) 0.002
or x = 0.636d
The Code does not allow x to be larger than 0.5d ensuring that the steel
reaches its yield strain before the concrete reaches the ultimate strain. This
is designed to allow sufficient rotational capacity in the section.
The more redistribution of moment is allowed, the more rotational
capacity is needed from the section. The amount of rotation is dependent
on how under-reinforced the section is, or in other words, how quickly the
steel in the section reaches the yield strain before the concrete reaches the
ultimate strain. To make sure that the rotational capacity exists in the
section to allow redistribution, the depth of neutral axis for the design is
fixed corresponding to the ratio ~b of redistribution. The compression
failure is extremely brittle and must be avoided.
On the other hand, the Code has also put a limit to the minimum value
of x. It has done so by limiting z to a maximum value of 0.95d, which
limits x to O. lld. This limitation is to avoid a very thin stress block at the
ultimate state.
1.5.3 Doubly reinforced rectangular section
SK 1/5 Stress-strain diagram for

SECTION STRAIN STRESS doubly reinforced section.
Plane section remains plane.

The design bending moment is greater than K'fcubd2, which means the
concrete moment capacity is exceeded. The neutral axis is fixed by the
Code depending on the amount of redistribution or x = (~b - 0.4)d:::; 0.5d.
This in turn fixes the lever arm z to concrete compression.
C = compressive force in section
= compression in concrete and compression in steel
=0.9x (--
0.67 /cu) b +-A~Jy
Ym Ym
= ( K'fc;bd2) + 0.87 [yA~
T = tensile force = 0.87fyAs

Equating C = T,
A _ (K'f cubd2)
+A~
s - 0.87/yZ
Applied moment M is equal to the moment of the internal forces.
Taking moment about the centre of steel in tension,
M = K'fcubd2 + 0.87/yA~(d - d')
M - K'], bd2
A'= cu
s 0.87/y(d - d')
( K - K') fcubd2
0.87/y(d - d')
In the above formula it is assumed that the compressive steel will attain
yield. This is true provided d' is less than or equal to 0.43x or the strain in
the steel is at least 0.002 for I, = 460 N/mm2• If d' Ix is greater than 0.43x,
the steel stress /~ will be proportionately modified to account for the
reduced strain. Use/~ in the equation for A~ instead of 0.87/y.
SK 1/6 Doubly reinforced beam

strain diagram.
A'=
( K - K') f.cu bd2
s f~(d - d')
1.5.4 Singly reinforced flanged beams
The formulation is exactly the same as in a rectangular beam with b equal

to the width of the flange provided 0.9 times the depth of the neutral axis x
is less than or equal to the depth of the flange.
When 0.9x is greater than the depth of flange, then the following
analysis will apply.
><rlE,
b
h.J 12 ,~. 671cu //Jm
~~~
d-0.45
T
SK 1/7 Stress diagram for a
flanged beam section.
C1 = compressive force in flange only without web
= 0.67fcu) ( b - b ; ) hf
( --
Ym
= 0.45fcu(b - bw)hf
C2 = compressive force in web as in a singly reinforced beam

= 0.45fcubw(0.9x) = 0.402fcubwx
T = tension in steel
The maximum allowable value of x equals 0.5d when the concrete moment
of resistance reaches its maximum value.
Assume x = d/2.
Taking moment about the centre of tensile steel,
M' = c (d
1 - ~) + C2(d - 0.45x)
= 0.45fcu (b - bw)hf( d - ~) + 0.20lfcubwd(d - 0.225d)
= fcubd2 [( 0.45~)( 1 - bbw )( 1 - ;~) + 0.157 bbwJ

= ~dcubd2
Values of ~f for different ratios of blb.; and dlh, are found in Fig. 2.1
(Chapter 2).
If the applied moment exceeds ~f fcubd2, then compressive steel in the
flange will be required.
To find the tensile steel take moment about C1 assuming x = d/2.
M = T(d - :f) - c (0.45x - ~)

2
= 0.87fyAs( d - :f) - O.lfcubwd(0.45d - hr)
M + O.lfcubwd(0.45d - hr)
As = ----------
0.87fy(d - 0.5hr)
Another approach to the design of flanged beams is presented below.

When x = hf/0.9, the stress block is situated entirely in the flange.
C = compressive force = bhc( 0.67 ~~)
hf
lever arm = d - 2
This is the flange resistance and if the applied moment exceeds this value,
then the web comes into compression.
The moment to be carried by the web is Mw, when M is the applied
moment.
Mw = M - (compression in flange only outside web) x (lever arm of
flange)
= M - 0.45/cu(b - bw)hr( d - :f)

= M - Mf (b - bw)
b
= M - Mc( 1 - bbw)
Find Mt. and if Mr is less than M, then find Mw by the above formula.
Design for Mw as for a rectangular beam with width equal to bw. Find A,1
for Mf and A,2 for Mw.
Total A,= As1 + A,2
0.45/cu(b - bw)hc
A --------
sl - 0.87/y
Mw
A,2 = ---
0.87/yz
Mw
when K = ---
fcubwd2
I
and z = d[ 0.5 + ( 0.25 - 0~9rJ
Note: The design against Mw may follow Section 1.5.3, which means that the
flanged section may be doubly reinforced, if required.
1.6 ULTIMATE LIMIT STATE - SHEAR
The horizontal shear stress in a homogeneous, isotropic, uncracked beam

is given by the classical expression:
x x
SK 1/8 Calculation of shear stress

in a homogeneous section.
VQ
v = --N/mm2
lb
where Q = first moment of area above line 1-1 = Ay
I = second moment of area of the section about x+x
b = width of section on line 1-1
v = shear stress at line 1-1
V = shear at the section
A = area of section above line 1-1
y = distance of the centroid of area A from the neutral axis.
VQ
Shear flow, q = -1-
In a concrete beam where concrete is ignored, the horizontal shear stress

can be included in the expression below for horizontal equilibrium under
the neutral axis.
The shear flow in the tension zone of concrete will be constant because the
concrete is ignored.
STRESS SHEAR FLOW SK 1/9 Calculation of shear stress.

dx
-N-- f -.---- - --A

-----..---
SK 1110 Shear stress in a L_I====== T +dT

reinforced concrete section.
From the above expression,
v= (b~)(:)
M
T
z
dM
or - = dT
z
v = ClJ(D(:)
dM
V=-
dx
v
v=-
bwz
For convenience in the ultimate limit state the Code shear stress index is
taken as:
Effective shear in haunched beams

Veff = V - Csin8'
V - C' tan8'
V - Mtan8'
z
SK 1111 Effective shear force in a

beam with variable depth.
CONTINUOUS BEAM
I
SIMPLY SUPPORTED ENO
SK 1112 Effective shear force

I diagrams for beams with variable
SIMPLY SUPPORTED BEAM depth.
1.6.1 Principle of 'design concrete shear stress'
Shear is resisted in concrete beams by the combined action of the following:
• Shear resistance of concrete in compression zone. Dowel force in tension

bars across a crack. Aggregate interlocking across the inclined crack in
tension zone.
• The Code formula takes into account the dowel force of the tensile steel
and the formula is essentially of empirical nature arrived at from test
results.
Shear reinforcement - truss analogy

Vs = shear force to be resisted by reinforcement
~Cot~
OF SUPPORT
SK 1/13 Truss analogy of shear

Vs
ZJ-=rvs
Ll.T
reinforcement. FORCE DIAGRAM
From the force diagram,

Vs = C' sin 13 = T' sin O'.
where C' = concrete strut force
T' = tensile force in shear reinforcement
= resultant of all forces in shear reinforcement within the
spacing S.
From geometry:
S = z(cot a: + cot 13)
T' .
++srn e = -v. = v.
S S z(coto: +cot~)
T' Vs
or
S z sin o-(coto + cot B)
0.87JyAsb Vs
or
S z sin ex( cot a: + cot 13)
or Vs = 0.87fyAsb( cos O'. + sin a: cot 13) ( ~)
The Code uses (d - d') in place of z in the formula.
When vertical stirrups are used and the concrete struts are assumed inclined
at 45° to horizontal then O'. = 90° and 13 = 45°.
Vs = 0.87/yvAv(~)
Vs 0.87JyvAv
v=-=
s bz bS
bS(v - Ve)
or Asv;;::: ----
0.87fyv
Note: The assumptions in the above truss analogy are:
• Bond forces are sustained along the length of the beam where shear
reinforcement is required.
• The lever arm z is assumed constant over the section with variable
moment producing the shear to be resisted. The diagonal compressive
stress in concrete struts calculated from the analogy is equal to vs!
[sin2 l)(cot a:+ cot 13)) is sustainable.
1.6.2 Additional tensile steel in conjunction with shear reinforcement
Referring to SK 1113, assume that a diagonal crack forms in concrete

when the shear force exceeds the concrete shear capacity, Ve. Assume that
the ultimate shear force is Vu = Ve+ \!" where \!, is resisted by shear
reinforcement.
Sections 1-1 and 2- 2 are taken at two ends of a diagonal crack.
Consider the free body diagram of internal forces.
Assume that the tensile force requirement at section 2 is also divided in
two parts. When the shear becomes V the tensile force required is Tc,
0
and for V, it is Ts·

Assume that the moment at section 2 is M2c corresponding to V0 and M2s
corresponding to \!,.
.'. Vu= Ve+ lf,
Tu= Tc+ Ts
M2u = M2c + M2s
T' is the tensile force in the shear reinforcement.
initially assume a shear of Ve on section.

Taking moment about the concrete compressive force Cat section 1-1,
Mic = Vex = M2c + Vczcotf) = Tcz
M2e
or Tc= - + Vccotl)
z
Note: At this stage T' = 0.

Next assume a shear of Vs on section.
Taking moment about the concrete compressive force Cat section 1-1,
Mis = lfsX = M2s + Vszcot 13 = Tsz + G) T' sin a:

or Ts = ~ls + Vs cot 13 - (~) T' sin a:
Substituting:
T' sin a: = Vs and S = z(cot a: + cot f))
we get:
Ts= ~28 + (~s)(cotf) - cot «)
Tu= Tc+ T, = ( M2c +z M2s) + Vccotf) + (Vs)

2 (cotp - cot o)
Mu
= ~ + Ve cot f3 2 (cot f3 - cot a:)
+ (Vs)
This demonstrates quite clearly that when diagonal cracks form in con-
crete due to shear exceeding Ve, additional tensile steel will be required
over and above Mulz.
This requirement is not explicitly covered in the Code. The rules of
curtailment of reinforcement are deemed to satisfy this requirement.
Note: At locations of very high shear this additional requirement should be

checked.
1.7 SERVICEABILITY LIMIT STATE - CRACK WIDTH
The basic assumptions to find crack width for flexure are summarised
below:
(1) Plane section remains plane before and after bending.

(2) Concrete compressive stress diagram is linear and triangular. The
stress is directly proportional to strain.
(3) The short-term Young's modulus of concrete may be used.
( 4) The steel reinforcement does not go beyond yield.
(5) The loading is at serviceability limit state.
(6) Effective crack height at 'no slip' is C0, which is the minimum cover
to reinforcement.
(7) Mean crack spacing is 1.5 Co-
(8) Initial crack height h., is up to the neutral axis and the maximum
crack width is a function of the ratio Cofh0 to take into account slip
and internal cracks in concrete.
(9) Stiffening effect of tension in concrete is allowed for by an empirical
term.
(10) The equation for the determination of maximum crack width is
empirical and is a close fit of test results. It is anticipated that 1 in
5 results will exceed the prediction by the formula.
For the formula and its application, see Chapter 2.

1.8 SERVICEABILITY LIMIT STATE - DEFLECTION
Calculate moments at service load without redistribution.
d'
d-d' N
SK 1114 Doubly reinforced

SECTION STRAIN DIAGRAM section.
The assumptions for the analysis of the section are similar to assumptions
(1) to (5) in Section 1.7.
Find the depth of neutral axis, x, and find the stresses in concrete, fc,
and the stress in steel, fs, by following Step 25 of worked example in
Chapter 2. This method ignores the concrete under the neutral axis.
Curvature = _!_ = A = f,
rb xE; (d - x)Es
Alternatively, calculate x as previously and then allow a tensile stress in
concrete up to 1 N/mm2 short-term and 0.55 N/mm2 long-term.
Deflection, b = Kt2(~)
where K depends on the shape of the bending moment diagram.
BS 8110: Part 2: 1985 [1] in Table 3.1 gives different values of K for
various loadings and support conditions. The principle of superposition
may be used to combine different types of loading.
1.9 ULTIMATE LIMIT ST ATE - TORSION
~3hmin/2
8~ h111in/2
SK 1/15 Membrane analogy for

torsion.
By principles of membrane analogy it is known that 2 times the volume

included between the surface of a deflected membrane and the plane of its
outline is equal to the torque in a twisted member.
Applying this analogy to a rectangular section gives a pyramidal deflected

membrane.
Volume of pyramid = * h~in H + ! hm; (hmax

0 - hm;n)H
= (hminH) (h max _ hmin)
2 3
By membrane theory it is known that the torsional shear stress is the slope
of the angle of the deflected membrane.
H
tan B = = vi
(hmin/2)
T = 2 X .
volume of pyramid = hminH (hmax - -3-
hmin)
Substituting H = v1(hm;0/2),
T = (vth~;n) (h max _ hmin)

2 3
2T
or Vt=
h2 min (h max - 3hmin)
1.10 ULTIMATE LIMIT STATE - COLUMNS
PARABOLJC
~--...CONCRETE
SK 1/16 Typical load-strain curve 0.002 0.0035

of a column. -~-STRAIN
1.10.1 Axial load capacity of columns
Taking creep and shrinkage of concrete into consideration it is difficult to

predict the actual stresses in a short concrete column subjected to service
axial load in the elastic range, because initial compressive stress from
concrete gets transferred to the steel due to creep of concrete. But at the
ultimate load stage it is easier to predict the ultimate load-carrying capacity
because the concrete ultimate strain of 0.0035 is much higher than steel
yield strain. Hence, the steel reaches its ultimate load-carrying capacity
long before concrete gets there.
The ultimate load-carrying capacity of a short reinforced column may be
written as,
Nuz = (0·~~cu )Ac + (::)Ase
= 0.45/cuAc + 0.87/yAsc
where Ac = net concrete cross-sectional area
A,c = area of compressive steel reinforcement.
The Code equations allow for a nominal eccentricity and the formulae are
changed to one of the following depending on application:
N = 0.4/cuAc + 0.75/yAsc
for a column with nominal eccentricity of load - meaning a column with
no design moments and eccentric loads. The eccentricity is allowed for the
constructional tolerances.
N = 0.35/cuAc + 0.67/yAsc
for a column supporting an approximately symmetrical arrangement of
beams. The spans of the beams on either side of the column should not
differ by more than 15%. To allow for a certain eccentricity of loading due
to the variations in spans and the location and disposition of live loadings
on spans, the equation has been modified.
1.10.2 Axial load capacity of slender columns
The strength of a slender column depends on:
(1) Effective height-to-width ratio, where the effective height depends on

the rotational end restraints and the lateral restraints by bracing.
(2) The flexural rigidity of the column section which determines the Euler
critical buckling load.
(3) The duration of loading which influences the strength and deflections
due to creep.
The Code uses the 'Moment Magnifier Method', whereby the effect of
slenderness is transferred into an equivalent deflection and an additional
moment given by the product of this deflection and the applied direct load.
where au = ~aKh
~a= 2~Ge.r
K= »: -
( Nuz N) :S 1
- Nbal
Nbal = 0.25fcubd approximately (see Section 1.10.4.1).

h = dimension of column in the plane of bending considered
b' = shorter dimension of column for uniaxial bending, or
= dimension of column in the plane of bending considered for
significant biaxial bending
le =effective length of column in the plane of bending considered.
(See Chapter 4 for further explanation.)
1.10.3 Axial load and moment on column
The assumptions for the analysis of the section are exactly the same as in
the case of beams and the analysis depends on strain compatibility. The
design is usually carried out by the use of published charts which have
been derived using the following assumptions:
(1) Plane section remains plane or the strain compatibility is assumed.

(2) The concrete stress block is assumed rectangular-parabolic.
(3) The stress-strain curve for steel is bilinear.
To use the charts to find the total area of steel required, the following
parameters are required: !cu• /y, Nlbh, Mlbh2 and the dlh ratio. (See
Chapter 4 for further explanation.)
1.10.4 Column interaction diagrams
1.10.4.1 Rectangularsection
If column charts are not available and a hand calculation is required
or, where the column size and reinforcement are known and the column
load-carrying capacity with variable eccentricity is required for assessment
purposes, the followingdesign procedure may be followed. The interaction
diagram of a column with known areas of steel will illustrate the ultimate
= I
Ii
r
Bending Moment Equivalent System
SK 1117 Elevation of a column. And Axial Load e= MIN
load-carrying capacity of the column section subjected to uniaxial bending

moment.
N = applied ultimate direct load

M = applied ultimate coacting bending moment
e = MIN = eccentricity of direct load
Cc = resistance of concrete in compression
C, = resistance of steel in compression
T = resistance of steel in tension
!. ·1
Column
E--t--WA•..---t- ----;lbM:t;.l-+---t
b
Section
d'
. Ltl...
Es~!
~11 Ultimate
Strain
E:$ Ee= Diagram
. 0·0035
fs I Stress
Diagram
Idealised
Stress
Diagram SK 1/18 Stress and strain
diagrams.
Balanced failure
A balanced failure occurs when the tension steel just reaches yield at the
same time as the extreme compression fibre in concrete reaches the ultimate
strain of 0.0035.
/y = characteristic yield strength of steel
E, = modulus of elasticity of steel = 200 kN/mm2
xb = depth of neutral axis at 'balanced failure'
From the strain diagram:
0.0035 _ Jyl EsYm
Xb (d - Xb)
assuming /y = 460 N/mm2
y m = 1.15 for steel
E, = 200kN/mm2
Strain Diagram
At Ba.lanced
Failure.
SK 1119 Strain and force diagram Force Diagram.

at balanced failure.
the above equation reduces to:

0.0035 0.002
--=---
xb (d - xb)
or xb = 0.636d
Nb = ultimate load at balanced failure
=Cs+ Cc - T
= As (0.87Jy) + (0.67fcu)
1
---;;::-- 0.9xbb - As(0.87fy)
For a symmetrically reinforced section where As= A~, and the compression
reinforcement reaches yield strain, the terms for Cs and T cancel each
other out.
:. Nb = 0.256fcubd
The strain in compression steel is governed by the value of d'.
The yield strain in compression steel is fyl EsYm·
E, = 200kN/mm2 and Ym = 1.15.
For Grade 460 N/mm2 steel, this yield strain= 0.002.
At 'balanced failure' condition:
0.0035 ~
xb (xb - d')
Assuming E~ = 0.002 and xb = 0.636d, the maximum value of d' to produce
yield strain in compression steel is given by:
d' = 0.273d
or ~ = 0. 78 minimum to produce yield strain in compression reinforce-

ment at 'balanced failure'.

For a symmetrically reinforced section,
Mb = moment to produce balanced failure

dlh = k
p = 100A5/bh = percentage of reinforcement with respect to tension
reinforcement only
/y = 460N/mm2
d' th = (1 - k)
d"/h = (k - 0.5)
Taking moment about the centroid of the section,
for k20.78
Mb = 0.402fcuXbb(0.5h - 0.45xb) + 0.87Asfyh(k - 0.5)
+ 0.87As[yh(k - 0.5)
fork <0.78
Mb = 0.402fcuXbb(0.5h - 0.45xb) + 0.87AJyh(k - 0.5)

+ Asfsh(k - 0.5)
0.0035(xb - d')
and Es = ----'---=-----'-
Xb
fork 20.78
Mb
-2 = 0.256/cuk(0.5 - 0.286k) + 8p(k - 0.5)
bh
fork <0.78
Mb
-2 = 0.256/cuk(0.5 - 0.286k) + 4p(k - 0.5)
bh
(k - 0.5)
+ llp(l.636k - 1) k
Note: In the above equations use 0.5p instead of p if p is the percentage of total
reinforcement in the column.
d
Tension Failure But Compression
Steel Does Not Reach Yield.
Typical Tension Failur~ :x:>:x:b.
I
=
Balanced Failure (:x: :x:b ).
-1-a·+3.!:L_
.._____:::......,~""""---"'~""--1~---;· Ey- ~m Es
.· Ec=0.0035
Compressiai Failure SK 1/20 Strain diagram of column

Tensile Steel Does Not Reach Yield (:x:> :x:b). for various types of failure.
Tension failure
When N <Nb and t,= fylYm• a tension failure condition will apply. The
column behaves more like a beam in this condition.
N =Cc+ Cs - T
Assuming symmetrical reinforcement and yield strain in both tension and
compression steel,
N = Cc = 0.402/cubx
N
or x=---
0.402/cub
Check that
, = 0.0035(x - d') >
Es - 0 • 002 for /y = 460N/mm2
x
or x 2:: 2.331h(l - k)
This ensures that the compression steel has reached yield.

For a symmetrically reinforced rectangular section,
x
:: = 2.4875(~) for - ::::: 2.331(1 - k)
h fcubh h
= 0.5[(B2 + 4C)! - B] for hx < 2.331(1 - k)
where B = 7.463(]!_) - 2.4875(~)

i: fcubh
c= 17.413(1 - k)(]!_)
t;
Taking moment about the centroid of the section,
for hx 2:: 2.331(1 - k)
M = 0.402fcuxb(0.5h - 0.45x) + 0.87Asfyh(k - 0.5)

+ 0.87Asfyh(k - 0.5)
for hx < 2.331(1 - k)
M = 0.402fcuXb(0.5h - 0.45x) + 0.87Asfyh(k - 0.5)

+ Asf.h(k - 0.5)
for hx 2:: 2.331(1 - k)
8p(k 0·5)
~ = o.402(::)(o.5 - 0.45(::)) + -
fcubh h h fcu
x
for 1z< 2.331(1- k)
0·5)
~ = 0.402(~)[0.5 - 0.45(~)] + llp(k -
h~ h h &
7p[(l - k)/(x/h)](k - 0.5)
fcu
Compression failure
When N >Nb, a compression failure condition applies.
N =Cc+ C, - T
Assuming symmetrical reinforcement and yield strain in both tension and
compression steel,
N = Cc = 0 .402fcubx
x N
or
h 0.402fcubh
= 2.4875(/c;h)
For the tensile steel to be at yield,

Es 2: 0.002 for fy = 460N/mm2
or 0.0035(d - x) 2: 0.002
x
x
or -:S0.636k
h
For both tensile steel and compression steel to be at yield,
x
0.636k 2: - 2: 2.331(1 - k)
h
When compression steel does not yield,
for 0.636k 2: hx < 2.331(1 - k ),
x 1
h = 0.5[(B2 + 4C)2 - B]
where B = 7.463(~J - 2.4875(/c;h)
c= 17.413(1 - k)(p_)
fcu
When tension steel does not yield,
x
for 0.636k < h 2: 2.331(1- k ),
X I
h = 0.5[(B2 + 4C)2 - B]
where B = 27.363(IJ - 2.4875(/c;h)
c= 17.413k(L)
/cu
When tension steel and compression steel do not yield,
x
for 0.636k < h < 2.331(1 - k ),
X I
h = 0.5[(B2 + 4C)2 - B]
where B = 34.826(IJ - 2.4875(/c;h)
c= 17.413(}!__)
t:
Taking moment about the centroid of section.
For both tension and compression steel going into yield,
M = 0.402fcuxb(0.5h - 0.45x) + 0.87As/yh(k - 0.5)
+ 0.87Asfyh(k - 0.5)
For tension steel only going into yield,
M = 0.402fcuXb(0.5h - 0.45x) + 0.81As/yh(k - 0.5)
+ Asf~h(k - 0.5)
For compression steel only going into yield,
M = 0.402fcuXb(0.5h - 0.45x) + Asfsh(k - 0.5)
+ 0.87As/yh(k - 0.5)
For both tension and compression steel not going into yield,
M = 0.402fcuxb(0.5h - 0.45x) + Asfsh(k - 0.5) + AJ~h(k - 0.5)
x
for 0.636k ~ h ~ 2.331(1 - k)
--2
M = 0.402 - (x)[ 0.5 - 0.45 (x)]
- + 8p(k - 0.5)
fcubh h h /cu
x
for 0.636k ~ h < 2.331(1 - k)
~ = 0.402(::)[0.5 - 0.45(::)] + [llp(k -

0·5>]
h~ h h ~
_ {7p[(l - k)l(xlh)] (k - 0.5)}
t:
x
for 0.636k < h:::: 2.331(1- k)
-- M = 0.402 -
fcubh2 h
(x)[ 0.5 - 0.45 (x)]
-
h
+ [7pk(k - 0.5)]
(x/h)fcu
- [3p(k - 0.5)]
fcu
x
for 0.636k < h < 2.331 (1 - k).
--2
M =
(x)[ 0.5 - 0.45 (x)]
0.402 - - + 7p(2k - l)(k - 0.5)
fcubh h h (x/h)fcu
Note: In all above equations use 0.5p instead of p if p is the percentage of total
reinforcement in the column.
Symmetrical rectangular column - interaction tables for columns subject to

uniaxial bending and direct load
Tables 11.8 to 11.17 (Chapter 11) have been prepared by solving by
iteration the following equations. Assuming equal reinforcement in each
face of the rectangular section and assuming that all steel reinforcement is
in tension,
b = width of rectangular section
d, = depth of the top layer of reinforcement near the compression
face from the compression face
d = depth of the bottom layer of reinforcement near the tension face
i.e. the effective depth
h = overall depth of section
e = MIN = eccentricity of load from the centre of the rectangular
section, assuming that the concentrated load N always acts at the
centre of the rectangular section
f,1 = stress in steel at depth d,
f, = stress in steel at depth d
As1 = Asf2, i.e. equal reinforcement on each face
p = percentage of reinforcement in column = 100A5/ bh
x = depth of neutral axis from compression face
k = dlh
d1lh = l-k
0.87/y = 0.87 x 460 = 400N/mm2
f,1 = EsEs1=200 x HY x 0.0035 x (d1-x)lx=700 (d1 -x)/x :514001 N/mm2
Is= 700 (d-x)/x:5 l400IN/mm2
Ac = area of concrete in compression= 0.9bx = 0.9bh(xlh)
N = (0.67lcufYm)Ac - ( As/2)(/sl +Is)
~ = 0.402lcuG) - (2~)Us1 + f,)

Taking moment about the centre of the rectangular section,
Ne = ---y:- Ac
( 0.67lcu) (h2 - 0.45x ) + (As)
T (h2 - (1 - k)h ) (Is - ls1)
= 0.402lcuG)bh2( 0.5 - 0.45G)) + bh2(2~)(k - 0.5)(/5 - fs1)
Dividing Nelbh2 by Nlbh we get elh.
e
0.402fcu(~)(0.5 - 0.45(~)) + (2fu)(k - 0.5)(/s - fs1)
h
0.402fcu(~) - C~)(ls1 + Is)
100(1 - k - ~)
or ls1 = :S j400j N/mm2
x
h
100( k - ~)
t: ---- :S j400j N/mm2
x
h
For a range of values of !cu• k and p, the above equations can be solved for
different values of e/h. Tables 11.8 to 11.17 give Nlbh for different values
of e/h.
Note: The above equations are valid up to x = 1.lllh.
1.10.4.2 Circular section
SK 1121 Circular column - strain

diagram.
R = radius of circular section

A< = area of equivalent uniform stressed section of concrete bounded by a
line at 0.9x from compression face
i = centroid of stressed section of concrete
x = depth of neutral axis from compression face

e = eccentricity of applied load = MIN
N = applied direct load at centre of section
M = applied equivalent uniaxial moment
p = percentage of reinforcement= lOOA,lnR2
k = h,lh
20 = angle to the corner of equivalent uniformly stressed area subtended
at the centre of section, or the angle subtended to the line at 0.9x
from compression face
A, = total area of steel in six bars
Ac = Rz(0 - sin 8 cos 8)
.e = R[l _ 2sin38 J
3(0 - sin O cos B)
First layer of steel is at di, second layer of steel is at dz, and third layer is
at d-:
Note: If x is greater than di, dz, or d3 then the corresponding steel is in

compression.
N = 0.45 !cu(e - sin 0 cos 8) - (~)

R2 300 Ust + [a + ls3)
/,1 =
di -
0.0035£5( -x-
x) ::::; 14001 N/mm2
d2
700( R - Rx)
[a = ::::; 14001 N/mmz
x
R
d3
700( R - Rx)
f53 = ::::; 14001 N/mm2
x
R
di d2
- = 1 - kcos30° -= 1 1 + kcos30°
R R
x
-=
R
(-1-)(1
0.9
- cos8) = 1.11 (1 - cos B]
.i 2sin30
-= 1-------
R 3(0 - sin 0cos0)
Taking moment about the centre of section assuming that the applied load
N is always at the centre of section,
Ne= 0.45R2/cu(0 - sin 0cos0)(R - r) + (~s)(kRsin60°)(/ 3 - f,1) 8
= 0.45R3/cu(0 - sin0cose)(l - ~) + (p;~3)(ksin60°)(/ 83 - f,1)
Dividing Ne/R3 by NIR2 we get e!R.
0.45/cu(0 - sin0cos0)( 1 - ~) + (f£)(ksin600)(/83 - /81)

e
R
0.45fcu(0 - sin 0 cos 0) - (;~)Us1 + [a + !s3)
d
- = l.08Q6k
R
z d .e
-=--
R R R
For a range of values of !cu, k and p, the above equations can be solved for
different values of e/R. Tables 11.18 to 11.27 give N/R2 and z/R for
different values of el R.
Note: The above equations are valid up to x = 1.11lh = 2.22R.
1.11 ULTIMATE LIMIT STATE - CORBELS
v
Es
£=0·0035
SK 1122 Concrete corbel. Strut and Tie Diagram Strail Diagram
The derivation of Fig. 5.1
v=-
v
bd
From the strut and tie diagram:

Vav
F1 = T + Fe cos f3 = T + -
z
Fe= ( 0.67/cu)
--- b 0.9xcosf3
1.5
= 0.402/cubxcos f3
V = Fe sin f3
= 0.402/cubxcos f3sin f3
•
stn p
(.l
= z 1
(a~ + z2)2
V Zllv
V = - = 0.402/cuX
bd (av2 + Z
2
)d
_..!'.'.._
!cu
= 0 . 402(.£)d ( a~xav+ z )
2
Substituting x = (d- z)/0.45,
v 0.893(~)(~)(1 - ~)
t;
(~r (~r +
From the above equation the graphs in Fig. 5.1 have been drawn.
1.12 WOOD-ARMER COMBINATION OF MOMENT TRIADS
~ A sy
Mxy
Mxy
~·. ~ M•x
SK 1/24 Direction of orthogonal reinforcement

SK 1/23 Moment triad in a slab panel. in a slab panel.
Orthogonal reinforcement
Bottom steel
M.~ = M; + IMxyl
Mj = My + IMxyl
If M.~<0, then M_~=O
and Mj = My +
M;vl
M~
I
If M;< 0, then M_;= 0
and M'.: = Mx + MM;_vyl

I
Top steel
M; = M, - IMxvl
Mj = My - IMx:vl
If Mf>O, then Mf=O
and M* = M - M;vl
--·
y y
I
A1x
If M_;> 0, then Mj= 0
and M*x = Mx - M;vl

--·
M
I y
Skew reinforcement
SK 1/25 Direction of skew

reinforcement in a slab panel.
Bottom steel
Mf = M; + 2Mxycoto: + Mycot 2 o: + IMxy +_Mycoto:I

smo:
M~ = _My + IMxy +_ Mycoto:I

sm2o: sm o:
If M'.:<0, then M1=0

and M~ = (-.-1-)(Mv
sm2 a:
+ I M x + (Mxv + Mvcota:)2
2Mxy cot a: + My cot2 a:
I)
If M~<O, then M~=O
and M'; = Mx + 2Mxycota: + Mycot2a: + (Mxy +MM_... ycot a:)21

I
Top steel
M'; = M x + 2M xy cot a: + My cot 2 a: - IMxy +.Mycota:I

sm a:
Mv
M* = --·-- I u.;. + Mvcot
. 0:1
"' sin2 a: sin a:
If M'; > 0, then M'; = 0
and M~ = (+)(My - I (Mxv + Mvcota:)2 I)

sm a: M; + 2Mxycota: + Mycot2a:
If M~ > 0, then M~ = 0
and M'; = M; + 2MxyCOt a: + My cot2 a: - l(Mxy +MM_vycota:)2I
1.13 SERVICEABILITY LIMIT STATE - BENDING AND DIRECT LOADS
1.13.1 Serviceability limit state: uniaxial bending
C' =
compressive force in bars in compression with allowance for area of
concrete occupied by bars
C = compressive force in concrete stress block assumed triangular
Ee
Es
Neutral
d Axis
Es
As
SECTION STRESS STRAIN
SK 1126 Serviceability uniaxial bending.

T = tensile force in bars in tension

M = applied bending moment
x = depth of neutral axis from compressive face
€c = strain in extreme compressive fibre of concrete
E~ = strain in compressive steel
Es = strain in tensile steel
m = E,IEc
From strain diagram,
Ee X
-=-- or £E - Ec(_x -)
~ x - d' f~ E, d - d'
Ee
-=--
X
or fE = Ec(_x _)
E5 X - d t: Es d-x
C = 0.5bxfe
C' = /~A~ x -
- feA~ ( -x-
d')
= d')
(m - l)feA~ ( x-X-
d - x)
T = fsAs = mfcAs ( -x-
Taking moment about the steel in tension,
c( d - ~) + C'(d - d') = M
or 0.5bxfc( d - ~) + (m - 1)/cA~( x ~ d')(d - d') = M
Equating the loads on the section,

C+C'=T
or 0.5bxfc + (m - l)feA~( x ~ d') = mfcAs( d ~ x)

Eliminating fc and multiplying by 2xlbd2,
x2 + 2(m - l)A~(x - d') _ 2mAs(d - x) = O
d2 bd2 bd2
Simplifying, and substituting p = Aslbd and p' = Ai[bd,
GY + 2[(m - l)p' + mp1(S) - 2[ (m - l)p'( :) + mp] = o

or ~={[mp+ (m - l)p'r + 2[ mp+ (m - l)(:)p']}i
- [mp + (m - l)p']
Put p' = 0, where compressive steel is not present.
Having found x using the above expression, find le·

M
le = 0.5bx(d - x/3) + (m - l)A~(x - d')(d - d')lx
M
where k2 = (;d) ( 1 - ;d)

k3 = (m - 1) ( 1 - ~)
f, = tensile stress in steel = mlc(~ - 1)

1.13.2 Serviceability limit state: uniaxial bending and compression
d
Ne
Ee
Es
Neutral
h d Axis
CENTROIOAL
AXIS THROUGH
STRESSED AREA
fs ....____ ____. Es
As STRESS STRAIN
SK 1/27 Serviceability uniaxial bending and thrust.
Using the same symbols as in Section 1.13.1 and Ne is the compressive

force, equating the loads on the section:
C' + C = N + T and e = M
c Ne
The output from a computer program will give an axial compression of a
member with a coacting moment. This axial compression theoretically for
a reinforced concrete section may be considered as acting at the centroid
of the stressed section. This will mean finding the centroid of the stressed
area ignoring concrete in tension. On the other hand, the line of application
of the compressive load may also be assumed to coincide with the centroid
of the full concrete section ignoring any reinforcement.
The distance of the centroid of the stressed area from the compressive
face of the rectangular section is called g and may be found by taking
moments of all transformed areas of steel about the compressive face of
the section
bx(x/2) + (m - l)A~d' + mA,d
g=
bx + (m - l)A~ + mA,
g= 2h where the load

.
ts assumed to act at the centroid of the full
concrete section ignoring steel.
(See Section 1.13.1 for expressions of C and C'.)
Taking moment about tension steel,
-Nc(e + d - g) + C'(d - d') + c(d - ~) = 0
or -Ne(e + d - g) + (m - l)feA~(x ~ d')(d - d')
+ 0.5bxfe(d - ~) = 0
where ki. k2 and k3 are non-dimensional constants.
k3( 1 - ~)feA~ + k2bdfe = kiN;
ocf,~ (
k3 1 -
dr
d A~ + k2bd
T = C' + C - Ne
or Asfs = (m - l)feA~(x ~ d') + 0.5bxfc - Ne
= k3feA~ + 0.5bxfc - Ne
fc(k3A~ + 0.5bx) - Ne
or fs = A
s
From strain diagram, see Section 1.13.1
b_ = m(d - x)
le X
d
or x =----
(1 + _k_)
mf;
The procedure is to assume x and then calculate le and f" and then check
x. Repeat this process until convergence is reached.
1.13.3 Serviceability limit state: uniaxial bending and tension
b
d'
Ee
g Es
Neutral
d
h Axis
e=MINt fs
As STRESS STRAIN
SK 1128 Serviceability uniaxial bending and tension.
Using the same symbols as in Section 1.13.1 and N1 is the tensile force,
equating the loads:
M
C' + C + N1 = T and e = -
N1
The expressions for e, g, k2 and ks are exactly the same as in Section
1.13.2 and g may be taken equal to h/2 where the point of application of
the tensile load is at the centroid of the full concrete section ignoring steel.
(See Section 1.13.1 for expressions of C and C'.)
Taking moment about tensile steel,
-N1(e + g - d) + C'(d - d') + c(d - ~) = 0

Asfs = T = C' + C + N1
or ls = !c(k3A~ + 0.5bx) + N1
---'---'--------'------'
As
d
x = (1 + _b_)
mf;
as in Section 1.13.2. Check assumed value ofx and repeat until convergence is
reached.
Chapter 2
Design of Reinforced Concrete Beams
2.0 NOTATION
a' Compression face to point on surface of concrete where crack width is

calculated
ab Centre-to-centre distance between bars or groups of bars
acr Point on surface of concrete to nearest face of a bar
Ac Gross area of concrete in a section
As Area of steel in tension
A~ Area of steel in compression
Asv Area of steel in vertical links
be Breadth of compression face of beam mid-way between restraints
b, Width of section at centroid of tensile steel
b; Average web width
c Coefficient of torsional stiffness
Cmin Minimum cover to tensile reinforcement
C Torsional stiffness
d1 From tension face of concrete section to centre of tensile
reinforcement
Es Modulus of elasticity of steel
fs Service stress in steel reinforcement
fy Characteristic yield strength of steel
f~ Revised compressive stress in steel taking into account depth of neutral
axis
[yv Characteristic yield strength of reinforcement used as links
F Coefficient for calculation of cracked section moment of inertia
Fbt Tensile force in a bar at start of a bend
G Shear modulus
h Overall depth of a concrete section
hr Thickness of flange in a T-beam
hmax Maximum overall dimension of a rectangular concrete beam
hmin Minimum overall dimension of a rectangular concrete beam
I Moment of inertia
l Clear span or span face-to-face of support
41
Effective span
Centre-to-centre distance between supports
modular ratio = Esf Ee
Applied bending moment
Design bending moment modified to account for axial load
Moment of resistance of concrete in flanged beams
Axial load
Percentage of tensile reinforcement
Percentage of compressive reinforcement
Internal radius of a bend in a bar
Spacings of bent bars used as shear reinforcement
Spacing of vertical links
Applied torsion
Proportion of total torsion carried by each rectangle of an I-, T- or
L-section
v Shear stress in concrete (N/mm2)
Design concrete shear stress (N/mm2)
Shear stress in concrete due to torsion (N/mm2)
Ultimate permissible torsional shear stress (N/mm2)
Design concrete torsional shear stress (N/mm2)
v Shear force in concrete section
vb Shear force carried by bent bars
Ve Shear force capacity of concrete section
Vs Shear force carried by vertical links
Vmax Ultimate maximum shear forces allowed on section
Vnom Shear force capacity of concrete section with minimum vertical links
Vconc Design shear resistance of concrete
Wmax Maximum crack width (mm)
x Depth of neutral axis from compression face
X1 Centre-to-centre of two external vertical legs of a link
Yi Centre-to-centre of two external horizontal legs of a link
z Depth of lever arm

Factor governing moment of resistance of concrete T-section
Material factor
Calculated strain in concrete at depth h
Strain with stiffening effect corrected
Strain at centre of steel reinforcement
Yield strain in steel reinforcement
Strain at centre of compressive reinforcement
Strain at depth h corrected for stiffening effect
Calculated strain in concrete ignoring stiffening effect
Poisson's ratio
Diameter of a reinforcing bar or equivalent diameter of a group of bars
Design of Reinforced Concrete Beams 43
2.1 ANALYSIS OF BEAMS
2.1.1 Effective spans
\
L
l
SK 2/2 Continuous beam.
SK 2/3 Cantilever beam.
SK 2/1 Simply supported
beam.
Simply supported or encastre le = smaller of (I+ d) or 10

Continuous
d
Cantilever l =l+-
e 2
where /0 = centre-to-centre distance between supports
le = effective span
l = clear span or span to face of support
d = effective depth of tension reinforcement.
2.1.2 Effective width of compression flange
'f:' ~
[~ ZI
SK 2/4 Effective width of

compression flange.
~ k.SECT[ONl~
A - A
~
le
Simply supported T-beam b=-+b
5 w
le
Simply supported L-beam b = -10 + bw
le
Continuous or encastre T-beams b=-+b
7.14 w
le
Continuous or encastre L-beams b=--+b
14.29 w
where b = effective width of compression flange

b.; = average width of web.
Note: Use actual b if it is less than the calculated b using the above formulae.
A typical example may be a precast T-beam.
2.1.3 Moment of inertia
Method 1 Gross concrete section only

Find moment of inertia of gross concrete section - see Table 11.2.
Method 2 Uncracked transformed concrete

If reinforcement quantities are known, find moment of inertia of trans-
formed concrete section using Table 11.2.
Method 3 Average of gross concrete section and cracked section
SK 2/5 Doubly reinforced beam.
I = 0.5 c~bh3 + Fbh3)

where I = moment of inertia of rectangular concrete section
b = width of rectangular concrete section
h = overall depth of rectangular concrete section
F = factor - see Fig. 11.1 for values of F.
A,
p = 100 -
bd
where A, = area of tensile reinforcement
d = effective depth to tensile reinforcement.
A'
p' = 100 ~
bd
where A~=area of compressive reinforcement.
.
m = modular ratio = -Es
Ee
The graphs in Fig. 11.1 have been drawn for p' = 0 and p = p'. Intermediate
values may be interpolated.
Note: The preferred method is Method 3 for rectangular sections. Where reinforce-
ment quantities are not known, an assumption may be made of the per-
centage of reinforcement.
T-beams and L-beams in a frame or continuous beam structure should
be treated as rectangular beams for the purpose of determining moment of
inertia. The width of the beam will be taken equal to bw.
2.1.4 Modulus of elasticity
Modulus of elasticity of reinforcement steel

Es = 200kN/mm2
Modulus of elasticity of concrete, Ee, for short-term and long-term loadings
is given in Table 2.1.
Table 2.1 Modulus of elasticity of concrete: short-term and long-term loading.
Short-term loading, Ee Long-term loading, Ee

(kN/mm2) (kN/mm2)
20 24 12
25 25 12.5
30 26 13
40 28 14
50 30 15
60 32 16
Note: Wind load is short-term loading and dead load is long-term loading.
2.1.S Torsional stiffness
For a rectangular section the torsional stiffness, C, is given by

c= ch ~inhmax
where c = coefficient from Table 2.2
hmax = maximum overall dimension of rectangular section
hmin = minimum overall dimension of rectangular section.
h max
_.=}hmin
hmin
I
..c:::
l
SK 2/6 Component rectangles of a
hmax
beam to find torsional stiffness.
The torsional stiffness of a non-rectangular section may be obtained by

dividing the section into a series of rectangles and summing the torsional
stiffness of these rectangles.
Table 2.2 Values of coefficient c.
1.5 2 3 5 10
c 0.14 0.20 0.23 0.26 0.29 0.31
The coefficient c is given by the following formula:
1 [16
c = 16 3- 3.36k ( 1 - k124)]
where
2.1.6 Shear modulus
Shear modulus, G, is given by
G = 2E (1 + µ) = 0.42Ec for concrete
where µ = Poisson's ratio.
Note: In normal slab and beam or framed construction, torsional rigidity of RC

beams may be ignored in the analysis and the torsional stiffness may
be given a very small value in the computer analysis. Torsional rigidity
becomes important only where torsion is relied on to carry the load, as in
curved beams.
2.1.7 Poisson's ratio
Poisson's ratio for concrete= 0.2
2.1.8 Shear area
Shear area of concrete = 0.8Ac
where Ac= gross cross-sectional area of concrete.
Note: The shear area of concrete is entered as input to some computer programs
when the analysis is required to take into account the deformations due to
shear.
2.1.9 Thermal strain
The coefficients of thermal expansion are given in Table 2.3 for different
types of aggregate used.
Table 2.3 Coefficient of thermal expansion.
Aggregate type Coefficient ( x 10-0 / c)

0
Flint, Quartzite 12
Granite, Basalt 10
Limestone 8
Note: Normally for ultimate limit state no specific calculations are necessary for
thermal loads. Thermal calculations should be produced for structures in
contact with hot gases or liquid.
2.2 LOAD COMBINATIONS
2.2.1 General rules
The following load combinations and partial load factors should be used in
carrying out the analysis of beams:
LC1: 1.4 DL + 1.6 LL + 1.4 EP + 1.4 WP
LC2: 1.0 DL + 1.4 EP + 1.4 WP
LC3: 1.4 DL + 1.4 WL + 1.4 EP + 1.4 WP
LC4: 1.0 DL + 1.4 WL + 1.4 EP + 1.4 WP
LC5: 1.2 DL + 1.2 LL + 1.2 WL + 1.2 EP + 1.2 WP
Note: Load combinations LC2 and LC4 should be considered when the effects of
dead load and live load are beneficial.
where DL = dead load

LL = live load or imposed load
WL = wind load
WP = water pressure
EP = earth pressure.
The general principle of load combination is to leave out the loads which
have beneficial effect. If the load is of a permanent nature, like dead load,
earth load or water load, use the partial load factor of 1 for that load
which produces a beneficial rather than adverse effect. This rule of combi-
nation will be used for design as well as for the check of stability of a
structure.
2.2.2 Rules of load combination for continuous beams
LC1 ON ALL SPANS
LC1 LC, LC1
FFfTf1f1
!&1 ALTERNATEWITH LC2 FOR MAXIMUM
MIDSPAN MOMENT
SK 217 Continuous beam loading l.&.1 ON ADJACENT SPANS ALTERNATE WITH

sequences. LC2 FOR MAXIMUM SUPPORT MOMENT
(1) Load all spans with LC1•

(2) Load alternate spans with LC1 and other spans with LC2•
(3) Load beam in the repeated sequence of two adjacent spans loaded
with LC1 and one span loaded with LC2• This sequence gives the
maximum support moment between adjacent spans. This is not a
normal requirement, as per clause 3.2.1.2.2 of BS 8110: Part 1: 1985.l1J
2.2.3 Redistribution of moments
2.2.3.1 Continuous beams

M M
SK 2/8 Continuous beam - typical

moment redistribution.
Usually 10% redistribution of moments may be allowed from those

obtained by elastic analysis. Redraw bending moment diagram with redis-
tributed moments. Calculate revised shear. Reduction of support moment
means a corresponding increase in span moment. For structural frames
over four stories high providing lateral stability, the redistribution of
moments should not exceed 10%. Resistance moment at any section must
be at least 70% of moment at that section obtained by elastic analysis.
2.2.3.2 Frame structures

No reduction or redistribution of moments is allowed from the columns.
2.2.3.3 Continuous one-way spanning slab panels

Usually 10% redistribution of moments may be allowed from those
obtained by elastic analysis.
2.2.4 Exceptional loads
Exceptional loads may be any of the following.
(1) Accidental loads of very low probability properly quantified. The

definition of low probability may vary from project to project and will
be agreed with the client.
(2) Probable misuse and its effect accurately quantified.
(3) Once in a lifetime very short-term loads which are accurately quantified.
Note: With exceptional loads some rectification of local damage after the incident
may be necessary.
Load combination to be considered:

LC6 = l.05DL + l.05LL1 + 1.05EL + l.05WL1
where DL = full expected dead load
LL1 = full expected live load if this is a storage building, other-
wise, one-third of expected maximum live load
EL = exceptional load
WL1 = one-third of expected maximum wind load.
SO Reinforced Concrete
2.3 STEP-BY-STEP DESIGN PROCEDURE FOR BEAMS
Step I Analysis
Carry out analysis - follow Section 2.1.
Step 2 Moment envelope
Mmax (-ve)
SK 2/9 Typical moment envelope

of a continuous beam.
Draw maximum-minimum ultimate load bending moment envelope after

redistribution.
Step 3 Shear envelope
Ymax
SK 2/10 Typical shear envelope of

a continuous beam.
Draw maximum-minimum ultimate load shear force envelope after

redistribution.
Step 4 Axial loads

Determine coacting axial loads with maximum and nummum bending
moments respectively. Ignore axial load if less than O.lfcubh.
Step 5 Torsions
Determine coacting torsions with maximum and minimum shear forces
respectively.
Design of Reinforced Concrete Beams Beams 51
SK 2/11 Dimensions to compute

axial load in beam.
uJ
~
Step 6 Cover to reinforcement

Determine cover required to reinforcement as per Tables 11.6 and 11.7.
Find effective depth d, assuming reinforcement diameter.
SK 2/12 Rectangular beam -

effective depth.
Step 7 Eff~ctive span

Determine effective span - see Section 2.1.1.
Step 8 Effective width of compressionflange

Determine effective width of compression flange - see Section 2.1.2.
Step 9 Slenderness ratio
SK 2/14 Cantilever beam.

SK 2/13 Simply supported and continuous
beams.
Check slenderness of beam as per clause 3.4.1.6 of BS 8110: Part 1:

1985.111
For simply supported and continuous beams,
I < 60bc or 250 b~

d
For cantilever beams,
I < 25bc or 100 b~

d
where d = J( M
0.156/cub
) or actual d, whichever is lesser
b = effective width of the compression flange

M = design ultimate moment.
Step 10 Design for moment - rectangular beam

Select critical sections on beam for bending moment. Find the following
parameters at all critical sections, for rectangular beams and flanged beams.
,A~
'-o "'
<,
(1 c'
c
£
M
0
"'s:
<,
N T
I
~
SK 2/17 Rectangular beam -

SK 2/16 Rectangular beam - stress diagram.
moment and axial load.
SK 2115 Rectangular beam -

doubly reinforced.
Md = M + N (0.5h - d1) for N :S:. 0 .1 fcubd
Note: For N > 0.1/cubd, design as column (see Chapter 4). Md may also be taken
equal to M where N s 0.1/cubd and N may be totally ignored. (Sign
convention: N is +ve for compression.)
K=~
fcubd2
z = d[ 0.5 + J( 0.25 - 0~9) J :S 0.95d
d - z
x=--
0.45
Md N
A=-----
s 0.87/yZ 0.87/y
K' = 0.156 when redistribution does not exceed 10%
K' = 0.402(f3b - 0.4) - 0.18(f3b - 0.4)2 when redistribution

exceeds 10%
Mz
f}b = M' < 0.9
where M2 = moment after redistribution; M' = moment before redis-

tribution
When K>K',
z = d[ 0.5 + J (0.25 - :.~)]
d - z
x = -- ~ 0.5d
0.45
K - K')f bd2
A' = ( Jcu
s 0.87/y (d - d')
K'f bd2 N
A = Jcu +A' - --
s 0.87/yZ s 0.87/y
x
...
(Y)
u
0
x x
r-;
in
0
uI
SK 2/18 Strain diagram.
If d' Ix> 0.43x,
A' = (K - K')!cuhd2
s f~ (d - d')
K'f bd? N
A = Jcu +A' 5 - --
s 0.87/yZ 0.87/y
!'= (x--- d') a.f

because steel strain ~ = x - d')
( 0.57x
s 0.57x Ym Ey
where Ey corresponds to steel stress //ym, as in Section 1.4.2.

Note: The flanged beam becomes a rectangular beam if the bending moment
produces tension in the flange.
Design charts in BS8110: Part 3: 1985111 may be used if design parameters

fall within the scope of the charts.
Step 11 Design for moment - flanged beam
w SK 2/19 Flanged beam - singly

reinforced.
A flanged beam should be designed as a rectangular beam with width

equal to the effective width of flange in compression if x :S l.lhf.
If x > l. lht. find bl b ; and di ht.
Obtain ~f from Fig. 2.1.
Calculate Mr= ~dcubd2
If Mr 2: Md,
Md + O.lfcubwd(0.45d - ht) N
As= - --
0.87fy(d - 0.5ht) 0.87fy
If M,«: Md, follow Section 1.5.4 using the second approach to design of
flanged beams.
Step 12 Maximum allowable shear stress

Find maximum shear in beam from shear envelope at the face of support
or under a concentrated load.
Find v = V/bd.
Check v :S 0.8 \!fcu :S 5 Nlmm2
Change beam geometry if this condition is not satisfied.
1]]
u .J::. A1-
~J
__ ~n
SK 2/20 Rectangular beam. SK 2/21 Flanged beam.
Step 13 Design for shear
SK 2/22 Critical section for shear. Shear check SK 2123 Critical section for shear. Shear check
based on bottom reinforcement adequately based on top reinforcement adequately
anchored. anchored (A~ to continue at least 3d from face
of support).
Select critical sections on beam which are at a distance of 2d from the

face of support or concentrated load. Find the following parameters for
rectangular and flanged beams.
V = design ultimate shear force
v
V = bd $ 0.8 Vieu$ 5N/mm2
lOOAs
p=--
bd
Find Ve from Figs 11.2 to 11.5.

When axial load in compression, N, is present,
v~ =Ve+
NVh) s 0.8
0.6 ( -- Vieu s 5N/mm2
AeM
Note: NIAe is average stress in the concrete section. Vhf Ms 1 and moment
and shear at the section under consideration must be for the same load
combination. N is +ve for compression and -ve for tension. To avoid
shear cracks at ultimate load, limit shear stress to
Replace Ve by v~ where axial load is present.

. d 0.4bSv
FIll Asv = ---
0.87lyv
lyv -s 460N/mm2 for links.
Provide minimum area of links, Asv• at a spacing of S.., for the zone where
shear is less or equal to Vnom· From the shear force envelope determine
zones where V exceeds Vnom = (ve + 0.4)bd
SK 2/24 Elevation of beam

showing shear reinforcement.
SK 2125 Single system of bent- SK 2/26 Multiple system of

up shear reinforcement. bent-up shear reinforcement.
Find A = bSv(v - Ve)

SV 0.87/yv •
Replace Ve by v~ where axial load is present.

Provide area of links, Am at a spacing of S; at the section of the beam in
consideration.
For a mixture of links and bent-up bars,
Vb + V, 2: (v - Vc)bd
. (d - d')
where Vb= A,b(0.87/yv)(coscx + sm e cot p) Sb ex and ~ 2: 45°
d
V, = Asv(0.87 /vv) Sv 2: 0.5( V - Vc)bd
Replace Ve by v~ where axial load in compression is present.
Note: Step 14 below may be omitted if at Step 13 the critical section is selected at
a distance of d from the face of support or from the concentrated load. No
further checks will be necessary at the face of support or at the concentrated
load.
Step 14 Alternative design for shear

Find Vmax= 0.8 y!cu bd, or= 5bd, whichever is less.
Complete the table below:
Distance from face of Vnom = Vconc + 0.4bd

support or concentrated
load
2.00d (vc + OA)bd v.bd

l.75d (l.143vc + 0.4)bd l.143vcbd
l.50d (1.333vc + OA)bd l.333vcbd
1.25d (Lev, + 0.4)bd l.6vcbd
l.OOd (2.0vc + OA)bd 2.0vcbd
0.75d (2.67vc + OA)bd 2.67vcbd
0.50d ( 4vc + 0.4)bd 4.0vcbd
0.25d {8vc + 0.4)bd 8.0vcbd
Design of Reinforced Concrete Beams 57 ·
Distance from face of v V- Vconc

support or concentrated (actual shear force)
load
2.00d
l.75d
l.50d
l.25d
l.OOd
0.75d
0.50d
0.25d
Satisfy the following conditions:

when Vs Vnom•
A = 0.4bSv
sv 0.87[yv
when V> Vn0m, calculate
d
Vs = Asv (0.87[yv)- 2: V - Vconc
Sv
The shear resistance may be provided by a combination of links and bent-
up bars.
Step 15 Minimum tension reinforcement
b
Effective width
A,
SK 2/27 Flanged beam. SK 2/28 Rectangular beam.
For flanged beam web in tension, find bwlb.

If b.Jb <0.4
As 2: 0.0018bwh for t, = 460N/mm2
If bwfb 2:0.4
A, 2: 0.00l3bwh for [y = 460 N/mm2
· 58 Reinforced Concrete
For flanged beam flange in tension,
for T-beam As 2 0.0026bwh for [y = 460 N/mm2

for L-beam As 2 0.0020bwh for /y = 460N/mm2
For rectangular beams,
A, 2 0.0013bh for [y = 460N/mm2
Step 16 Minimum compression reinforcement - when designed as doubly reinforced

For flanged beam flange in compression,
A~ 2 0.004bht
For flanged beam web in compression,
A~ 2 0.002bwh
For rectangular beam,
A~ 2 0.002bh
Note: Minimum compression reinforcement in beams will be used only when

compression reinforcement is required.
Step 17 Minimum transverse reinforcement in flange
b
(effective width)
1. 5ht mm2 /m
SK 2/29 Minimum transverse

reinforcement in flange of flanged
beam.
For flanged beams over full effective flange width near top surface, use
1.5htmm2/m reinforcement for the whole length of the beam. Normally
this amount of reinforcement is provided in the slab at the top surface over
the beam as part of slab reinforcement when the flanged beam forms part
of a beam-slab construction.
Step 18 Minimum reinforcement in side face of beams
d = dia. of bar 2 J(Slb)

Sb::::;; 250mm
b = actual, or 500 mm, whichever is the lesser.
SK 2/30 Minimum reinforcement

side face of beam. A5~0.0012Sbh
Note: To control cracking on the side faces of beams use small diameter bars at
close spacings. The distribution of these bars should be over two-thirds of
beam's overall depth measured from tension face.
A,;::: 0.00125bh on each side face as shown.
Step 19 Deflection
b
Effectiw width
A~ M
i_.
., M
effective span
SK 2/31 Doubly reinforced SK 2/33 Cantilever beam. M =
flanged beam. moment at support.
SK 2/32 Simply supported or
continuous beam. M = moment
at midspan.
Find b.Jb for flanged beams.

Find u«
Find basic span/effective depth ratio from Table 11.3.
Note: If bwlb is greater than 0.3, then interpolate between values in Table 11.3
assuming bwlb equal to 1 for rectangular beams and 0.3 for flanged beams.
. stress f,s =
. service
Fmd f.y (~ 5 ) (~)
8pb As prov
where ~b= MIM'

M = moment after redistribution
M' = moment before redistribution
A, rcqd = area of steel required from calculations
A, prov = area of steel actually provided.
Find Mlbd2•
Find modification factor for tension reinforcement from Chart 11.5.
Find lOOA~lbd.
Find modification factor for compression reinforcement from Chart 11.4.
Find modified span/depth ratio by multiplying the basic span/depth ratio
by the modification factor of tension and compression reinforcement.
Check lcld <modified span/depth ratio
Note: Table 11.3 can be used for up to a 10 m span. Beyond a 10 m span multiply
these values by 10/span except for cantilevers where deflection should be
calculated (see Section 1.8 for calculation of deflection.)
Step 20 Maximum areas of reinforcement

For all beams,
A, :s 0.04bwh
A~ :s 0.04bwh
Step 21 Containment of compression reinforcement

Designed compression reinforcement in a beam should be contained by
links.
Minimum diameter of links= 0.25 times diameter of largest compression
bar, or 6 mm, whichever is greater.
Maximum spacing of links = 12 times diameter of smallest bar in
compression.
01
02
d d d
SK 2/34 Containment of
'd' is greater of 0·25 01 or 6mm compression reinforcement.
Step 22 Bearing stress inside bend
Ix
SK 2/35 Bearing stress inside

bend. ~ ...SECTION X - X
Check bearing stress inside bend where it is required to extend the bar for
more than 4 x diameter beyond the bend because the anchorage require-
ment is not otherwise satisfied.
Satisfy that
. Fbt 2lcu
bearmg stress = - ::S -----
r<P 1 + 2(!)
where Fbt = tension in bar at the start of bend
ab = centre to centre of bar, or, cover plus diameter of bar.
Step 23 Curtailment of bars

Follow simplified detailing rules for beams where the load is predominantly
uniformly distributed and spans in a continuous beam are approximately
equal. Follow bending moment diagram for other cases.
Step 24 Spacing of bars

Minimum clear spacing horizontally= MSA + 5 ;:::: diameter of bar
where MSA =maximum size of aggregate.
. . l . 2MSA
Minimum c ear spacing vertically between layers = --3-
47000
Maximum clear spacing of bars in tension ::S -- ::S 300
Is
. stress m
Service . bar Is = IY ( -5 )(~)
8f3b As prov
(See Step 19 for explanation of ~b·)

The distance between the corner of the beam and the nearest longitudinal
bar in tension should not be greater than half the maximum clear spacing.
Note: In normal internal or external condition of exposure where the limitation

of crack widths to 0.3 mm is appropriate, Step 24 will deem to satisfy the
crack width criteria.
Step 25 Torsional shear stress
hmax.1
14 ·1
G) Jhmin.1
"!
)(
Q)
ii hm1n.1
..c:
SK 2/'36 Rectangular section torsional shear

stress. G) ~]hmin.t
l h max.I J
SK 2/37 Division into rectangles of composite
section.
Check torsional shear stress.

Find ultimate torsion T from analysis.
For a rectangular section, torsional shear stress, v1, is given by
2T
Vt = 2 ( hmin)
h min hmax - -3-
For LT or L-section, divide each section into component rectangles.

Proportion of total torsion carried by each rectangle = T,
Th~;nhmax
3 =Ts
L (hmin hmax)
Torsional shear stress for each section
2
hmin (h max - -3-
hmin)
For hollow and other box sections, follow the method in Chapter 8.
If wall thickness in a rectangular hollow section exceeds one quarter of the
dimension in that direction, treat the hollow section as a solid rectangle.
Calculate
Vt.min= 0.067 Vfcu < 0.4N/mm2
V1u = 0.8 V/cu :5 5N/mm2

If v, <vi.min• no torsional reinforcement is required.
. .,,. Spacing of
links = Sv
Sy:SX1, v.12 and 200

Asv (ar«1 of two outside legs)
SK 2/39 Elevation of torsional reinforcement in
A. !longitudinal ~inforccmcnt I beam.
SK 2/38 Torsional reinforcement in beam.
If Vi.min< v, < v1u, provide torsional shear reinforcement by closed links

and longitudinal bars.
Check ( v + v1) < V1u
where v =flexural shear stress.
Check v < vtu(:S~)

1
Asv T
->------
S; - 0.8xJ.Y1(0.87/yv)
Asvfyv(X1 + Y1)
As 2: --'-----
Sv/y
Note: Add torsional reinforcement to already calculated shear reinforcement.
S; < x" or ~ 1, or 200 mm, whichever is the least
Step 26 Crack width in flexure
Servieeabilily limit state
Load combination LC7 = 1.0DL + 1.0LL + 1.0EP + 1.0WP + 1.0WL
Note: Omit loadings from LC7 which produce beneficial rather than adverse
effect.
SK 2/40 Critical dimensions for

crack width calculations.
ht ( h-xl(a'-x)
JE5As(d-x)
h o'
__A_
ht I h-x )2
3fsA5( d-xl SK 2/41 Strain diagram for crack
STRAIN SECTION OF BEAM width calculations.
A,
L_!2 J SK 2/42 Doubly reinforced

rectangular beam.
3acr Em
Wmax = -------
2( acr - Cmin)
1 + ~----'-
(h - x)
(a' - x)
l".m = £1 - bt(h - x) -----
3£,A,(d - x)
Note: e1 is the strain due to load combination LC7•

where b, is the width of the section at the centroid of tensile reinforcement.
For a rectangular section,
Note: A flanged beam is a rectangular section if x :s; 1.lht.
Es
m=-
Ec
x = d{[ (mp + (m - l)p')2 + 2(mp + (m - 1)( ~')p') J

- (mp+ (m - l)p')}
(See Section 1.13.1.)

A, A'
p = - p' = _2.
bd bd
M
t; = k 2bd2 + k 3A s'(d - d')
k2 = (;J ( ;J
1 -
k3 = (m - 1) ( 1 - :)
fs = mfc (~ - 1)

of crack widths to 0.3mm is appropriate, Step 24 will deem to satisfy the
Step 27 Design of connections to other components

Follow Chapter 10.
2.4 WORKED EXAMPLES
Example 2.1 Simply supported rectangular beam

Clear span = 6.0 m
UDL Ti'
11111111111 1111111111111
I I
20Qi-1-- 5_o_oo J_hoo SK 2/43 Simply supported beam.
Overall depth = 500 mm

Width = 300 mm
Width of supporting walls = 200 mm
All reinforcement to be used is high yield steel with /y = 460N/mm2•
Note: Steps 1-5 form part of the analysis and are excluded from the worked
example. For a typical analysis see Example 2.3.
Step 6 Determination of cover

Maximum size of aggregate = 20 mm
Maximum bar size assumed = 32 mm
Maximum size of link assumed = 10 mm
Exposure condition = severe
Fire resistance required= 2 hours.
Refer to the following tables in Chapter 11:
Table 11.6 grade of concrete= C40 for severe exposure

Table 11.6 minimum cement content= 325 kg/m3
Table 11.6 maximum free water/cement ratio= 0.55
Table 11.6 nominal cover= 40 mm
Table 11. 7 nominal cover to beams for 2 hours fire resistance = 40 mm
For 2 hours fire resistance, minimum width of beam= 200mm, from Figure
3.2 of BS8110: Part 1: 1985.Pl
SK 2/44 Section of rectangular

beam.
Effective depth, d, is given by:
d = overall depth - nominal cover - dia. of link - half dia. of bar

= 500 - 40 - 10 - 16 = 434 mm
Step 7 Determination of effective span

l + d = 6.0 + 0.434 = 6.434m
10 = 6.2m
Therefore le = l = 6.2 m
0
Step 8 Determination of effective width

Not required.
Step 9 Check slenderness of beam

l = 6.0m
60bc = 60 X 300mm = 18.0m
250 b~ 250 x 3002
-d- - 434 = 51.84m
250b~
Satisfied l < 60bc < --
d
Step 10 Design for moment - rectangular beam
0 N
0 ()'.)
lD (Y1
SK 2/45 Stress diagram of

rectangular beam.
Maximum ultimate bending moment = 216 kNm

Maximum shear at face of support = 140 kN
Shear at 2d from face of support = 96 kN
Shear at d from face of support= 116 kN
Direct load, N = 0 kN
Mct=M=216kNm
fcu = 40 N/mm2
Mct 216 x 106

K = -- = = 0.0956 < 0.156
fcubd2 40 X 300 X 4342
z = d[ 0.5 + J( 0.25 - 0~9)]
= d[ o.5 + J( 0.25 -
0·~~:6)
J
= 0.88d = 382 mm
d - z 434 - 382
x = -- = = 116mm
0.45 0.45
Mct
As=--
0.87/yz
216 x 1G6
------ = 1413mm2
0.87 x 460 x 382
Use 3 no. 25 mm dia. Grade 460 = 1472 mm2
Step 11 Design for moment - fianged beam

Not required.
Step 12 Check maximum allowable shear

v = -
v at face of support
bd
140 x 1()3
300 x 434
= 1.075N/mm2 < 0.8 vt.; = 5 N/mm2
2d = 870mm
V = 96kN at 2d from support face
96 x 1ll3
v=----
300 x 434
= 0.74N/mm2 < 0.8 Vfcu = 5N/mm2
100 A,
p=--
bd
100 x 1472
300 x 434
= 1.13%
Ve= 0.65 x 1.17N/mm2 for Grade 40 concrete
= 0.76N/mm2 from Fig. 11.5
Vnom =
(Ve + 0.4) bd
=
151 kN > 140 kN at face of support
V < V m at all points in the beam.
00
. . 0.4bsv
Nommal lmks Asv = ---
0.87/yv
Assume S; = 300 mm
0.4 x 300 x 300
Asv = --0-.8-7-X-460--
= 90mm2
Use 8mm dia. single closed link= Asv = 100mm2 (fy = 460N/mm2) at
300 mm centre to centre.

Vnom >Vat face of support so Step 14 is superfluous - use nominal links
everywhere on the beam.
Step 15 Minimum tensile reinforcement

Minimum tensile reinforcement = 0.0013bh
= 0.0013 x 300 x 500mm2
= 195mm2< 1472mm2 provided
2 no. 12 diameter ( = 226 mm2) provided at top of beam.
Step 16 Minimum compression reinforcement

Not required.
Step 17 Minimum transverse reinforcement in flange

Not required.
0
0
U")
0
0
"'
~~-~3-Sll25
SK 2/46 Section through beam. ALL REINFORCEMENT HIGH-YIELD
b =actual, or 500mm, whichever is the lesser.
Minimum dia. of bar in side face of beam = J( Sxb)
(assume Sb = 200mm)
= J (200 ~300) = ll.4mm
Use 12 dia. Grade 460 bars at approximately 200 centres on the side face
of beam.
Reinforcement on each side face of beam = 2 no. 12 dia. + 1 no. 25 dia.
= 716mm2
A, = 0.00125bh
= 0.00125 x 300 x 500
= 188 mm2 < 716 mm2 OK
Note: Strictly speaking these bars on the side face are not required for beams less
than 750 mm overall depth but it is good practice to use them in order to
avoid shrinkage cracks.
Step 19 Check deflection

~ = 6200 = 14.3
d 434
Basic span/depth ratio= 20 from Table 11.3
~b = 1,
J, = /y(~)8 (As
A,
rcqd)
prov
= 460 (~) (1413)
8 1472
= 275 Nzrnrrr'
M 216 x 106
- = 3.8
bd2 300 x 4342
Modification factor for tension reinforcement= 0.90 from Table 11.5
Modified span/depth ratio = 20 x 0.90 = 18 > ~ = 14.3
Hence deflection is OK.

A, is less than 4%.

Not required.
Step 22 Check bearing stress inside bend

Not required.

0.08/ = 0.08 x 6000 = 480 mm
The central 25 mm dia. bar will be stopped 250 mm from the face of the
support.
2-¢25 2-¢12
500 .I
SK 2/48 Arrangement of bars at the bottom of
beam.
SK 2/47 Elevation of beam near support.
Clear spacing between bars in tension = 64.5 mm

Minimum required spacing = 20 + 5 = 25 mm
47000
Maximum spacing= --
ls
47000
= -- = 170mm
275
where Is= 275 N/mm2 (see Step 19)
Spacing of bars is OK.
Step 25 Check torsional shear stress

Not required.
Step 26 Crack width calculations

Service maximum moment= 144 kNm
As= 1472mm2 d' = 54mm
A~ =226mm2 d=439mm
Es 200
m = - = - = 10
Ee 20
Ee assumed halfway between long and short-term.
0
1[ T~I ~
0
In ...
II
N -0
l_b __J
SK 2149 Doubly reinforced
rectangular beam. SK 2/50 Strain diagram.
SK 2/51 Crack width calculations.
1472
A, 0 0 11 2 p' = A~ = 0.0017
p = bd = 300 x 439 = . bd
x = d{ l (mp + (m - l)p')2 + 2(mp + (m - 1)(~)p') J-

1
(mp+ (m - l)p'} = 160mm
k2 = (;J ( ;J 1 -
= c
= 0.16
~~39)(
1
- 3 ~~39)
k3 = (m - 1)( 1 - ~) = (10 - 1)( 1 - :~) = 5.96
M
I: = k2bd2 + k3A~(d - d')
144 x 106
0.16 x 300 x 4392 + 5.96 x 226 x (439 - 54)
= 14.74N/mm2
= 10 x 14.74 x (~: - 1)
= 257N/mm2
e == fs = 257 = 1.285 X 10-3

s Es 200 x 1()3
Eh = c = :)Es =
b(h -
G~~)Es == 1.566 x 10-
x)2
3
E - E
mh - h - 3EsAs(d - x)
= 1.566 x 10-3 - 300 x 3402

3 x 200 x 103 x 1472 x 279
= 1.425 x 10-3
ac1 = 1.414 x 60.5 - 12.5 = 73.0mm
ac2 = y'(60.52 + 452) - 12.5 = 62.9mm
Wee= l + [ 2( ace - Cm;n) ]

h-x
3 x 73.0 x 1.425 x 10-3
1 + [2(73 - 48)]
340
= 0.27 mm < 0.3 mm OK
Example 2.2 Three span continuous beam
SK 2152 Three-span continuous

beam.
Three equal spans of lOm centre-to-centre of columns.

Width of column = 0.4 m
clear span= 9.6m
slab depth = 150 mm
beam spacing= 4.0 m
beam overall depth = 550 mm
beam width = 300 mm
Redistribution of moments = 10%
Note: Steps 1-5 form part of the analysis and have been excluded. For a typical
analysis see Example 2.3.
All reinforcement to be used will be high yield steel with /y = 460 N/mm2•
It is expected that the analysis will be carried out using a computer
program with the load combination shown in Section 2.2.
From moment and shear envelope,
MA=O VAB=300kN VA'B=250kN
MAB = +600 kNm VAB =negligible
MB=-650kNm VBA=370kN VB'A=320kN
VBc = 325 kN VB'c = 275 kN
MBc=+370kNm or -150kNm
where VA'B = shear at a distance of d from face of support.

maximum bar size = 32 mm
maximum size of link = 8 mm
exposure condition = severe
fire resistance required = 2 hours
grade of concrete = C40
maximum cement content= 325 kg/m3
maximum free water cement ratio= 0.55
nominal cover = 40 mm from Tables 11.6 and 11. 7
effective depth, d = 550 - 40 - 8 - 16 = 486 mm
Step 7 Effective span

le= /0=10.0m
Step 8 Effective widtb of compressionjla.nge

Actual b = 4.0 m (centre-to-centre of beams)
le
Calculated b = -- + b;
7.14
10000
=--+300
7.14
= 1700mm
0
lf)
lf)
SK 2/53 Effective width of

compression flange.
Step 9 Slenderness check

May be ignored.
Step JO Design for moment

MAB=600kNm
Flanged beam
Md= MAB= 600kNm
Md
K=--
!cubd2
600 x 106
40 x 1700 x 4862
= 0.0373
z = d[o.5 + J(o.25 - 0~9) J

= d[ o.5 + J( 0.25 -
0·~~;3)
J
= 0.95d = 462mm
d-z
x=--
0.45
486 - 462
=----
0.45
= 53mm <hr= 150mm
Neutral axis in the slab
Md
A=--
s 0.87/yZ
600 x 106
------ = 3245 mm2
0.87 x 460 x 462
Use 3 no. 32 dia. bars in bottom layer plus 2 no. 25 dia. bars in top layer.
2-25¢
40 cover to
links
SK 2/54 Arrangement of
reinforcement at bottom of beam
at midspan. 3-32¢
Total area of steel provided = 3394 mm2

Check effective depth.
Centre of gravity of group of 5 bars
3 x 804 x 64 + 2 x 491 x 124.5

x=
3394
= 81.5mm
d = 550 - 81.5 = 468.5 mm
Rechec~ reinforcement requirement with revised effective depth:
K = 0.040
z = 0.95 x 468.5 = 445 mm
As= 3369mm2 (required)
As provided = 3394 mm2 OK
MB= -650kNm
Rectangular beam
Md= 650kNm
Effective depth, d = 550 - 40 - 32 - 16 - 8 = 454 mm
(assuming two layers of 32dia. bars)
K = 650 x 106
40 x 300 x 4542
= 0.263 > 0.156
Compression reinforcement required.
Redistribution is 10%
A, = (K - 0.156)fcubd2
s 0.87/y(d - d')
(0.263 - 0.156) x 40 x 300 x 4542
0.87 x 460 x (454 - 64)
= 1696mm2
Use 3 no. 32 dia. bars (2412 mm2) - bottom of beam.
z = d[ 0.5 J( 0.25 -
0~~! 6)
J
= 0.775d = 352mm
d' 64
x = 0.5d = 227mm and - =- = 0.28 < 0.43
x 227
0.156 fcubd2
A = J• +A' 5
s 0.87/yZ
0.156 x 40 x 300 x 4542 2

--------- + 1696 = 4435 mm
0.87 x 460 x 352
Use 6 no. 32 dia. bars ( 4824 mm") - top of beam in two layers.
300
40cover to links
6-32¢
-
0
I()
8 +links
SK 2/55 Arrangement of 40 cover to links

reinforcement at top of beam over
support.
Msc= +370kNm
Flanged beam
b = 1700mm
d = 550 - 40 - 8 - 16 = 486mm
Md
K = -- 2= 0.023
fcubd
z= 0.95d = 426mm
A=~
s 0.87/yZ
370 x 106 2
------- = 2001 mm
0.87 x 460 x 462
Use 3 no. 32dia. bar (2412mm2) - bottom of beam
Msc = -150kNm
Rectangular beam
b = 300mm
d = 486mm
150 x 106
K = = 0.053
300 x 4862 x 40
z = d[ 0.5 + J( 0.25 - 0~9)]

= 0.94d = 456mm
150 x 106
A = = 822mm2
s 0.87 x 460 x 456
Use 2 no. 32 dia. bar (1608 mnr') - top of beam.
2-¢32
SK 2/56 Section through

3-¢32 midspan BC.
Step 11 Design for moment - flanged beam

Not required.
Step 12 Maximum shear stress

Vmax 2 2
v = bd = 2.716N/mm <SN/mm

Maximum shear= 370 kN = V8A
v 370 x 103
v = bd = 300 x 454
= 2.716N/mm2 < 0.8 vt: = 5N/mm 2 OK
Check shear stress at d from face of column.
VA'B = 250kN
d = 468.5mm for span AB
2so x 1D3
v =
300 x 468.5
= l.78N/mm2
lOOA, 100 x 3394
p = bd = 300 x 468.5
= 2.41
Ve= 0.85 X 1.17 from Fig. 11.5

= 0.99N/mm2
Vnom = (ve + 0.4)bd
= 195kN
v > Ve + 0.4 = 1.39N/mm2
bSv( V - Ve)
A =---~
sv 0.87/y
(assume S; = 150 mm)
300 x 150 x (1.78 - 0.99)
0.87 x 460
= 89mm2
Use 8mm dia. links= 100mm2 (two legs) at 150 centre-to-centre up to
the point where shear falls to 195 kN. High yield reinforcement
(fy = 460N/mm2).
. 0.4bSv
Nommal Asv = --r-
0.871y
0.4 x 300 x 300 = 90mm2
0.87 x 460
Use 8 mm dia. links = 100 mm2 (two legs) at 300 centre-to-centre as
nominal links (fy = 460N/mm2).
VB'A = 320kN
320 x 1D3
v= (d = 454mm at B)
300 x 454
= 2.35N/mm2
lOOAs 100 x 4435
p = bd = 300 x 454 = 3·25
Ve= 0.91 X 1.17 = 1.065N/mm2 from Fig. 11.5

A = bSv(V - vc)
sv 0.87/y
300 x 150 x (2.35 - 1.063)
= 0.87 x 460
= 144.5mm2
Use 8mm dia. links= 150mm2 (3 legs) at 150 centre to centre up to the
point where shear falls to 195 kN.

Omitted.

Flanged beam
bw 300
- = - = 0.176 < 0.4
b 1700
For web in tension
A, > 0.00l8bwh = 297 mm2
For flange in tension
A, > 0.0026bwh = 429 mm2
Both conditions satisfied.
Step 16 Minimum compressionreinforcement

A~ > 0.002bwh = 330 mm2
Provided A~= 2412mm2
Condition satisfied.
Step 17 Transversereinforcementin flange

Minimum transverse reinforcement in flange= l.5hrmm2/m
= 1.5 x 150 mm2/m
=225mm2/m
Reinforcement in the slab over the beam will be a lot more than this
quantity.
Step 18 Reinforcementin side face of beam

For a 550 mm overall depth of beam with 150 mm slab, side reinforcement
will not be required.

le 10000
- = -- = 21.3
d 468.5
d = 468.5mm for span AB
bw
b = 0.176 < 0.3
Basic span/effective depth ratio from Table 11.3 = 20.8

Since the ultimate moment at midspan is greater after redistribution than
the ultimate elastic moment, the service elastic stress may be taken as
(5/8)/y·
Service stress, t, = ~/y (assumed)

8
5
= - x 460
8
= 288N/mm2
A, reqd = 3369 = 1.0

A, prov 3394
M 600 x 106
- = 1.6
bd2 1700 x 468.52
Modification factor= 1.19 from Chart 11.5
Modified span/effective depth ratio= 20.8 x 1.19
= 24.75 > 21.3 OK

A, -s 0.04bwh = 6600 mm2
Maximum tensile reinforcement used= 4824 mm2 OK

Minimum dia. of links= 0.25 x max. dia. of bar
= 0.25 x 32 = 8 mm OK
Maximum spacing of links = 12 x dia. of bar
= 12 x 32mm = 384mm OK
Note: At least one link at the centre of columns B and C will be required for
containment.

Not required.

0.15/ = 1500 mm
0.10/ = 1000 mm
0.25/ = 2500 mm
Span AB
Continue 3 no. 32dia. + 2 no. 32dia. up to lOOOmm from A (end support).
Stop 1 no. 32 dia. and 2 no. 32 dia. at 1000 mm from A.
(See Step 26: reinforcement in span AB increased.)
Over support B (top bars)

Continue 6 no. 32 dia. bar top up to 1500 mm on either side of B.
Stop 2 no. 32dia. bar at 1500 from B.
Stop 2 no. 32dia. bar at 2500 from B.
Continue 2 no. 32 dia. through span.

Minimum clear spacing= MSA + 5 = 25 mm
Clear spacing of bars in tension = 54 mm > 25 mm
. . 47000 47000
Maximum clear spacmg = h =
288
= 163 mm
(See Step 19 for Is)

At span BC top tension reinforcement
Clear spacing of bars (2 no. 32dia.) = 140mm OK
Note: Under normal circumstances this step will deem to satisfy the 0.3 crack
width limitation criteria, but, as Step 26 will prove, when crack width
calculations are actually carried out this may not be the case. In span AB
the maximum clear spacing criterion is satisfied but the calculations show
that the crack widths may be exceeded.

Not required.
Span AB
Maximum service moment = 400 kNm
d = 468.5mm Cmin = 48mm
b = 1700mm
As= 3394mm2
A~= 1608mm2 (ignored in the computation)
m = -Es = 10
Ee
x = J[ (m:SY + 2m:sd] mAs

b
= 118mm <hr(= 150mm)
x
z= d - - = 429 mm
3
_400x1()6_ 2
Is - 429 x 3394 - 274N/mm
Es = -Is = 274
= 1.37 X 10-3
Es 200 x HY
Eh =
h -
(d -
d),,
X '"'S
= ( 550 - 118 ) x 1.37 x 10-3
468.5 - 118
= 1.69 x 10-3
b(h - x)2
Emh = Eh - 3EsAs(d - x)
300 x 4322
= 1.69 x 10-3 - ----------
3 x 200 x 1CJ3 x 350.5 x 3394
= 1.61 x 10-3
ac1 = + 642)
\/(642 - 16 = 74.5 mm
llc2 = v'(642 + 432) - 16 = 61.lmm
llcr = 74.5mm at the comer of the beam
3acr Em 3 x 74.5 x 1.61 x 10-3
Wcr = -------
l + 2(llcr - Cmin) 1 + 2(74.5 - 48)
(h - x) (550 - 118)
= 0.32 mm > 0.3 mm
The calculated crack width is greater than allowable. Increase reinforcement
to 5 no. 32dia. bar instead of 3 no. 32dia. plus 2 no. 25dia. No more
checks are necessary.
Over support B
SK 2/57 Arrangement of bars over

support. I.so.I.. 140 .J . so.J
At face of column,
maximum service moment = 390 kNm
d = 454mm d' = 64mm
b = 300mm
As= 4824mm2
A~ = 2412mm2
Cmin = 48mm
m = 10
See Step 26 of Example 2.1 for explanation of symbols and the equations.
x = 225mm
K2 = 0.2068
K3 = 6.44
M
f. = = 20.69 N/mm2
c K 2 bd2 + K 3 A s'(d - d')
f, = 211.6N/mm2
Es = 1.058 X 10-3
Eh = 1.502 X 10-3
ac1 = 74.5mm at the top corner
Wcr = 0.297 mm < 0.3 mm OK
Step 27 Design of connections to other elements

See Chapter 10.
2-cp2
2-+32
3-+32
2-+J2(~cond layiir)
SK 2/58A Detail of beam at A.
SK 2/588 Detail of beam at B.

Example 2.3 Design of beam with torsion
SK 2/59 Two-span edge beam with

nib. 9m .1. 9m :r
Edge beam to carry precast floor slabs on nibs.
Clear gap between beams= 4.5 m
Effective span of beam= 9.0m
See Example 5.2 for details of precast floor slabs and nib geometry
computations.
Two-span beam is fully restrained at the rigid supports.
Step 1 Analysis of beam
Properties of section
0 0
en 0
N lJ1
SK 2/60 Section of beam with

nibs. 110 290
Area of section = 500 x 290 + 2 x 110 x 105

= 168100mm2
Self-weight of beam= 0.1681x24kN/m3 = 4kN/m
- 500 x 290 x 145 + 2 x 110 x 105 x (290 + 55)
x = 168100
= 172.5mm
1 1
I = - x 400 x 5003 - - x 110 x 2903
xx 12 12
= 3.943 x 109mm4 (gross section)
p'
Assume -
p
= 0
Assume p = 1%
E,
Assume m = - = 10
Ee
From Fig. 11.1,
F = 6 x 10-2
Cracked moment of inertia = Fbd3
= 6 x 10-2 x (400 x 5003 -110 x 2903)
= 2.839 x 109 mm4
Average moment of inertia, fxx = 0.5(3.943 + 2.839) x 109 mm"

= 3.391 x 109 mm"
_ .___
x X L
SK 2/61 Beam geometry to find

shear centre e.
b2h2t
Shear centre, e = --
4fxx
b = 400 - 145 = 255 h = 500 - 105 = 395 t = 105

2552 x 3952 x 105
e = 4 x 3.391 x 109 = ?S.5mm
Loading
Dead load from slab= 5 kN/m2 x 2.25 m = 11.25kN/m.
Self-weight of beam= 0.1681 x 24 kN/m3 = 4.0 kN/m
Total dead load on beam including self-weight= 15.25 kN/m
Live load from slab @ 5 kN/m2 = 5 x 2.25 = 11.25kN/m
Ultimate limit state,
LC1 = l.4DL + l.6LL = 1.4 x 15.25 + 1.6 x 11.25 = 22kN/m + 18kN/m

LC2 = l.ODL = 15.25kN/m
Load both spans with LC1 to get maximum support moment at B.
Load span AB with LC1 and span BC with LC2 to get maximum support
moment A and maximum span moment at AB.
Steps 2 and 3 Draw moment and shear envelope

Non-linear analysis with 10% redistribution.
Boundary Loading Force Support Span Support Span Support

condition A AB B BC c
A and C fully LC1 on both BM -270 +135 +270 +135 -270 kNm
restrained spans Shear 180 180 180 180 kN
l.4DL on AB BM -159.8 +79.9 -125.9 +46.0 -92.0 kNm
l.ODL on BC Shear 102.8 95.2 72.6 65.1 kN
LC1 on AB BM -311.7 + 155.9 -186.7 +28.0 -70.6 kNm
LC2 on BC Shear 193.9 166.1 kN
l.OkN/m LL BM -8.44 +4.22 -3.38 -1.0 +l.19 kNm
on AB Shear 5.06 3.94 kN
Plastic hinge l.OkN/m LL BM 0 +7.23 -5.78 -1.45 +2.89 kNm

at A, C fully on AB Shear 3.86 5.14 kN
restrained
Assume 10% redistribution. Support moment at A is fixed at 0.9 x 311.7 =

280 kNm. The support moment at A reaches 280 kNm elastically with live
load on span AB equal to (280 - 159.8)/8.44 = 14.24 kNm. At that point a
plastic hinge forms at A and the boundary condition of the structure
changes. The remaining live load to go on the span with changed boundary
condition is (18kN/m -14.24kN/m) = 3.76kN/m.
Design bending moment at support A= 280 kNm
Design bending moment at midspan AB at centre of span= 79.9 + 14.24 x
4.22 + 3.76x7.23=167.2kNm
A conservative design span moment= 175 kNm
allowing for the maximum span moment to occur away from the centre of
span.
Design bending moment at support B = 270 kNm from elastic analysis
(LC1 on both spans)
Design shear at support A= 102.8 + 5.06 x 14.24 + 3.86 x 3. 76
= 189.5kN say 190kN
Design shear at support B = 180 kN (LC1 on both spans)
Step 4 Determine axial loads

Not required.
Step 5 Determine torsion

Ultimate load from slab = 1.4 x 11.25 + 1.6 x 11.25
= 34kN/m
Load assumed to act on edge of nib.
Eccentricity of load from shear centre of beam = 110 - 15(chamfer)
290
+ 2 + 78.5
(e = 78.5 = shear
centre)
= 318.5mm
Torsion per unit length = 34 x 0.3185
= 10.83 kNm/m
Ultimate self-weight of beam = 5.6kN/m
290
Eccentricity of self-weight from shear centre = i' - -
2
+e
= 172.5 - 145 + 78.5
= 106mm
Torsion per unit length = 5.6 x 0.106
= 0.59kNm/m
Total ultimate torsion in beam = (10.83 + 0.59) x 4.5
= 51.4 kNm at the
supports restraining
rotation

Maximum size of bar = 25 mm assumed
Maximum size of link = 10 mm
Exposure condition = mild
Fire resistance required= 1 hour
Grade of concrete = C40
Minimum cement content= 325 kg/m3
Maximum free water/cement ratio = 0.55
Nominal cover = 20 mm
Effective depth, d = 500 - 20 - 10 - 12.5 = 457.5 mm
Step 7 Effective span

Effective span= 9.0m
Step 8 Effective width of flange

Not required.
Step 9 Slenderness ratio

l = 8.5 m =clear span
be = 400 mm 60bc = 60 x 400 = 24 000 mm > 8500mm
d = ( M
0.156/cub
)! = (0.156280 x 106 400)! = 335 mm
X 40 X
250b~ 250 x 4002

-- = = 119402mm > 8500mm
d 335
Slenderness check is satisfied.
Step 10 Design for flexure
As
E
E
IJl
0
II
"--
s:
01
SK 2/62 Calculation of tensile
steel at support. b = 400mm
Support bending moments at A or C = 280 kNm

M
K=--
fcubd2
280 x 106
40 x 400 x 457.52
= 0.0836 < 0.156
No compressive reinforcement required.
z = d[o.5 + J(o.25 - ~) J
= 457.5[ o.5 + J( 0.25 -
0 ·i~: 6)
J
= 410mm
d - z
x=--
0.45
457.5 - 410
=-----
0.45
= 105mm =ht
:. Neutral axis is in the flange.
M
As= ---
0.87/yz
280 x 106 2
------- = 1706mm
0.87 x 460 x 410
Use 4 no. 25mm dia. bars (1964mm2).
Midspan bending moment = 175 kNm
M
K=--
fcubd2
175 x 106
40 x 400 x 457.52
= 0.052
z = 0.94d
= 430mm
d - z
x=--
0.45
= 6lmm < 105mm =!«
M
As= ---
. 0.87/yZ
175 x 106
0.87 x 460 x 430
= 1017mm2
Use 2 no. 25 mm dia. bars (982 mrrr') + 1 no. 12 mm dia. bar (113 mrrr').
Step 11 Flanged beam

Not required.
Step 12 Check maximum shear stress at support

v =-
v
bd
190 x 1(}3
290 x 457.5
= 1.43N/mm2
0.8yfcu = 0.8 X y40 = 5N/mm2
Step 13 Check flexural shear stress

d = 457.5mm
VA = 190 - 40 x 0.457
= 172 kN at effective depth away from support
v =-
v
bd
172 x 1()3
290 x 457.5
= l.30N/mm2
lOOA,
p=--
bd
100 x 1964
290 x 457.5
= 1.48
Ve = 0.72 X 1.7 = 0.84N/mm2 From Fig. 11.5
Vnom = (vc + 0.4)bd
= (0.84 + 0.4) x 290 x 457.5 x 10-3
= 164.5kN
V >Ve+ 0.4
bSv( V - Ve)
A =----
sv 0.87/y
290 x 200 x (1.30 - 0.84)
0.87 x 460
= 66.7mm2 at 200mm c/c (2 legs)
Asv 66.7
-5-v = X = 0.17 for each leg
200 2
Asv 0.4b
Nominal -· = --
s. 0.87/y
0.4 x 290
=----
0.87 x 460
= 0.29 (2 legs)
= 0.145 (for each leg)
Area of tension reinforcement required to carry weight of slab on the nib
34kN/m
0.87 x 460
= 85mm2/m
As 85
-s = --
1000
= 0.085 for each leg

Not required since design shear is calculated at d from support.

Assume channel section as L-beam.
A, > 0.0020bwh = 0.0020 x 290 x 500

= 290mm2 < 1964mm2 provided
Step 16 Minimum compression reinforcement

Not required.
Step 17 Transverse reinforcement in flange

A. = 1.5hfmmt2m
= 1.5 x 105 = 158 mm2/m minimum
(See Example 5.2.)
Reinforcement in nib= 201 mrrrvm provided.

Not required.

bw 290
- = - = 0.725 > 0.3
b 400
From Table 11.3,
Basic span/effective depth ratio
for rectangular section = 26 for b.Jb = 1.0
for flanged beams = 20.8 for bwlb = 0.3
20·8)
Interpolated basic ratio = 20.8 + (26 - x (0.725 - 0.3) = 24
0.7
M 167.2
i3b = M' = 155.9
Midspan service stress = (.2..)t

8j3b y
(~)
As prov
( ~)
8
x (155.9) x 460 x (1011)
167.2 1095
= 249N/mm2
M 175 x 106
- = 2.09
bd2 400 x 457.52
Modification factor for tension reinforcement from Table 11.5 = 1.20
Modified span/depth ratio= 24 x 1.20 = 28.8
le 9000
d 457.5
= 19.67 < 28.80 OK
Step 20 Maximum areas of rein/orcement

As< 0.04bwh = 5800mm2
Satisfied.
Step 21 Containmentof compressionreinforcement

Not required.

Not required.

45 x bar dia. = 45 x 25 = 1125 mm
0.15/ = 0.15x9000=1350mm
0.25/ = 0.25 x 9000 = 2250mm
2 no. 25 mm dia. top and bottom throughout.
2 no. 25m dia. extra top at A, Band C - 5000 long at B, 2500mm into
span at A and C and properly anchored at A and C.
1 no. 12 mm dia. bottom in spans AB and BC.
Follow simplified detailing rules for beams as in Fig. 2.2.

Minimum clear spacing= MSA + 5 = 20 + 5 = 25 mm
Actual minimum clear spacing used= 43 mm (support)
Actual maximum clear spacing used= 84 mm (midspan)
. 47 000 47 000
Maximum clear spacing allowed = ls=
249
= 189 mm > 84 mm
where ls = 249N/mm2 (see Step 19.)

Ultimate torsion= 51.4 kNm (see Step 5)
Divide section into 3 rectangles of maximum total torsional stiffness.
First choice
CD CD
FIRST CHO I CE SECOND CHOICE

SK 2/63 Calculation of torsional SK 2/64 Calculation of torsional
shear stress. shear stress.
500 X 290 - stiffness = h~inhmax = 2903 X 500 = 1.22 X 1010

2 x 110 x 105 - stiffness = 2 x 1053 x 110 = 0.025 x 1010
TOT AL = 1.245 x 1010
Second choice
290 x 290 - stiffness = 2903 x 290 = 0.707 x 1010
2 x 400 x 105 - stiffness = 2 x 1053 x 400 = 0.0926 x 1010
TOT AL = 0. 7996 x 1010
Hence the first choice is critical.
T x 1.22 x 1010
Proportion of torsional moment carried by the web =
1.245 x 1010
51.4 x 1.22
1.245
= 50.4kNm
Torsion carried by flanges = 0.5(51.4 - 50.4) = 0.5 kNm
2T
Torsional shear stress Vi in web = -------
hmin hmin)
2 ( hmax - - 3-
2 x 50.4 x 106
2~)
2902(500 -
= 2.97N/mm2
2 x 0.5 x 106
Torsional shear stress vi in flange = _ 1~5)
1052( 110
= 1.21 N/mm2
Vt.min = 0.067\) fcu

= 0.067\)40
= 0.4N/mm2
Viu = 0.8y fcu = 5 N/mm2

ViuYI = 5 450
X
550 550
= 4.1N/mm2
Vi > vi. min- torsional reinforcement required.
Torsional shear stress+ flexural shear stress= 2.97 + 1.30 (see Step 13)
= 4.27N/mm2
< 5N/mm2 OK
Torsional reinforcement in web (vertical)
Asv T
-=-----
s, 0.8x1y10.87 t,
50.4 x 106
0.8 x 238 x 448 x 0.87 x 460
= 1.48 (for 2 legs)
= 0.74 (for each leg)
Longitudinal reinforcement for torsion"
As= (~:v)(i)(x1 +Yi)
= 1.48 x 1 x (238 + 448)

= 1012mm2
Use 10 no. bars at 101 mm2 each in the longitudinal direction evenly
placed on the perimeter of web cross-section (fy = 460N/mm2).
Aswsv = 0·145 I FLEXURAL SHEAR)
Asv/sv = 0·085 !NIB DIRECT TENSION) z

~
II)
I~
~ 0·74 !TORSION) Asv/sv UJ
~t--~~~~~~~~----~-~~--,
0·10 z::::;
II)
UJ
a:
II-
~
z
UJ
<!" !COMBINED) Asv/sv
u
0
12at110
12 at 130
12 at 175
12 at 200
=1·0 0·87 0·65 0·57
660 1300 17
SK 2/65 A,J S; diagram for
Example 2.3.
Torsional reinforcement in flange

0.5 x 106
0.8 x (105 - 48) x (400 - 48) x 0.87 x 460
= 0.078
Maximum spacing= xi, or ~1, or 200mm
= 57mm
Use 8 mm dia. li~ks at 50 mm centres (1006 mm/rrn) (/y = 460 N/mm2)
Could also use 6mm dia. mild steel links at 50mm centres (566mm2/m)
(fy = 250N/mm2).
See Example 5.2, Step 4.
A, reqd = 131 mrrr'rm ( 460 grade steel)
(for flexure) = 241 mm2/m (mild steel Grade 250)
Asv = 0.078 for torsion (Grade 460)

Sv
460
Asv = 0.078 X 1000 X (Grade 250)
250
= 144 mm2/m (for 2 legs of mild steel)
= 72mm2/m (for each leg - horizontal)
Total requirement= 241 + 72 = 313 mm2/m < 566 mm2/m
Longitudinal reinforcement for torsion in flange
As _
-
(Asv)
S
(fyv)(
r X1 +Yi
)
v Jy
460
= 0.078 x - x (57 + 352)
250
= 59mm2 (4 no. 6mm dia. mild steel: /y = 250N/mm2)
See Step 10.
At support, A, required= 1706 mm2
Torsional A, required at corners (2 bars) = 202 mm2 (Step 25)
Total top reinforcement required= 1706 + 202 = 1908mm2
Provided= 4 no. 25 mm dia. = 1964 mm2 OK
Step 26 Flexural crack width calculations

By elastic analysis: no redistribution.
Maximum support moment at A or C = 201 kNm (serviceability limit

state)
d = 500 - 20 - 12 - 12.5 = 455.5
b = 400mm
As= 1964mm2 p = 0.0108
I ..
·Hll25
SK 2166 Typical section at ¢6 CMS)

support. gSOmmc/c 2-¢25
A~= 982mm2 p' = 0.0054

m = 10
ht= 105mm
h = 500mm
b, = 290mm
d' = 42.5mm
x = d{[(mp + (m - l)p')2 + 2 (mp+ (m - 1) (:)p') r

- (mp + (m - l)p') }
= 156.3 mm > ht = 105 mm
Using Reference 10, Table 117,
mdA. + 0.5bh~
x=
mAs + bh,
10 x 455.5 x 1964 + 0.5 x 400 x 1052
10 x 1964 + 400 x 105
= 181mm
ht(3x - 2ht)
z=d-----
3(2x - ht)
= 455.5 - 105(3 x 181 - 2 x 105)
3(2 x 181 - 105)
= 410mm
M
f, =A-
,z
201 x 106
1964 x 410
= 250N/mm2
E = f, = 250 = 1.25 X 10-3

s E, 200 x 103
500 - 181 )
= ( 455.5 - 181 x 1.25 x 10-3
= 1.45 x 10-3
b1(h - x)2
Emh = Eh -
3E5A,(d - x)
= 1.45 x 10-3 - 290 x (500 - 181)2
3 x 200 x 1Q3 x 1964 x (455.5 - 181)
= 1.36 x 10-3
llcr = V(44.52 + 44.52) - 12.5 = 50.4mm
3acr Emh
Wcr=------
2( llcr - Cmin)
1+----
(h - x)
3 x 50.4 x 1.36 x 10-3
1 + 2(50.4 - 32)
(500 - 181)
= 0.18mm < 0.3mm
Step 27 Design of connections to other components

Follow Chapter 10.
2.5 FIGURES FOR CHAPTER 2
15
t 14 \\ \ \ \ \ \ .
\'\\ \ \ \
'U
L-blbw = 2 blbw = 1 '---..
13
\ \\ \ \ \ \ i,..--blbw
I
= 3
<;
12 I
11
' \\ \ \ \ \ ~ .i-v / b/bw = 4
·-
\ \\' \ \ \.. ~ __....---blbw = 5

10
'\~~\ ~ \~
x [._/'
/bib.,
I
= 6
v v ~v
9 -·--
'\ v I
~ ~ '<( __....---b/b11 = 7
8
7 -· ~ ~ ~ '\. x-: I
__....---blbw = ~
6
~ «< ~
~ ~
~
I'-..
><.r-,: /
...--bib w
I
= 10
5
~ ~ <; <, <,
4 ~
-
.................
3
i::-.....
2 ·~
b/bw
0. 03 0. 04 0. 05 0. 06 0. 07 . 0. 08 0. 09 0. 10 0. 11 0. 12 0. 13 0. 14 0. 15
i3f
Fig. 2.1 Values of ~f·
0·151
~45C>
100·1. 100"1.
0·151 0·15 L
0·10L for
end support
Effectiw S an l Effective S n l
CONTINUOUS BEAM : CURTAILMENT OF REINFORCEMENT
0·51 ~45
100·1. 50"/.
CANTILEVER BEAM: CURTAILMENT OF REINFORCEMENT
Fig. 2.2 Simplified detailing rules for beams.

Chapter 3
Design of Reinforced Concrete Slabs
3.0 NOTATION
a' Compression face to point on surface of concrete where crack width is

calculated
ab Centre-to-centre distance between bars or groups of bars
aa Point on surface of concrete to nearest face of a bar
Ac Gross area of concrete in a section
As Area of steel in tension
A~ Area of steel in compression
Asb Minimum area of reinforcement at bottom of slab
Ast Minimum area of reinforcement at top of slab
As..r Reinforcement in y-direction to resist Mx about x-axis
Asy Reinforcement in x-direction to resist My about Y-axis
Asbx Area of inclined shear reinforcement to resist Vx
Asby Area of inclined shear reinforcement to resist V:v
Asv Area of vertical shear reinforcement
Asvx Area of vertical shear reinforcement to resist Vx
Asvy Area of vertical shear reinforcement to resist Vv
b, Width of section at centroid of tensile steel
d1 Distance from tension face of concrete section to centre of tensile
reinforcement
/y Characteristic yield strength of steel
f~ Revised compressive stress in steel taking into account depth of neutral
axis
/yv Characteristic yield strength of reinforcement used as links
G Shear modulus
h Overall depth of slab
H Shorter dimension of a rectangular panel of slab for use of yield-line
charts
I Moment of inertia using b as unit width for slab
I Clear span or span face-to-face of support
101
Effective span
Centre-to-centre distance between supports
Longer dimension of a rectangular panel of slab for yield line
calculations
Modular ratio = EJ Ee
Design bending moment per unit width of slab modified to account for
axial load
Mx Moment per unit width about x-axis
My Moment per unit width about y-axis
Mxy Torsional moment per unit width
Mx1 Wood-Armer design moment for top reinforcement in y-direction
M_<t, Wood-Armer design moment for bottom reinforcement in y-direction
My, Wood-Armer design moment for top reinforcement in x-direction
Mvb Wood-Armer design moment for bottom reinforcement in x-direction
MHN Ultimate negative moment capacity of slab per unit width about an axis
parallel to H
Ultimate positive moment capacity of slab per unit width about an axis
parallel to H
MvN Ultimate negative moment capacity of slab per unit width about an axis
parallel to L
Mvr Ultimate positive moment capacity of slab per unit width about an axis
parallel to L
Nx Axial load per unit width of slab in x-direction to be combined with My
Ny Axial load per unit width of slab in y-direction to be combined with M,
p Percentage of tensile reinforcement
p' Percentage of compressive reinforcement
Px Percentage of tensile steel to resist Mx about x-axis
Py Percentage of tensile steel to resist M v about y-axis
r Loading per unit area used in yield-line analysis (kN/m2)
Ultimate loading per unit area
Restraint factor for computation of early thermal cracking
Ultimate total load O!] panel of slab
Spacing of vertical links
Spacing of inclined shear reinforcement to resist Vx per unit width
Spacing of inclined shear reinforcement to resist Vy per unit width
Spacing of vertical shear reinforcement to resist Vx per unit width
Spacing of vertical shear reinforcement to resist Vv per unit width
Differential temperature in a concrete pour for calculation of early thermal
cracking
o; Perimeter of concentrated load on slab at prescribed multiples of effective
depth
U" Perimeter of concentrated load footprint on slab
Ve Design concrete shear strength
v11 Calculated punching shear stress at perimeter U 11
Vx Calculated shear stress in concrete due to Vx

Vy Calculated shear stress in concrete due to ~v
Vex Design concrete shear stress to compare with Vx for bending about x-axis
Vey Design concrete shear stress to compare with ~v for bending about y-axis
Design of Reinforced Concrete Slabs 103
Calculated punching shear stress at perimeter U1

Shear force per unit width for bending about x-axis
Shear force per unit width for bending about y-axis
Maximum crack width (mm)
Depth of neutral axis from compression face
Distance from edge in L-direction to start of a yield line
y Distance from edge in H direction to start of a yield line

Coefficient of thermal expansion of concrete
Material factor
Calculated strain in concrete at depth h
Strain with stiffening effect corrected
Tensile strain in concrete due to temperature differential causing early
thermal cracking
Es Strain at centre of steel reinforcement
E~ Strain at centre of compressive reinforcement
Emh Strain at depth h corrected for stiffening effect
E1 Calculated strain in concrete ignoring stiffening effect
Peril Critical percentage of steel required to distribute early thermal cracking
3.1 ANALYSIS OF SLABS
3.1.1 Slabs: properties
3.1.1.1 Effective spans

Simply supported or encastre le = smaller of ( l + d) or 10
Continuous
d
Cantilever le = l + -2
where /0 =centre-to-centre distance between supports
le =effective span
I = clear span or span to face of support
d = effective depth of tension reinforcement.
3.1.1.2 Moment of inertia
Method 1 Gross concrete section only

See Section 2.1.3 - use Table 11.2 with b equal to unity.
Method 2 Uncracked transformed concrete

See Section 2.1.3 - use Table 11.2 with b equal to unity and A. and A~
are for unit width. Convert A, and A~ into equivalent concrete areas
by multiplying by m = Esf Ee. Moment of inertia increment due to
steel= mA,(x')2 where x' is the distance of the steel from the centroidal
axis of the section. The shift of the centroidal axis due to the presence of
reinforcing steel may be neglected.
Method 3 Average of gross concrete section and cracked section
I = 0.5 (i12 bh3 + Fbh3)
where I = moment of inertia of rectangular concrete section

b = unit width of slab
h = overall depth of slab
F = factor - see Fig. 11.1 for values of F
lOOA,
p=~
where As = area of tensile reinforcement per unit width of slab

lOOA~
p'---
bd
where A~ = area of compressive reinforcement per unit width of slab
E,
m = modular ratio = ___c_
Ee
Note: For slabs, b is taken equal to unity.

The preferred method is Method 3 for rectangular sections. Where reinforce-
ment quantities are not known, an assumption may be made of the percent-
age of reinforcement.
3.1.1.3 Modulus of elasticity

See Section 2.1.4.
3.1.1.4 Shear modulus

Shear modulus G = 0.42Ec for concrete.
3.1.1.5 Poisson's ratio

Poisson's ratio for concrete is 0.2
3.1.1.6 Thermal strain

See Section 2.1.9.
3.1.2 Analysis of slabs
The objective is to find the following internal forces by analysis:
(1) Moments
(2) Shears v, and Vy

(3) Wood-Armer moments Mxt• Mxb• Myt and
(4) In-plane loads Nx and Ny
Method 1
BS8110: Part 1: 1985, clauses 3.5.2 and 3.5.3, Table 3.15.[IJ
Method 2
Yield-line method: non-linear - use Figs 3.18 to 3.33.
Method 3
Finite difference: linear elastic - Moody's table.l'"
Method 4
Finite element analysis: linear elastic - use general purpose computer
program or Figs 3.1 to 3.17.
Commentary
Method 1 is a non-conservative approach. If cracking has to be avoided,
an elastic method of analysis, i.e. finite element or finite difference, will be
more appropriate. For complicated loadings and complex layout of slab
panels and supporting arrangements, it is always recommended to use
finite element analysis. Finite element analysis will give Wood-Armer
design moments for top and bottom reinforcement in a panel of slab.
Method 2 (yield-lines) may be successfully used for uniformly loaded slab
panels with different boundary conditions. Method 2 gives a better rep-
resentation of internal forces in a slab panel than Method 1.
Recommendations
Use Method 2 or Method 3 generally. Use Method 4 (finite element
analysis) only where complicated loadings and geometry render the other
methods unusable. Use elastic analysis charts if boundary conditions and
loadings are appropriate.
3.1.3 Distribution of loads on beams
SK 3/1 Distribution of load on

beams (Method 2).
Method 1
BS8110: Part 1: 1985, clause 3.5.3.7.111
Method 2
Triangular and trapezoidal distribution of uniform load.
Method 3
Finite difference - Moody's Table.l9l Use the coefficients Rx and R_. to
calculate distribution of loads on the edge beams.
Method 4
Finite element analysis. Use the support reactions as loading on the beam.
Recommendations
Method 2 may be used for all applications. Method 3 and Method 4 may
be used when similar methods are used for the analysis of the slab panels.
3.1.4 Concentrated load on slab
SECTION THROUGH SLAB
Concentrated load
r
r
I"
y
v
I
y
I
(
t- SK 3/2 Effective width of slab to
I
be considered for spread of a
concentrated load on a simply
PLAN OF SLAB supported one-way slab.
Simply supported slabs spanning in one direction only the width B on each
side of load over which the load may be assumed to spread is given by:
where x = distance of load-from support closest to load

I= effective span.
For slabs spanning in both directions published tables and charts should
be used to find bending moment and shear per unit width of slab. A
finite element model may be created to analyse a complicated loading
arrangement.
3.2.1 General rules See Section 2.2.1.
3.2.2 Rules of load combination for continuous one-way spanning slab

panels See Section 2.2.2.
3.2.3 Redistribution of moments See Section 2.2.3.
3.2.3.1 Two-way spanning slab panels

No redistribution is allowed when Method 1 or Method 2 of analysis in
Section 3.1.2 is followed. Redistribution of 10% may be allowed when
Method 3 or Method 4 is adopted. Note that reduction of support moments
means a corresponding increase in span moment.
3.2.4 Exceptional loads See Section 2.2.4.
3.3 STEP-BY-STEP DESIGN PROCEDURE FOR SLABS
Step I Analysis
Carry out analysis (follow Section 3.1.2).
Note: One-way spanning slabs should be treated as beams of unit width and
Chapter 2 should be followed except for minimum shear reinforcement.
Step 2 Design forces

Draw panel of slab and indicate maximum design moments, shears and in-
plane loads, if any, per unit width of slab.

Find effective depth d, assuming reinforcement diameter. Use actual effec-
tive depth in each direction.
Step 4 Design of slab for flexure
NA- . ...µ:.UL~.LLJ.~
" SK 3/3 Section through slab
showing stress due to moment.
Find the following parameters for design moments in Step 2 per unit width
of slab.
for N $ O.lfcubd
Note: For N > O. lfcubd, design as wall (see Chapter 8). Md may also be taken
equal to M where N-:s.O.lfcubd and N may be ignored. (Sign convention:
N is +ve for compression.)
Md
K=--
fcubd2
z = d[ 0.5 + J( 0.25 - 0~9) J $ 0.95d
d-z
x=--
0.45
A=~-_!!__
s 0.87/yZ 0.87/y
K' = 0.156 when redistribution does not exceed 10%
K' = 0.402(~b - 0.4) - 0.18(~b - 0.4)2 when redistribution exceeds
10%
M
~b = - < 0.9
M'
where M = moment after redistribution

M' = moment before redistribution.
Note: If K is greater than K', increase depth of slab and start from Step 1 unless
links are provided in the zone where steel in compression is used. The
links are required to provide lateral restraint to bars in compression. Links
in slab should normally be avoided.
When K > K',
z= d[ 0.5 + J( 0.25 - :.~) J

SK 3/4 Section through doubly

reinforced slab.
x = d-z
-- :s: 0.5d
0.45
A' = ( K - K')'Jcu bd2

s f~(d - d')
A = tct:Jcu bd2 +A' - --

N
s 0.87/yZ s 0.87/y
If d' Ix> 0.43x,
A' = ( K - K')'Jcu bd2

s f~(d - d')
K'' bd2 N
A = Jcu + A, - --
s 0.87/yZ s 0.87/y
t; =
x -
( 0.57x
d') EyEs because steel strain E~ = (x -
0.57x
d') Ey
where Ey corresponds to steel stress f/Ym• as in Section 1.4.2.
Note: Follow detailing rules in clause 3.5.3.5 of BS 8110: Part 1: 1985(11 if

analysis has been carried out using Table 3.15 of BS 8110. Design charts in
BS 8110: Part 3: 1985 may be used.
Step 5 Detailing
Convert areas of steel per unit width found in Step 4 to diameter and
spacing of bars.
Step 6 Check shear

y
Asx -=--==== . -
lforMx_A___ My.Vy
!fors~yl
SK 3/5 Plan of a panel of slab
showing direction of
reinforcement.
Find the following parameters at critical sections for shear.
v
Vx = b~ :S: 0.8 V[cu :S: 5 N/mm2
Vy -- Vv -< 0 . 8 'v1f. cu
bd -< 5 NI mm2
lOOA,x
Px=bd
Find Vex and Vey from Figs 11.2 to 11.5, depending on strength of concrete.
If Vx <Vex and Vy< Vey• no shear reinforcement is required.
If Vex< Vx :s: (Vex+ 0.4) or Vey< Vy :s: (Vey+ 0.4), nominal links are required
in the zone where vx or vy is greater than Vex or Vey respectively.
Find nominal links:
I Svy I Svy I Svr I Svxl Asvyllotal areal
SK 3/6 Plan of unit area of slab

showing shear reinforcement by
UNIT WIDTH
links.
0.4bSvx 0.4bSvv
A >--- A >---·
sv x - 0.87fy or svy - 0.87 [y
Note: Single vertical bars may be used instead of closed links provided proper
anchorage bond length is available.
If Vex< Vx < (vex + 0.4}

and Vey < Vy < (Vey + 0.4)
nominal links in both directions are required.
A=--
0.8b s,
sv 0.87fy
Asv (Total areal
>
Ill
UNIT WIDTH
= b
SK 3/7 Plan of unit area and

section showing shear
reinforcement by single vertical
bars.
Provide single vertical bars with proper anchorage over the whole zone at
a grid spacing of Sv.
If (Vex + 0.4) < Vx :S 0.8 V/cu :S 5 N/mm2
or (Vey + 0.4) < Vy :s 0.8 y!cu -s 5 N/mm2
use links or bent-up bars.
Asbx (total area) )per unit width
.,,
~by(total area)Jper unit wi th

I I
SK 3/8 Plan of slab showing SK 3/9 Section through slab showing bent-up
bent-up bars as shear shear reinforcement.
reinforcement.
A > bSvx( Vx - Vex)

svx - 0.87/y when using links for Vn or
bSvy( v, - Vey)
A >---·---
svy - 0.87/v when using links for v., or
bdSbx(vx - Vex)
Asbx 2: -----.::..C....:-"-----'--'-'------
. 0.87fy(cosa: + sina:cotf))(d - d')
when using bent-up bars for Vx, or
bdSbv( v, - Vcv)
Ailiv;:::: - - -
· 0.87fy(cosa: + sin a:cotf))(d - d')
when using bent-up bars for Vv
If (Vex + 0.4) < Vx :S: 0.8y' fcu :S: 5 N/mm2
and (Vey + 0.4) < Vy :s: 0.8y' L« :s: 5 N/mm2
use bent-up bars in two orthogonal directions.
bdSbx(vx - Vex)
Asbx 2: 0.87I, (cos a: + sin o cot f)) (d - d')
bdSbv( v, - Vcv)
and A > · · ·
sb_v - 0.87fy (cos o + sin o cot p) (d - d')
Note: Asbx and Asbv are the areas of bent-up bar required per unit width of slab
equal to b.
Recommendation
Avoid using links or bent-up bars in slabs to resist shear. No shear
reinforcement should be used in slabs up to 200 mm thick.
SK 3/10 Lacing system of shear

reinforcement in slab.
A lacing system of shear reinforcement in slabs provided by bent-up

bars at 45° to the tensile reinforcement works well where shear reinforcement
and general increase of ductility are required. In this system, angles a: and
f3 may both be taken equal to 45°. In the formula for calculating the area
of the bent-up bars, Sbx and Sb_v may be limited to l.5d.
Step 7 Check punching shear

Check punching shear stress.
v
Vmax = - :S: 0.8 v'fcu :S: 5 N/mm2
u:
where U0 = 2( a + b) for rectangular load, or
= perimeter of loaded area.
uI u2
"'r:--0 't:J
r u3
"'r:-
0
't:J
0·75 0·75 1-Sd 't:J 1·5d 0·75 0·75

d d "'
~ d d
¢~:r
SK 3/11 Plan of slab around a
concentrated load showing "'
e-. 't:J
6
successive perimeters for punching
shear check. "'
e-- 't:J
0
where U1 = 2(a + b + 6d) for rectangular loaded area, or

= perimeter at 1.5d from face of loaded area.
Ve = design concrete shear stress from Figs 11.2 to 11.5.
V = concentrated load on slab
SK 3/12 Section through slab

showing effective depths.
Calculate p = 100 A,lbd under concentrated load to find Ve.
Note: Take p as the average of Px and Py where Px = lOOAsxlbdx and Py=

lOOA,_Jbd_v.
Shear reinforcement in first failure zone

If v1 :s Ve, no shear reinforcement is required and no further checks are
necessary.
If V1 :S 1.6 Ve,
. (vi - Ve) Uid 0.4U1d

Asv sm a: :;:: :;:: ---
0.87 [y 0.87 [y
If l.6vc < V1 :S 2 Ve,
. 5(0.7v1 - ve) U1d 0.4U,d

Asv sm a: 2: 2: ---
0.87 fy 0.87[y
FACE OF LOAD
PERIMETER U3
RElllFORCEMENT
COMMON TO
BOTii FAILURE
ZONES 2 AND 3.
i---+---t---+------lt---+-- SHEAR
REINFORCEMENT
COMMON TO
BOTH FAILURE
PERIMETER U1+-1----t Q.75d

ZONES I AND 2.
I.-F.-'A-IL-UR_E_Z_O_N_E_2~--,
1-Sd . ~
L PERIMETER U2
SK 3/13 Typical shear reinforcement for concentrated load on slab.
where Asv is summation of areas of all shear reinforcement in a failure

zone and ex is the angle between the shear reinforcement and the plane of
the slab. If vis greater than 2ve then redesign slab with increased thickness
or increased tensile steel or a combination of these parameters. It has been
observed in tests that shear reinforcement in slabs does not work effectively
if v>2ve.
Shear reinforcement in second failure zone
V2 = --
v
U2d
where + b + 9d) for rectangular loaded area, or
U2 = 2 (a
=
perimeter at 2.25d from face of loaded area.
If v2 ::S Ve, no shear reinforcement is required and no further checks are
necessary.
If V2 ::S 1.6 Ve,
. (v2 - Ve)U2d 0.4U2d
Asv sm ex 2:: ;;::: ---
0.87/y 0.87/y
. 5(0.7v2 - Ve)U2d 0.4U2d

Asv sm ex 2:: 2:: ---
0.87 /y 0.87/y
Similarly check successive failure zones 0.75d apart till v ::S Ve is satisfied.
Reinforcement to resist shear will be provided on at least two perimeters
within a failure zone. Spacing of shear reinforcement on the perimeter
should not exceed l.Sd.
Steps to be followed for the determination of punching shear rein/orcement in

slabs
(1) The first failure zone is from the face of the loaded area to the
perimeter 1.5d away.
(2) The first perimeter of shear reinforcement should be placed at d/2
from the face of the loaded area.
(3) The second perimeter of shear reinforcement should be placed at
0.75d from the first perimeter of shear reinforcement.
(4) Asv is the sum of areas of all the legs of shear reinforcement in a
failure zone in the first and second perimeter.
(5) The second failure zone is 1.5d wide and starts at 0.75d from the face
of the loaded area.
(6) The successive failure zones are 1.5d wide and are 0.75d apart.
(7) The first perimeter reinforcement in the second failure zone is the
same as the second perimeter reinforcement in the first failure zone.
Step 8 Modificationdue to holes
<6d
OPENING
IN SLAB
SK 3/14 Modification of shear

perimeter due to presence of holes.
Carry out modification of U in Step 7 to allow for holes and proximity to

edge.
The perimeter under consideration, U, in Step 7 will be reduced.
Perimeter u,
Perimeter Ua
• • • • • • • •
• • • • • • 0·75d
• • • • • •
"O "O
I
0·75d
T icol
"'
C)
"'
C)
"O
• <:-e <:-elf'
C) •
• • • • Third perimeter of
shear reinforcement
• • • • • •
• • • • • Second perimeter of
• • • • • • shear reinforcement
First perimeter of
• • • • • • shear reinforcement
1·5 d
SK 3/15 Plan of slab near a concentrated load showing distribution of shear

reinforcement.

As 2: 0.0013bh in both directions
At end support of slabs where simple support has been assumed, provide
in the top of slab half the area of bottom steel at midspan or 0.0013bh,
whichever is greater.
Step 10 Torsional reinforcement

Special torsional reinforcement will be required at the corners of slab
panels when the method of analysis follows clause 3.5.3.4 of BS 8110:
Part 1: 1985. Follow clause 3.5.3.5 to determine the amount of torsional
reinforcement.
Step 11 Check span/effective depth

Find Lf d, where le is the effective span in the shorter direction. Find basic
span/effective depth ratio from Table 11.3.
Find service stress, I. = (-8j3b5 ) (As---A, reqd) fy

prov
where l)b = MIM'

M = moment after redistribution
M' = moment before redistribution.
Find Mlbd2•
Find modification factor for tension reinforcement from Chart 11.5 and
modification factor for compression reinforcement from Chart 11.4.
Find modified span/depth ratio by multiplying the basic span/depth ratio
with the modification factor for tensile reinforcement and compression
reinforcement, if used.
Check lcld <modified span/depth ratio.
Step 12 Curtailment of bars in tension

Follow simplified detailing rules for slabs as in Fig. 3.34.
Step 13 Spacing of bars in tension

Clear spacing of bars should not exceed 3d or 750 mm.
Percentage of reinforcement, Maximum clear spacing of

100 Afbd (%) bars in slabs (mm)
1 or over 160
0.75 210
0.5 320
0.3 530
less than 0.3 3d or 750, whichever is less
As is the area required at the ultimate limit state. The clear spacings as
given above may be multiplied by f3b to account for redistribution of
moments. f3b is the ratio of moment after redistribution to moment before
redistribution. These clear spacings deem to satisfy 0.3 mm crack width at
serviceability limit state.
Step 14 Check early thermal cracking

Early thermal cracking should be checked for the following pour
configurations:
(1) Thin wall cast on massive base: R = 0.6 to 0.8 at base, R = 0.1 to 0.2 at
top.
(2) Massive pour cast on blinding: R = 0.1 to 0.2.
(3) Massive pour cast on existing mass concrete: R = 0.3 to 0.4 at base,
R = 0.1 to 0.2 at top.
(4) Suspended slabs: R = 0.2 to 0.4.
(5) Infill panels i.e. rigid restraint: R = 0.8 to 1.0.
where R = restraint factor
Typical values of T1 for Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC) concrete are:
Section thickness (mm) Steel formwork Plywood formwork Cast on ground
300 13°C 25°C 17°C

500 22°C 35°C 28°C
700 32°C 42°C 28°C
1000 42°C 47°C 28°C
These figures are based on average cement content of 350 kg/m3.

Calculate:
Er = 0.8 T1 0: R
obtain o: (coefficient of thermal expansion) from Table 2.3 m Section
2.1.9.
.
s:
SK 3/16 Section of slab for crack

width calculation. Cmin
Wmax = 3_a_cr_Er _
l + 2( acr - Cmin)
h-x
Assume x = h/2
Note: If Wmax is greater than design crack width, which is normally taken equal
to 0.3 mm, then suggest means for reducing T1•
Step 15 Check minimum reinforcement to distribute early thermal cracking

Peril= 0.0035 for Grade 460 steel reinforcement
As =AcPcrit
For suspended slabs and walls,

bh
A = -
c 2 or 250b whichever is smaller
near each face in each direction of slab and wall

For ground slabs and foundation bases,
up to 300 mm thickness:
A,t = 0.00175bh near top surface in each direction
from 300 mm to 500 mm thickness:
Ast= 0.00175bh near top surface in each direction
Asb = 0.35b near bottom surface in each direction
over 500 mm thickness:
Ast =0.875b near top surface in each direction
Asb = 0.35b near bottom surface in each direction
Step 16 Check .flexural crack width
Serviceability limit state

LC7 = 1.0DL + 1.0LL + 1.0EP + 1.0WP + 1.0WL
Note: Omit loadings from LC7 which produce beneficial rather than adverse
effect.
b
:: unit width
SK 3/17 Section through slab for

the calculation of flexural crack
width.
3<icr Em
Wmax = ---=----=---
l + 2( acr- Cmin)
h-x
b(h - x)2
E - E -
mh - h 3E5As(d - x)
Note: Eh is the strain due to load combination LC7 at depth h from compression
face, b is the unit width of slab, and As is the area of tensile steel per unit
width of slab.
For slab, b is taken equal to unit width.
,. Unit width
' (steel in compression zone
r unit width)
d'
x
Neutral al(...,is,__ __
h d
SK 3/18 Section of slab with steel

in compression zone.
m = Es p =As p' =A~
r
Ee bd bd
x == ct{[ (mp + (m - l)p')2 + 2(mp + (m - l)(~)p')

- (mp+ (m - l)p')}
k2 = (;J(1 - ;J
k3 = (m - 1) ( 1 - :)
M
b(h - x)2
Emh = Eh -
3£,A,(d - x)

of crack widths to 0.3 mm is appropriate, Step 13 will deem to satisfy the
3.4 WORKED EXAMPLE
Example 3.1 Design of a two-way slab panel
0
0
0
...-
_____6_0_0_0_~.~~f SK 3/19 Plan of a panel of slab

continuous on all sides.
Clear panel size is 6 m x 4 m

Thickness of slab = 150 mm
Imposed loading= 20 kN/m2
Finishes= 2 kN/m2
Panel of slab continuous on all four sides
Width of beam = 300 mm
Step 1 Analysis of slab panel

Effective span, le = /0
lx=4.3m
Ly= 6.3m
lxfly = 0.68
Elastic analysis
Read coefficients from Fig. 3.12:

mx1 = 0.035
my1 = 0.021
m~2 = 0.075
m_~2 = 0.060
Characteristic dead load= 0.15 m x 25 kN/m3 x 1.4 + 2 x 1.4
= 8.0kN/m2
Characteristic imposed load= 1.6 x 20 = 32 kN/m2

n = ultimate load on slab = 8 + 32 = 40kN/m2
Mxi = mx1nli
= 0.035 x 40 x 4.32
= 25.9kNm/m
My1 = 0.021 x 40 x 4.32
= 15.5kNm/m
M~3 = 0.075 x 40 x 4.32
= -55.5 kNm/m
M_~2 = 0.060 x 40 x 4.32
= -44.4 kNm/m
Allowing for 10% redistribution of moments,
Design moments:
Mxi = 31.4 kNm/m
My1 = 19.9kNm/m
M~3 = -50.0kNm/m
M_~2 = -40.0 kNm/m
SK 3/20 Plan of panel of slab

showing bending moments and
6300
shears.
Note: These moments do not take into account the Wood-Armer effect due-to
the presence of Mx_v and may be unconservative locally. In ultimate load
design local plastic hinge formation may be tolerated when there is a
possibility of redistribution of loads.
Analysis following BS 8110: Part 1: 1985[1]

Coefficients from Table 3.15.
Interior panel l_vflx = 1.46
msx1 = 0.039 Mx1 = 28.8kNm/m
fflsyl = 0.024 My1 = 17.8kNm/m
m~x3 = 0.052 M~3 = 38.5 kNm/m
m~x2 = 0.032 M~2 = 23.7kNm/m
Note: These moments are considerably less than the redistributed design moments
found from elastic analysis. Elastic analysis gives peak values, whereas the
BS 8110 coefficients tend to smear them across a long stretch of slab.
It is desirable and practical to use the elastic analysis results and allow
10% redistribution with a view to minimising the appearance of unsightly
cracks in the slab. This is a conservative approach.
Check by yield-lines analysis

Assume that the elastic analysis moments are ultimate capacity moments
in the panel of slab.
MvN = 50kNm/m (Vertical Negative)
Mvp = 31.4 kNm/m (Vertical Positive)
MHN = 40kNm/m (Horizontal Negative)
MHP = 19.9 kNm/m (Horizontal Positive)
Assume that the elastic analysis results will be the maximum plastic
moments in the panel of slab.
I I
L (MvN+ Mvr)2 = 6.3 (50 + 31.4)2
H MHN + MHP 4.3 40 + 19.9
= 1.70
Assume symmetrical yield-lines - see Table 3.2.
Refer to appropriate diagram from Figs 3.18 to 3.33.
Refer to Fig. 3.22 and find xi L
x
- = 0.35
L
x = 0.35 x 6.3 = 2.20m
. . 5(MHN + MHP)
Umt resistance, r = from Table 3.2
x2
5 x 59.9
= = 61.9kN/m2 > 40kN/m2
2.22
Alternatively,
8(MVN + Mvr)(3L - x)
r= from Table 3.2
H2(3L - 4x)
8(50 + 31.4)(3 x 6.3 - 2.2)
4.32(3 x 6.3 - 4 x 2.2)
= 58.23 kN/m2 > 40 kN/m2
Note: The values of MvN, Mvr. MHN and MHr could be readjusted to arrive at r
as close to 40kN/m2 as possible.
Designed by the results of elastic analysis the slab panel has a large reserve
of strength because the failure loading is 58.23 kN/m2 against design ultimate
loading of 40kN/m2• Similarly, designed by the results of the BS8110
method of analysis, the panel of slab has a small reserve of strength

because the calculated collapse loading is 46.3 kN/m2•
To check crack widths and deflection due to service load the BS 8110
coefficients may not be used. Always use the elastic analysis results.
Determination of shear at supports

Use BS 8110: Part 1: 1985, Table 3.16.Pl
Shear coefficients 0.44 and 0.33
Vx = 0.44 x 40 x 4.3
= 75.7kN/m
V:v = 0.33 X 40 X 4.3
= 56.8kN/m
Refer to Table 3.4.
By yield-line principle: assuming r = 40 kN/m2,
V = 3 r H (1 - x/L)
x 2(3 - x/L)
3 x 40 x 4.3 x (1 - 0.35)
2(3 - 0.35)
= 63.3kN/m
3 rx 3 x 40 x 2.2 I
V = --
y 5
=
5
= 52.8 kN m
Step 2 Draw diagram of panel of slab

See diagram with moments and shears marked on the panel (in Step 1).

Assume diameter of main reinforcement = 12 mm
Condition of exposure = mild
Minimum cement content = 325 kg/m3
Maximum free water/cement ratio= 0.55
Fire resistance required = 1 hour
Nominal cover, as per Tables 11.6 and 11.7 = 20mm
Effective depth, d, = 150 - 20 - 6 = 124 mm
Effective depth, dy = 150 - 20 - 12 - 6 = 112 mm
SK 3/21 Section through slab

showing effective depths.
Step 4 Design of slab
Over continuous long edge, M = 50 kNm/m

M 50 x 106
K = --2= = 0.081
fcuhdx 40 X 1000 X 1242
z = d[ 0.5 + J( 0.25 -
0~9)
J = 0.9d = lll.6mm
d - z
x = -- = 27.5mm
0.45
M 50 x 106
A,= --- = . = 1120mm2/m
. 0.87/yZ 0.87 X 460 X 111.6
Over continuous short edge, M = 40 kNm/m

M 40x106
K = --= = 0.08
fcubd~ 40 X 1000 X 1122
z = 0.9d = 100.8 mm
x = 24.9mm
A, = 992 mm/zrn
Positive midspan moment in short direction

M = 31.4 kNm/m
K = 0.051
z = 116.5mm
A, = 673 mm2/m
Positive midspan moment in long direction

M = 19.9kNm/m
K = 0.04
z = 0.95d = 106.4 mm
A, = 467 mm2/m
Step 5 Diameter and spacing of bars
Use:
Over long edge 12 dia. at 100 centre-to-centre (top) (1131 mm2/m)
Over short edge 12dia. at 100 centre-to-centre (top) (1131 mm2/m)
Short direction at midspan 12 dia. at 150 centre-to-centre (bottom)
(754mm2/m)
SK 3/22 Plan of panel of slab

showing design steel requirement.
Long direction at midspan 12dia. at 200 centre-to-centre (bottom)

(565 mm2/m)
Step 6 Check shear stress

v = - =
v,
75.7 x 103
= 0.61N/mm2
x bd, 1000 X 124
v, 56.8 x 1a3 2
v ..
.•
= -·
bd;
= l
1000 x 1 2
= 0.51N/mm
_ lOOAsx _ 100 x 1131 _ o/.

Px - bd, - 1000 X 124 - 0.9l 0
lOOAsv 100 x 1131

Py = bdy . = 1000 x 112 = LO%
From Fig. 11.5,

Vex = 0.97 N/mm2 > Vx = 0.61 N/mm2
No shear reinforcement required.
Step 7 Check punching shear stress

Not required.
Step 8 Modification due to holes

Not required.

A, = 0.0013bh
= 0.0013 x 1000 x 150
= 195 rnrrrvm satisfied
Step JO Torsional reinforcement

Not required.
Step 11 Check span/effective depth
lex 4.3 X 103

dx 124
= 34.7
Basic span/effective depth ratio= 26 from Table 11.3
M' 31.4
~ b = -M = -25.9 = 1.21
where M' =moment after redistribution; M =moment before redistribution
I, = ~ /y(As reqd) (2-)

· 8 As prov ~b
= - x 460 x 673
5
- x -
1
8 754 1.21
= 212N/mm2
M 31.4 x 106 = 2.0

bd2 1000 x 1242
From Chart 11.5,
modification factor = 1.33
Modified span/effective depth ratio= 26 x 1.33 = 34.58 < 34.7
Code deflection limits have been exceeded slightly.
May be ignored.
~12@400(TI (Pr2@400(BI (36001

4)12@400(Tl[4200) 4)12@400(BI
4112@200(T) (2200)
SK 3/23 Plan of panel of slab showing arrangement of reinforcement.

45 x dia. of bars = 45 x 12 = 540 mm

0.15 lex=0.15 X 4.3 =645mm
0.30 lex= 0.30 X 4.3 = 1290mm
0.20 lex= 0.20 X 4.3 = 860 mm
0.15 le_v = 0.15 X 6.3 = 945 mm
0.30 le_v = 0.30 X 6.3 = 1890mm
0.20 le_v = 0.20 X 6.3 = 1260mm
Direction Ix - top reinforcement

12dia. @ 100 c/c to 800mm from centre of beam (top)
12dia. @ 200 c/c to 1500mm from centre of beam (top)
Direction l_v - top reinforcement
12dia. @ 100 c/c to llOOmm from centre of beam (top)
12dia.@ 200 c/c to 2100mm from centre of beam (top)
Elsewhere use 12dia. @ 400 c/c (top) both directions (282mm2)
Direction Ix - bottom reinforcement
12dia. @ 150 c/c up to 800mm from centre of beam (bottom)
12dia. @ 300 c/c over beam (bottom)
Direction l_v - bottom reinforcement
12 dia. @ 200 c/c up to 1200mm from centre of beam (bottom)
12 dia. @ 400 c/c over beam (bottom)

Percentage of reinforcement in slab = 1 %
Maximum clear spacing allowed = 160 mm
Actual spacing used= lOOmm OK
Maximum spacing of bars in tension = 3d = 3 x 112 = 336 mm

Maximum spacing used for designed bars in tension = 200 mm OK
Maximum spacing of nominal reinforcement to control early thermal

cracking = 400 mm
Step 14 Check thermal cracking

For suspended slab, R = 0.3 assumed
T1 = l2°C assumed for 150 mm thick slab
O'. = 12 x 10-6 per degree C
Er= 0.8 T, O'. R
= 0.8 x 12 x 12 x 10-6 x 0.3
= 34.56 x 10-6
Cmin = 20mm + 12mm (dia. of bar)

= 32 mm (direction l_v)
x = d/2 assumed = 112/2 = 56mm (direction ly)
acr = \/(2002 + 382) - 6 = 197.6mm
3acr Er
Wmax = -------
l + 2( acr - Cmin)
(h - x)
3 x 197.6 x 34.56 x 106
2(197.6 - 32)
1
+ (150 - 56)
= 0.0045 mm < 0.3 mm OK
Step 15 Check minimum reinforcement to distribute cracking

bh 1000 x 150
A = - = = 75000mm2
c 2 2
A, = 0.0035 Ac = 262.5 mm2/m
As provided= 12dia.@ 400 c/c (282mm2/m)
Step 16 Assessment of crack width in flexure
_1_00
0
U1
"
L ~
,,
II
SK 3/24 Section through slab over

beam for crack width calculations.
Service load on slab= 25.75 kN/m2

By elastic analysis,
maximum bending moment over long support
= 0.075 x 25.75 x 4.32
= 35.7kNm/m
A, = 1131 mm2/m A,lbd = 9.12 x 10-3
b = lOOOmm d = 124mm
m = 10 = Ef E;
A~ = neglected
x = d[((mp)2 + 2 mp)! - mp] = 43mm
x 43
z = d - 3= 124 - 3 = 109.7mm
M 35.7 x 106
Is= -A z = 5 1131 X 109. 7
= 288N/mm2
Es = Is = 288 = 1.44 x 10-3

Es 200 x lo-3
Eh = (h -
d - x
X) Es. = (150 - 43)
124 - 43
X 1.44 X 10-3 = 1.90 X 10-3
bth - x)2
Emh = fh - = 1.90 X 10-3
3EsAs(d - x)
1000(150 - 43)2
3 x 200 x 103 x 1131 x (124 - 43)
= 1.69 x 10-3
Cmin = 20mm
acr = v'(262 + 502) - 6 = 50 mm
3acr Em
Wcr = ---'-'--=---- = 0.16mm < 0.3mm OK
l + 2(acr - Cmin)
(h - x)
3.5 FIGURES AND TABLES FOR CHAPTER 3
Edge conditions and loading diagrams Elastic Elasto-plastic

resistance, r, resistance, r er>
~YHl~"J ru -
Ru -
f.. l/2
~
l/2
-t
t:=::J 8MN
--
L2
ru
.!.
16MN
--
Ru
~- L12 l/2
J 3L
~It
~ L ·I
12MN
--
L2
ru
~
f ~
8MN
--
L
Ru
I· l/2 .1. l/2 •I
~~ ru -
I• L -1
~
f Ru -
I· L
-1
f'2 ~P/2
Ru -
f l/3 I l/3 I l/3 f
Fig. 3.1 Elastic and elasto-plastic unit resistances for one-way elements.
Edge conditions and loading diagrams Support reactions, V,
ru L
r L•••=t -
2
Ru
-
i Ltz { L12 J 2
~= . :=c=:t L. reaction
5rul
--
8
R. reaction
3ruL
--
8
~- Ltz {. l/2
~
L. reaction
l lRu
--
16
R. reaction
SRu
-
16
ruL
-
~ 2
I· L -1
r Ru
.,
~ ~ -
L12
·I· l/2
2
I·
~J ruL
*p Ru
~
L
I· .. 1
rr
f.. L13 ·=·Lt~.:. L13:t
Ru
-
2
Fig. 3.2 Support shears for one-way elements (to be read in conjunction with
Fig. 3.1).
; 6
r-, r; ~
•
"'
6
~ \
"'
<,
r-,
~"'--
\ .
6
6
I'\ ...
I". "~ 6 .....
-08
........ 2 '
.
"'::i::::i::
......
~ ~I <,
0
;.
::i::
~>- ~
~a !'-...<, r-, ~
fl II
• -~- 0
,;,
f I ~~ 1c? r-, ~ 0
H 'r-.... ......... "Q
6
.
6
.
a
"'
.
6
,,) 6
~ r:-0
\ ' ~ ,/ 2
.....
<,
::i::
.... r
I]
\ ~~ 0
::i::::i::
'- '-
~)...
~. \ r-, K ...... <,
"'9
II II - \.
-,
h
Ii
<, <;
<; ........__
"'
.
9
i:::;:;:::i
H
~~
<, is,
<,
0
,:.
~
"0 ~0 ~ 0.• 8
0
1~ ~1 -- i
\ ~
><~ --- ...0
\
\
~-
J
r-, t r-,
I"-...'
f'. r--.,......
...... ~ r- r-
.....
-[] :i::::t:
........
~)...
11 II
~~
......,
.......
1~~
L--
_f":"
~
.........
---- r-- r--
- 20
I H I ~'- ,;.
699 91?
!.( ly
9~~
'l1
~e
6
r-, r-,
\ .
0
r-,
r-, """ ~ ...
"r-.....--- ..,.
--
0
<,
......... <,
r--..
-- r--. 1~ 6
-- ....
--- - -
<, <, r... 0
...... <, cs 2 .....
:b]8
:t:
r-, r-- r--
'!i::!i: - 0
........ ~~ <, ...... r-, -...... ;.
~)...
..... 2
II II ~ ~ r-,
:d~ ......... <,
H <, ~!'-.
e
0
c:e
0 0 9 s s
Q Q 89 89
•,l llJ 'll
1~
\I
I ~1
,,v
' r-; !-.... ---
......... v- - 0
c:e
0
...0
~t'--... I r-.... ..,.6
....... c-, ......
<, :-.... e-,
~!'-.
~ .......
~ ~
............
- -- - ~r-- r--
-
0
2
.....
<,
::t:
{Jj
w
N ...
:t::i::
.......
~)...
II II
d~
e~ f:::::-i-...
~~
~ :::......
<; t"-
r--
---
0
.;,
0
;.
2
0
,;.
~ r-;
6 9 9 0 s ~ ' Q
- Q ~
•/.. so l[J 'll
.....
a 9 ~ 8
l
............ .
-, "'-.,.l .,
6
\ r----.... "--
0
<,
-- -- --
........
..... <,
;;;. "'0
...... e-
~ ........ !".... 0
....<,
~ ...... 2
<, ......... :i:
.......~ ~~ c5"
r-- ...._
l] -
<, <, 0
:i::i: <, ~~ .... ---. ;.
l::i')..
........ I'-.. ~
II II ........ r-,
~ ......... r-, .
0
I H I :t;~
I' .... ~ 2
.,
0
.6 2
~ll • 1ll
... e0
8 g 8
--
0 g 0
9_
6
.....-
.._\
!'":"
,:;.. i.- .
6
...
v 6
I~ ::i...
..... ~ 'I
!".................. ~
6i:-
0 ....-,
~ ~ 2
I'-.. r-, f'::: r--. :i:
T] I H
I
",.
:i:::i:
......
c::, >-
II
:t::~
II
~ r...... r--
r-, ~ ........... ..._
<,
r-..
~
I~ r-,
......
--
r-, -- -
->-=
<,
~!'-....
"-.
~r-
..... ....... --
0
;.
...
9
0
.;,
0
....
I
.,0 ...
0
Q
t-, I
.
.
0
'"'" \ ...._
6
~--
.....
,....... ....._ "'6
' <, )'=
6 ....
<, ~ <,
I~
r- r-- :z:
. ,. I'-.. r-; ......... r--_
.
{] :i:::i::
......
~)...
11 II
:t;t::l
)(
r-i,
€
....._ <,
<,
I'-...
<,
,~r--
-- ---.
0
0
;.,
0
oh
0
~ -- ...... ...
0
6 g 0
0
9
. . . .
6
LJ_
~ -
1--
. !Jr- -
.....-
:z:
e .
~ ~ t::
.
6
.J .
0
' ' ~ /
s ....
-
<,
" ~" ~ c-,
.{.
..... r---.. "'" 2
- -- -- -
~ r---..
......
':i::
EE
'-.;:
'!i:......
!t: 2
t::).. -......:::: ~ <, 0
l ...... -...... .... <, ;.,
~ <;
--. -
U II
2
y :t:~ I~ -....-: ~
:'::i-...
"""
...
0
. -.....::::::-
~ """'
... ... Q
8'? s9
'\'
0 6 6 6 9 9 ? ~ 9 ~ ~ ~
0 !) 0 0
'? ~ 0 0 0
'? 9
'U lg Alg »o
ij
0
§
0 8 ~ 8 8 0
1~ 1~ ~
> =
t::
.....
6
\
\ \ /
/
J
:i:::i::
.......
t::)...
It
:t:~
II
83
h:t
H
s.,
0
'!'
.
0
0
2
....
<, r-, r"\ ':i::
<, t <,
-- ..::::: ~
.... ~
r-,
<;
.
0
-- --
......... ;.,
:::::- r-- ~
<, 2
.... ........._ 9
<,
~ r-...._
e-
£ .
0
'\'
0
.,
0
?
0 l) 9 ~ ? ~ 9 0
9 ~ ~
.
0
~ ~
0 89 0
Q
'? ~ ~ ~
lg'Mg 'Hlg
.!i
""' ....8
9~~?. s-_0?~. cscs?
~s
. -=
):;
....
EB
~ >\ f-
f-
~ t:: :i:::i::
'- ....
6
-~ t::>- s
J
It II
...
:t;t:l 0
\ \iv )<:
~....i I'..... ~ 60
' ....
~
--
r---.. ...... :.
~ ' .__
~ ~
'!::::: ......
......
-
I":
......
..........
.......... :::.::::: e-,
r-; I'-._........
.........
r-
- -
............ ~ r-.
-...... ...
0
<, r--~
-.......::: ...... ...... ............ 2
Q
69~ ?9 9~~ ~~ ~~~ ~~ 888_ 88_ §'?

'? ~ 8 ~ 8
ElJ 'zg 'AllJ 'Nl{J
s0 b0 8 8 a 8 0
- a o 8 8 0
0 0 0 0 0 § 8 86
~>=: ~1~e N
l\J .6
6
"
><
-....\..'
6
2
....<,
"""""r--.. ' -...... .....
- --
:i::
[JI
~H
N
~)..
~c:i
)(
..
:i:::i::
........
II II
<;
"
1--....
<,
............... <,
- ..... ~ <, ~,........._
I~
"""'
I~
is;:
:i::
f:::::::::: w.~
r-,
r-- r-:::: r-
J~
0
r.
0
;.,
0
...
0
;..
Q e- . ... 'l'
0
.... . ...Q . ~. ~ fl
<,
8
. N
0
Q
0 0 0 0 Q 9 Q
t{} »o 'HI{}
Q 0
'? Q
~ § ~ § ?
!.<
-8 8S! 8
8
,_ u 8 l:S 8
~
1--- ~ ~ e ~,
~
rx v
J....-/ v 'l'
.
0
le;. t> 0
..,.
-, ' v 6
~!'.... ' r-.. <, ( 0 ....<,
2
-............ r-~ :i::
OJ
r-- ~ ~ ~ r-r--
N 'f
:i:::i::
........ ... ~ [::::,,,
~
r-- 2
~)..
-r-- i-- 2
II 11
'
rl~~ i- r-_ ,.._
.
--
9
~~ ~ r--, ~
I H I lc:i" I' r---
...
0
'r '
~ r-,
Q
., 'l'
0 0 0• Q8 ll!
l'.S
E{}' Z{} 'N.{} ' H'{}
IJ.
-
1-::
JI I"~ ............
' I' )
:i:::i::
~>--
~~
1J II
[]]
h;:::J
'l'
.,
0
'\::'.: H
"
~
::::::::-
'r-.... r--. . . . - -- --.. i.;;:
.......
0
<lo
-- s
"'I'--. r-... <, r- r- r--_
<,
<, -........ ....
r-i,
...
0
C?
.,.
0
.
0
...
6
.
0 0 '?
....
9 9 9 i? Qs 8'?
.
'!'....
0
Q
~ Q
"1o'Ho
1·0
0-9
O•B
0-7
0-6
0•5 x/L
0•4
0•3
0•2
O·I
o~
l
H
r MVP
LMHN MHP
J'/2
Fig. 3.18 Location of yield lines for two-way element with two adjacent edges
supported and two edges free (values of x).181
1·0
0•9
o-s ~~
0·7
0-6
y/H o-s
o-.
0·3
0•2
0·1
0
O•I 0-2 o-a 0•4 0-6 0•8 1-0 4 7 10
..!:... [MVN+MvpJ/2
H MHP
Fig. 3.19 Location of yield lines for two-way element with two adjacent edges
supported and two edges free (values of y).181
~ ~
_!a=
X1 ~ MHN3 .,.MHP
MHNI .+ MHP ff'2 !,1·0 H[ ©/
I
/ @ \
'®
\~
1-0
O·I
0·7
MVP
0•6
MvN2
xi-' O·S
I
"I'
"""~
'~
0~25-'f'...
0-250-C...,
lo-soo
~1·000_
~~
~
2·000IL
A-•<>OO
~,...--a·oool
~
:::::::::::::-.....~=.
-.......:: t"'~
O• I
0
0-1 0•2 0•5 O•I r-e 2 5
--- ~~
e-
I 10
~T
20
-
50 1IO IOO
L r MVP J
Hl£4HNI~MHP
112
•
Fig. 3.20 Location of unsymmetrical yield lines for two-way element with three
edges supported and one edge free (X2/X1==1.0).181
r-e
0•9 I ~
O•I
0'7 ~---+----+----+----+--+-/v.,,._/_/--+---1@
0•6
y/H 0•5
O'•
v
0•3
/
0•2
O•I
0
O•I 0·2 6 8 IO
Fig. 3.21 Location of symmetrical yield lines for two-way element with three edges
supported and one edge free (value of v).181
O•S
I . Values of y/H I Values of x/L
0·5
I'\ f"
rmv
~ ~
/
0·4
'' , 0·4
% / %1 >----< ,
/ ',, ~
/
""
'
0·3 L L ..... 0·3
/ X;L
Y;H
~~
v
0·2 0·2
O·I
/ t-. I'-
O•I
0-6 o-s 1-0 6 • 10
Fig. 3.22 Location of symmetrical yield lines for two-way element with four edges
supported. ISi
X2 = fMHN3 + M11Fff12 :O·l

Ai ~
x, LMHNI +M .. ©I '®
H I @ \
I \
L
1-0 MvP
Mv112
o·e \ \\ \,~1-000
\\ \.\~ 2·000.S - 4•000
\ \ \ \.'\
0•6
'\ -. \. ~~J
\
~8·0;,ci
-, \.' ,'\,.'\..~I'...
L~25~,
~~"'0~
~""'
0·3 0•250
r-...
0·2
t0•500 ~ ~~
r--...
O·I
0
0-1 0•2 0•5 0·8 1-0 2
~ ~
5 •
--
I""-. ~
10
~
::::-;:::: ~~
50
-
80 IOO
l I MvP ]112
H LM.tt.1 •M..Pj
edges supported and one edge free (X2/X1=0.1).181
~ ~
!£=bMHN3 + MHPJ/2 = 0·3
X1 MHNI + MHP
{ Q)1
I
/ @ '{~~
I L
r
Myp
MvN2
0•8
' \ [\' ~
0•125
,____ L
v V'°'
f\ \~ o:s~
\, ,'\X ~ 2·000
' ~"'-'\ ."-..~.~
o..
"-,> '~~~ ~~~
0•3
O·I
o-s o-e 1-0

'~"' -- ~
~
~
...~ ~
t: ~ ~
r:::: ::-__-...::::::~
8 IO 20 50
- 80 IOO
edges supported and one edge free (X2/X1 =0.3).181
~ ~
Hr ©/ 1@
X2 = MHN3+ MHP
X1 ~
MHNI + MHP r2 = 0·5 I
/ @ I
I
\ ,
L
Mvp
MvN2
-, L.
-, L\ -"'-~
~125
\. '\
,;(1....1 0-S
~ ")j ~~L •SOO
:""\ ~oooL 2--000.,

"'"'-< ~~""-~
0•3 ~" ......
~·r1a·ooo
oooh,
0-2
t'-...""
~ ~ ~~
r-,
- - ~--- :::----......:; - -
~ ~ ....._ ~
O·I
0
0-1 0·5 O·I 1-0 2 • 10 20 so eo too
l [ MvP 12 .1'
H ~HNI MHI!..)
edges supported and one edge free (X2/ X1 = 0.5).181
A A
~
K1 u
= MHN3 + MHP
MHNI + MHP ff' 2
=O·?S
{ o» /
I @
'®
\I:
\
,
L
0-9
O•I
~
MvN2
<>6
-, I' 1'\.~ d~25 b
0·250
~~ ~;;oi_
1-000
""-..""'~ ~2~1
0·2
"~~ ~ ~
4·oooL~
....... e-ooo
0
0•1
~ ~
- :::::- ~
.::::: ~
8 10 20
~
~
50
- 80100
!)= ~M HN3+ MHP 2 =l·2S

X1 MHNI +MHP
r HD
~
Q)/ @ \~\
I
I
th.
\
\
,
L
0•8
MvP
0'6
MvN2
<,
'~ -0·500
"'"~
o-. -, ~1-000
~2-000.._
L-4·000 -
~ ~~ ~ ~ D-•·ooo .._____
~ ~l_,,.<»I
~ ~ ...... r-..;:- ,._
0
- --. :::-...._--.....,
I
0-1 0•2 0·5 0•8 1·0 8 10 50 80 IOO
L [ MvP 112 1
H MHN1tMHPj
edges supported and one edge free (X2/X1=1-25).181
J/2 ~~
~=~MHN3+ MHP
x,MHNI t MHP
=
.
t-s
[CD1
H
I
/ @ \ \~I \
1-0
I L
I
O·
'
0 ,,
o ..
Myp
><!-' 0 -5 MvN2
.
. . f'-.."" ""'......
0
- C>SOO
,.... ~~000 ~
0 ·J
<, ~2'()00~
0 -2
~ ~,..,1•·000 -
0 •I
~~~
0·250
r.::-::::: i::::: ~I
~ -
0
O•I ()'2 o-s cu ~o 20 50 BOIOO
edges supported and one edge free (X2/X1 = 1.5).181
X2. MHN3 +MHP =1·75

~ t!4
X1
~
MHNt +MHP
r2 IQ), \~
H ,'@
I \~
I L r
1·0
0·9
0·8
0•7
0•6
I Myp
0-4
I MvN2
Lo-12s-~~
~0•250 ~
!!....
0-2
r-0~ ~ ........."""' ~
~ -...;
O· I
0
0-1 0-2
~
2
()()()
5
-- "' 8 10
~~
20 50 80 100
L I MvP Jl/2
H~HN1+MHr3
edges supported and one edge free (X2/X1 = 1.75).181
h: ~Muu•+MHI' ~1/2 =Z·O

X1 lMHN1 i MHP
f!-t A
H [ff'/@ '\J\,
1- L
I
i-o
O•I
i '
MvP
MvN2
0·3
................... ~~~ 2-000
L~!-¥"'- . . ~ ~4-~
-.. :; ~ Ii"° I
04
~-{~ ~i;::oo-.,..•·
0
O·I 0'5 0 .. i-e
0·500~
2
E
&
5
-- -
~......;::
e--, .::--
8 10 20 50 80100
J....[ MVP ]112

H MHN1+MHPj
~
~MHN1-tMHP
-=
L
x ~+MHP
~1/2
l+~MHN1+MHPJ112
H[ _,-cl)',,~
CD:®~
JY
MHN2... MHI>
--L-1
v
l•O
0•8 /
/
/
/
v
O•I
·01 -- L---
~ i..--
·S ·8 l•O
edges supported and one edge free (values of y).181
X1 _ M... 1+MHP
0-5 XZ - MHH2+MHP
MvH1+Mvp
MvH2+MvP
X1
O·•
t ' --;::::;=::::;:;=-
1+ \MVP
MvNl
T MvH2+MvP
0·3
0·2
O•I
0
0·1 0·2 1.0 4 678910
~ [Jt't.,N1 + Hvp+~p]
j 5 (H..,1 • HHP)
Fig. 3.32 Location of unsymmetrical yield lines for two-way element with four
edges supported (values of X1).181
0·7
)j
0·6
H
Y2
0•5
0'4 HNJ+MHP
x MHH2+MH~
Y11H y·
l •/M..,1+MHP
0·3 MHH2+MHP
0·2
O•I 0•2 0•3 O·• 0•5 0-6 0·7 s-o 4 6 7 8 IO
L 5 JMv1 + Mvp
H /MHH1+MHP+ JMHN2+MHP
Fig. 3.33 Location of unsymmetrical yield lines for two-way element with four
edges supported (values of Y1).l81
0-151 0-15 ,f 0.15 l 0-15 J.

~454>.
100"/o
50% 4> I
0-2 .l
Effective S n 1
Continuous Slab : Approximate equal spans
~ Effective Span P
Simply Supported Slab
fOO°lo I ;;?45 4>
Cantilever Slab
Fig. 3.34 Simplified detailing rules for slabs.

Table 3.1 Graphical summary of two-way elements to be used in conjunction

with Figures 3.3 to 3.17
g {B Fig. 3.3 Fig. 3.4

{le]'
I L
Fig. 3.5
I
rg rd I L .I
~IJ@I
{[:1:JI {lg
Fig. 3.6 Fig. 3.7 Fig. 3.8
1Jd
I. L .I L L I
{IE8
Fig. 3.9 Fig. 3.10. Fig. 3.11
L
rrn
Fig. 3.12 Fig. 3.13 Fig. 3.14
ZDI
I.
{EB ~
Fig. 3.15
11
I
Fig. 3.16
zIJI • 1
lFig. 3.17 I
L
f
Legend: Edge conditions
t, t=i E_J r://21

Free Simple Fixed
;:;:;-
r"'!
M
.9
-
00
,,.;
lo!
,-._
~
:;..,
z:r ~
>""
---=-, ---
lo!
"'""
:;..,
~
ii:
.s-~
~
""
---c!:l
~
R
"":i: I
,-._
---- s :r:
0
+
lo!
I ~
I
,-._
R
I
- -"" :r:
...::i
M ~ M
I
:r: ,-.,
-e - - - -:r:
<!) ,-._
u ~ ~ "'"" I ~
= "" :r: I I
=0
·.;::::
u
<ll
"'
·i;;
Vi
+ N
...::i
M
::c: +z
Vi
N
M
- -
lo!
I
N
...::i :i:
M
::c: +
~ M
~
-:r: -
+
...::i
M
~
+
:i:
M
-
...::i
=::s ...::i
-
N N N
M
·c: ~ :c z z ...::i z z ...::i
·a::s ~ ~ :c > :i:
.5
"O
0
u
~::s
~<ll
e
·.;::::
...::i
'l:>
....
0
::c:
-o
....
0
~
N
>
- ....
0
~
"<l"
,-.,
....
0
- -
~
00
,-.,
....
0
~
00
....
0
"'"" "'"" "'"" "'""
5 "" "" ""
:i: >""
c,
:c ""
<!)
.&J -:i ~ ~ ~ ~ ~
-
.9 +
z
N
lo!
+ N
;:.... + N
~ + N
;:.... +
z ~
+ N N
;:....
-J
"'"" :c ~ ~ :c ~
"'
<!)
;.§
::9
I
<!)
~
;;::)'
-
~
Vi
~
;;::)' Vi -
~
Vi
~
;;::)'
·;;:.,
cau ::c: ::c:
·§"'
...::i ...::ilN ...::ilN ::C:IN
-ss
·;::::
<!) ;.::s
VI
lo!
VI
:;..,
VI
lo!
VI
;:....
VI
>'(
VI
:;..,
-c>.
"'
"'
<!) "'=
s .9
.... !;I l>=1 l>-1 $=H H~
~ { tj.:<~ j ' xrf)

E1
<!) <ll
Q) u
>.
!
.s
<ll
~
0
I
....
<!)
..S2
]
"O
Q)
<!)
;.::
{D ~J ~ :z:
xI
xI
~
.. ,
::c ::c
u
~
=
<ll
·i;; "O
-
~
·2
::s "'=
=
- t:
0 I:>()
c, "O
<!)
al c..
. ..., =
<!) "'
<!)
<!)
"O "O
"O
"'~ ="'.J::
<!)
<!)
"'I:>()<!)"O
<!)
-
<!)
<!) ~g "O "' ~
0
<!)
<!)
~.go
0
"O
<!)
t:
0
<'1:1 <!)
<!) ·-"O <ll "' - <!)
c, ....::s c..
.§ "O
I:>()
=8 0 ~"O
~"Oc
I ~
::i:: + N
ct #',~
.... + ;z
0
z
:c
~i
~ ....
0
.....i ::i::
VI VI
'< ;:..,
'JO
e
.g
:0
e
0
u
~
"O
t..1.l
Table 3.4 Ultimate support shears for two-way elements (symmetrical yield-lines) (to be used in
conjunction with Table 3.2).
Edge conditions Yield line locations Limits Horizontal shear, VsH Vertical shear, Vsv
r-41 3rux
3ruH(2 - ~)
Two adjacent
edges supported
EJ x -:::;, L
5
(6 - ~)
and two edges
free
Hl]~;;,:,j ~ 3ruL(2- ~) 3ruy
y-:::;, H
I L .1 (6 - ~) 5
f; f1 L 3r,.x
3ruH( 1 - ~)
Three edges
i::,,,:~1 x-==-
2 5
(3 - ~)
supported and t-X-i
one edge free
HI[;,~,~J:n 3ruL(2-~) 3ruy
y-:::;, H
1. L
I 2( 6 - ~) 5
f1 f1 L 3rux
3ruH( 1 - ~)
Four edges
t~~~l1 x-==-
2 5
2(3 - ~)
HICQYzr
supported ~
:I H
3ruL(l- ~) 3ruy
y-:::;, -
I L .. ( y 2 2(3 - ~) 5
~ N
"<!" ,.-.. ~ ~
> M ~ N I
';;.."'
(I) N
~
.: :0 I ~ I ~ ~ ~ N
I
"' ~ ~ ~ I I I
i1 V) - ii JIV)
(I)
..c: ~ .....i
"' .5 I I ~ N ~
-
V)
(;j .....i I .....i I
,-,, I
.Eu "' N ;:..,,
"'
(I)
::i::
.....i
-o
N .....i
~ I .....i
e -o
.::
-... '°
(I)
> ... :J
::i::
"'
C/J M M
:J
M
,-,,
:t ~;:..,, N
;:..,,
';;.."' ""': ,-,,
N
M
I ;:..,, I
.: (I)
;::; I
N
;:..,, ;:: ~
..c:"'
(I)
"'
:0
"'
f-
~1V) .::1
I >.
I -
::i::
N
,-,,
;:..,,
I
ii
;:: I
;:: ::i::
I
;::
I
(;j
E0
-cN
.5
"'
"'
(I)
e:
~ M
~ V)
-...
::i::
N
M
~
::i::
-o
~
I ::i::
.....i
-o
11 V) V)
I
::i::
- '°
N
I
::i::
N
x~
I ::i::
-o
I
0
::i:: "'
C/J ~
M
M
~
-...
.....i
M
:J
.....i ::i:: ....llN ...:JIN ::t::IN ::t::IN

VI VI VI VI VI VI
~ ;:..,,
t:
8.0..
::I
"'
(I)
';;;
. .;
5
Chapter 4
Design of Reinforced Concrete Columns
4.0 NOTATION
ax Deflection in column due to slenderness producing additional moment

about x-axis
ay Deflection in column due to slenderness producing additional moment
about y-axis
Ac Net area of concrete in a column cross-section
Ase Total area of steel in a column cross-section
Asx Area of steel in tension to resist bending about x-axis
Asy Area of steel in tension to resist bending about y-axis
b Width of rectangular column section - dimension perpendicular to
y-axis
b' Effective depth of tensile steel reinforcement resisting moment about
y-axis
c Coefficient of torsional stiffness
C Torsional stiffness
G Shear modulus
h Overall depth of rectangular column section - dimension
perpendicular to x-axis
h' Effective depth to tensile steel reinforcement resisting moment about
x-axis
h« Diameter to centreline of reinforcement in a circular column
hmax Maximum overall dimension of a rectangular concrete section
hmin Minimum overall dimension of a rectangular concrete section
I Moment of inertia
K Factor governing deflection of column due to slenderness
le Effective height of column
10 Clear height of column
lex Effective height for consideration of slenderness about x-axis
ley Effective height for consideration of slenderness about y-axis
m Modular ratio= E51 Ee
M Applied bending moment on a section
151
Mx Applied bending moment about x-axis

My Applied bending moment about y-axis
M~ Modified bending moment about x-axis to account for biaxial bending
M_~ Modified bending moment about y-axis to account for biaxial bending
Maddx Additional moment about x-axis due to slenderness
Maddy Additional moment about the y-axis due to slenderness
N Axial load on column
Nuz Design ultimate capacity of a section subjected to axial load only
Nba1 Design axial load capacity of a balanced section ( = 0 .25 fcubd)
p' Percentage of compressive reinforcement
Px Percentage of tensile reinforcement to resist moment about x-axis
P_v Percentage of tensile reinforcement to resist moment about y-axis
T Applied torsion
Shear stress in concrete due to bending about x-axis
Shear stress in concrete due to bending about y-axis
Design concrete shear stress in concrete due to bending about x-axis
(N/mm2)
Design concrete shear stress in concrete due to bending about y-axis
(N/mm2)
Shear force in concrete column due to bending about x-axis
Shear force in concrete column due to bending about y-axis
Coefficient to determine effective height of a column

Coefficient to determine modified bending moments in biaxial bending
Diameter of reinforcing bar or equivalent diameter of a group of bars
4.1 ANALYSIS OF COLUMNS
4.1.1 Moment of inertia See Section 2.1.3.
4.1.2 Modulus of elasticity See Section 2.1.4.
4.1.3 Shear modulus See Section 2.1.6.
Note: In normal framed construction Torsional Rigidity of RC columns may

be ignored in the analysis and the torsional stiffness may be given a
very small value in the computer analysis. Torsional rigidity becomes
important only where torsion is relied on to carry the load as in curved
beams.
4.1.4 Poisson's ratio See Section 2.1.7.
4.1.5 Shear area See Section 2.1.8.
4.1.6 Thermal strain See Section 2.1.9.

Design of Reinforced Concrete Columns 153
4.1. 7 Effective heights
SK 4/1 Effective height of column.
Braced: All horizontal loads carried by shear walls or bracing system.

Unbraced: Horizontal loads carried by columns as parts of frame structure.
le = 13/o
where le = effective height
10 = clear height
13 = values given in Tables 4.1 and 4.2.
©column
Cantilever
@seam Simply
Supported
H1
<D
Monolithic
Connection
Monolithic
Connection CD
__ ,...___,._.3
SK 412 Column end conditions.

Table 4.1 Values of~ for braced columns.
End condition End condition at bottom

at top
2 3
1 0.75 0.80 0.90

2 0.80 0.85 0.95
3 0.90 0.95 1.00
Table 4.2 Values of ~ for unbraced columns.
End condition End condition at bottom

at top
2 3
1 1.2 1.3 1.6

2 1.3 1.5 1.8
3 1.6 1.8
4 2.2
Note: Foundations of columns designed to carry moments may be considered as

end condition 1 for the column.
4.1.8 Analysis of columns
Find the following internal forces by analysis:
(1) Bending moments about principal axes: M; and My

(2) Shear forces about principal axes: Vx and ~v
(3) Deflections at critical points: 6
(4) Rotations at joints (if required): e
(5) Torsions (if relevant): T
(6) Direct axial loads: N
Use a general-purpose 2-D or 3-D skeletal member suite of a computer

software for the analysis, if required.
4.2.1 General rules
The following load combinations and partial load factors should be used in
carrying out the analysis of columns:
LC1: l.4DL + l.6LL + l.4EP + l.4WP
LC2: l.ODL + l.4EP+ l.4WP
LC3: l.4DL + l.4WL + l.4EP + l.4WP
LC4: l.ODL + l.4WL + l.4EP + l.4WP
LC5: l.2DL + 1.2LL + l.2WL + l.2EP + l.2WP
Note: Load combinations LC2 and LC4 should be considered only when the
effect of dead and live load are considered to be beneficial.
where D L = dead load

LL = live load or imposed load
WL = wind load
WP = water pressure
The general principle of load combination is to leave out the loads which
have beneficial effect. If the load is of a permanent nature, like dead load,
earth load or water load, use the partial load factor of 1 for that load
which produces a beneficial rather than adverse effect. This rule of combi-
nation will be used for design as well as for the check of stability of
structure.
Note: No reduction or redistribution of loads is allowed from the columns.
4.3 STEP-BY-STEP DESIGN PROCEDURE FOR COLUMNS
4.3.1 Rectangular columns
Step I Analysis
Moments, shear forces and axial forces should be determined manually or
using computer software. Additional moments induced by deflection of
slender columns are found in Step 5. For braced columns which are
assumed to carry vertical loads only, a nominal eccentricity of vertical
loads equal to 0.05 times the overall dimension in the plane of bending not
exceeding 20 mm should be considered. For biaxial bending, minimum
eccentricity should be considered about one axis at a time.
Step 2 Check slenderness of column
r- .:
I
x
- -r-~ ~_J
I
I
SK 4/3 Section through a column. I~
Find lexlh and le_vfb.
See Section 4.1.7 for the determination of effective heights lex and Ley·
Note: For short columns both ratios should be less than 15 for braced and 10 for
unbraced.
For columns generally, [ 0 :S 60b
For cantilever columns, /0 :S 100b2/h :S 60b

Determine cover required to reinforcement, as per Tables 11.6 and 11.7.
Step 4 Design of short columns
11
SK 414 Symmetrically reinforced
column.
(I) No moment from analysis

Select reinforcement size and number.
where Ac = net area of concrete = bh - Ase

Check N > applied direct load
(2) Column supporting continuous beams where analysis does not allow for
framing into columns (no moment in column)
Find N = 0.35/cuAc + 0.67Ascfy
Check N > applied direct load
(3) Column subjected to uniaxial moment and direct load

Determine dlh corresponding to cover found in step 3.
Find e = MIN and then elh.
Select appropriate Table from Tables 11.8 to 11.17 corresponding to !cu•
and dlh.
Calculate Nlbh.
Find from appropriate Table the value of p which satisfies the calculated
Nlbh against the elh due to applied moment. From p calculate Ase.
Find Ase·
Note: For symmetrically reinforced columns as designed above, the total area of
steel should be divided by 2 and placed at the two opposite faces of the
column in relation to the axis about which the moment is applied. More
reinforcement may be necessary at the other two faces from other con-
siderations. The total percentage of reinforcement should be below 6%.
Step 5 Design of slender columns
Table 4.3 Summary of column additional moments.
Column type Bending about Bending about Bending about

major axis only minor axis only both axes
Braced
lex
15 < - $ 20
h
Ley
15 < - $ 20 Maddx = Naux
b
Mx = Mx; + *Maddx
h Nuz - N
-<3 K= ::;; My = My; + *Maddy
b Nuz - Nbal
Unbraced
lex
10<-::;;20
h
Icy
10<-$20
b
h
-<3
b My= My; + *Maddy
Braced and aux= ~axKh
unbraced
lex
20 <-and/or
h
Maddx = Naux
fey
20 <-and/or
b
ay = ~ayKb
h
- :=: 3
b ~ay = 2000
1 (ley)
b
2
Maddy = Nauy Maddy = Nauy Maddy = Nauy

My= Maddy My = My; + *Maddy My = My; + *Maddy
*The addition of Madd will be done following sketches SK4/5 and SK4/6 as appropriate. Mx; is
the initial moment and M; is the final moment about x-axis. Maddx is the additional moment due
to slenderness. '
For unbraced columns at any storey find au for all columns in any orthogonal direction and then
find auav given by
~au
auav = - where n = number of columns.
n
Find additional moment for all columns using auav as deflection.
If any value of au for any individual column at a level is twice auav• then discard that column from
the calculation of auav·
I ~ ,T
-Madd/2 +larger initial
moment Mi
+Madd ·Mi
• Madd/2 +smaller
inita\ moment Mi
BRACED COLUMN FREE TO ROTATE BRACED COWMN FREE TO ROTATE BRACED COLUMN RESTRAINEDAT
AT EACH END AT ONE END BOTH ENDS
Mi = Initial momentfrom analysis
SK 4/5 Braced column - additional moments.
T
Column free to rotate at one end
SK 4/6 Unbraced column - additional moments.
Braced column restrained at both ends:

the initial moment at mid height Mi=0.4 M1 + 0.6 M2;;e:0.4 M2
where M 1 = smaller end moment
M2 =larger end moment
Unbraced column restrained at both ends:
the full additional moment may be combined with the initial end moment
of stiffer joint. M add for the other end may be reduced proportional to the
joint stiffness.
Determine d/h corresponding to cover found in Step 3.
Find e =MIN and then e/h.
Select appropriate Table from Tables 11.8 to 11.17 corresponding to !cu
and dlh.
Calculate N/bh.
Find from the appropriate Table the value of p which satisfies the calculated
N/bh against the e/h due to applied moment. From p calculate Ase. .
See note in Step 4.
Step 6 Design of column to biaxial bending and direct load

Select diameter of reinforcement:
Find h' and b'.
Find M,Jh' and Mylb'.
If Mxlh' > Mylb',
.c x x
s:
Mx
SK 417 Column subject to biaxial

bending.
MxI = Mx + (13h'
- ) M;
b' -
If M_Jb' > Mxlh',
,
M'; = M;
- .
+ (13b'
-h' ) Mx
Find Nlfcubh.
Values of f3 are given in the table below.
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 >0.6

1.00 0.88 0.77 0.65 0.53 0.42 0.30
Note: Biaxial bending is reduced to uniaxial bending by the multiplier (3.
Design as uniaxial bending, depending on which directional bending is

predominant.
Find Ase following the method in Step 5.
See note in Step 4.

Find design shear forces Vx and ~v from analysis.
Find MxlN and MylN.
(1) If MxlN :s; 0.60h and MyfN :s; 0.60b

Vxlbh' :s; 0.8V /cu :s; 5 N/mm2
and ~vlb'h -s 0.8Vfcu :s; 5 N/mm2
No shear check is necessary.
(2) If MxlN > 0.60h and/or MylN > 0.60b

Find Vx = Vxlbh'
Vy= Vvfb'h
lOOAsx
px = --,;;;:-
100A,v
Py= hJ/
I
X
. - -r- I
SK 4/8 Areas of steel for shear

-· Asx check of column.
From Figs 11.2 to 11.6, find Vex and Vey i.e. the design concrete shear
stresses corresponding to Px and Py·
Modify Vex and Vey to take into account axial loading.
0.6NVxh
v'ex = Vex+---"--
AeMx
Note: N is +ve for compression and -ve for tension. Vxhl Mx and Vybl My should
not be greater than 1. Check: (vxfv'cx)+(v_Jv'ey)~l.
If this condition is not satisfied, then shear reinforcement in the form of
links is required.
Design of shear reinforcement for columns
v"ex =
v"cv =
Vx + Vy
where v~x = available concrete shear strength for calculation of shear
reinforcement for bending about x-axis
v~Y = available concrete shear strength for calculation of shear
reinforcement for bending about y-axis.
Note: To avoid shear cracking prior to ultimate limit state, modification of the
design concrete shear stress to account for direct
I
load should be according
to the following formula: v~ = vc[l + Nl(Acvc)P:.
A sb
v
I
•
" I
h x - - -
- e-
Ash
• .
SK 419 Shear reinforcement in
column section. UJ
V~x = V~xbh'
V~y = V~yb'h
where [yv = characteristic yield strength of link reinforcement

A,,, = area of all legs of link reinforcement in one set resisting
shear due to bending about x-axis
Asb = area of all legs of link reinforcement in one set resisting
shear due to bending about y-axis
S = spacing of a set of link in the column.
Check V,x : : : Vx - V~ and V,Y : : : ~v - V~y
4.3.2 Circular columns
SK 4/10 Circular column - typical

section with minimum of six bars.
Step 1 Analysis
Carry out analysis.
Step 2 Check slenderness of column

Find lei h, when h = diameter.
See Section 4.1.7 for the determination of effective height le.
Note: For short columns, the ratio lelh should be less than 15 for braced and 10
for unbraced.

Determine cover required to reinforcement, as per Tables 11.6 and 11.7.
(1) No significant moment from analysis

Select reinforcement size and at least six bars.
Find Ac= 0.25 it h2 -Ase
Find N = 0.4/cuAc + 0. 75Asc/y
Check N 2: applied direct load
(2) Column supporting continuous beams or flat slab where analysis does not
allow Jor distribution of moment to the column
Find N = 0.35/cuAc + 0.67Ascfy
Check N 2: applied direct load
(3) Column subjected to moment and direct load

Determine hslh corresponding to cover found in Step 3.
Find e = MIN and then el R, where R = radius of column.
Select appropriate table from Tables 11.18 to 11.27 corresponding to fcu
and h.lh,
Calculate NIR2•
Find, from the appropriate table, the value of p which satisfies the cal-
culated NIR2 against the elR due to applied moment M.
Find Ase from p and use at least six bars.

l~
a=--
2000h
Ma<ld = NaK
Combine this additional moment, Mactd• with the moments obtained from
analysis following the figures of Step 5 (Section 4.3.1), assuming K = 1 for
conservatism.
Otherwise Nbal = 0.15fcuh2
Nuz = 0.45/cuAc + 0.87/yAsc

and K = Nuz - N
Nuz - Nbal
which may be found by iteration using successive assumptions of Ase·
Design the column for the combined moment Mand direct load N following
Step 4.
Step 6 Biaxial moment and direct load

If biaxial moments are present by analysis on the column, combine these
two orthogonal moments by taking the square root of the sum of the
squares and then adding Madd to the combined moment.
Design the column for the combined moment M and the direct load N
following Step 4. M = y(M~ + M;)

Find design shear forces Vx and Vv from analysis.
Find MIN, where M = \l(M~ + M~).
Find V= y'(v; + v;) ·
(I) If MIN::::; 0.60h
VI0.75Ac ::::;0,8 Yfcu $ 5N/mm2

(2) If MIN> 0.60h, check shear stress
v
v
= -0-- S 0.8 Yfcu S 5N/mm2
.75Ac
50Asc 66.7Ase
p=--=--
0.75Ac Ac
Assuming only 50% of the total reinforcement is effective in tension.
Find Ve corresponding top and /cu from Figs 11.2 to 11.5.
0.6NVh
v~ =Ve+ AM
e
If v::::; v~, no shear reinforcement is necessary.
When v > v~. find Ve= 0.75v.;Ac·

V5 = 0.87fyvAv(zlS) from truss analogy (see Section 1.6.1).
Find z/R from appropriate table from Tables 11.18 to 11.27 corresponding
to fem hslh, p, NIR2 and e/R.
2A, =Av
where /yv = characteristic yield strength of link reinforcement
As = area of the link reinforcement in the form of hoop
S = spacing of link.
Check Vs 2: V - Ve
See note in Step 7 of Section 4.3.1
4.3.3 Rectangular and circular columns
Step 8 Minimum reinforcement

For rectangular and circular columns,
Step 9 Maximum reinforcement

For rectangular and circular columns,
lOOA,c s
vertically cast columns 6
Ac
lOOA,c
horizontally cast columns ---s8
Ac
IOOA
___ sc S 10
at laps of columns
Ac
Step 10 Containment of reinforcement
SK 4/11 Typical arrangement of

bars in a column section.
Minimum diameter of links= 0.25 times largest bar diameter a 6 mm

Maximum spacing of links = 12 times smallest diameter of bar
Typical arrangement of bars is shown in SK4/11.
Step 11 Check crack width (optional)

No checks are necessary if applied ultimate load > 0.2fcuAc
4.4 WORKED EXAMPLES
Example 4.1 Design of a biaxially loaded slender column

The column is braced in the X-X direction, i.e. for bending about Y-Y
axis, and unbraced in the Y-Y direction, i.e. for bending about X- X
axis.
Size of column: 400 x 600
Clear height of column= 8 m.
VxLMr}
0
0
(Tl
x
-- x
0
0
(Y"}
i~y
I
SK 4/12 Biaxially loaded column y
section.
Beam size in the major direction = 400 x 500 at each floor.

Beam size in the minor direction = 300 x 350 at each floor.
Direct load on column = 2500 kN = N
Bending moment, Mx = 150 kNm Vx = 150 kN
Bending moment, My= 80kNm V'_v = 80kN
All columns are of same size at each floor level.
Step 1 Analysis
Not required.
Step 2 Check slendernessof column (see Tables 4.1 and 4.2)

Effective height, lex = 1.80 X /0
= 1.80 x 8
= 14.4m for unbraced column
Assume end condition 2 at bottom and 3 at top for bending about x axis.
Effective height, fey = 1.0 X 8
= 8 m for braced column
Assume end condition 3 at both top and bottom for bending about y axis.
lex 14.4
- = -- = 24 > 10 for unbraced
h 0.6
t.; 8.0
-'- = - = 20 > 15 for braced
b 0.4
Hence the column should be designed as slender about both axes.
Step 3 Determinationof cover

Grade of concrete= 40N/mm2
Exposure = moderate
Fire resistance = 2 hours
MSA=20mm
Minimum nominal cover= 30mm, from Tables 11.6 and 11.7
Diameter of link = 10 mm assumed
Diameter of main bars = 40 mm assumed
h' = h - cover - dia. of link - ~dia. of bar

= 600 - 30 - 10 - 20
= 540mm
b' = 400 - 30 - 10 - 20
= 340mm

Not required.

Assume IOOA,Jbh = 5
Ac = net concrete area = (1 - 0.05)bh = 0.95bh
Nuz = 0.45/cuAc + 0.87/yAsc
= (0.95 x 0.45 x 40 + 0.87 x 460 x 0.05) x 400 x 600 x 10-3
= 8906kN
Nbal = 0.25/cubh
= 0.25 x 40 x 400 x 600 x 10-3
= 2400kN
Nuz - N 8906 - 2500
K=----
Nu, - Nbal 8906 - 2400
= 0.98 for assumed 5% reinforcement
ax=
1 (lcx)
b hK 2
2000
= -1- x (14400)2 x 600 x 0.98

2000 600
= 169.3mm
ay =
1
2000
(fev)
h bK 2
= -1- x (8000)2 x 400 x 0.98

2000 400
= 78.4mm
Maddx = NaxK
= 2500 x 0.1693
= 423kNm
Maddy= NayK
= 2500 x 0.0784
= 196kNm

M, = 150 + 423 = 573 kNm (see SK 4/6 - column free to rotate one end.)
My= 80 + 196 = 276kNm (see SK 4/5 - column free to rotate both ends.)
SK 4/13 Equivalent uniaxial

bending of columns. _L ~b_J
573
-Mx
h'
= -
0.54
= 1061kN
My 276
-= - = 812kN
b' 0.34
N 2500 x 103
-bh-fc-u = 400 X 600 X 40 = 0.26
~ = 0.70 from table in Step 6 of Section 4.3.1.

Biaxial bending: Mxfh' > Mylb'
M~ = Mx + ~(h')Mv
b' .
= 573 + 0.70 x ( -540) x 276

340
= 880kNm
h' 540 880
k = -=
h
-=
600
0.90 e = -M
N
= --
2500
= 0.352 m
e 0.352
h = 0.600 = 0.59
N 2500 x 103
---- = 10 4 N/mm2
bh 400 x 600 .
Select Table 11.12 for /cu = 40 N/mm2 and k = 0. 90.
From Table 11.12: for elh = 0.6 and p = 2.0, N/bh = 9.05, and for p = 3.0,
Nlbh = 10.95.
By linear interpolation, p = 2.69 for elh = 0.59, and N/bh = 10.4.
2.69 x 400 x 600
Ase = 100
= 6456mm2
Use 4 no. 32dia. bars on each face 400 wide (6434mm2).
See Step 5: revised Nuz = 6705 kN and corresponding K = 0.98; no change.
60 60
0
0
(0
2-q, 20(crack control)
~ 8 links at 350 etc
""---+---4- ~ 32
400 SK 4/14 Designed column section.
Step 7 Shear check

u. 150
N 2500
= 0.06 m < 0.60h
My=~
N 2500
= 0.032 m < 0.60b
Vx 150 X 103 2 , I 2
- = = 0.69N/mm < 0.8v/cu < 5N/mm
bh' 400 x 540
Vv 80 x 103
---- = 0.39 N/mm2
b'h 600 x 340

Minimum reinforcement= 0.4% satisfied

Maximum reinforcement= 6% satisfied
Step JO Containment of reinforcement

Minimum diameter of link = 0.25 x 32
=8mm
Maximum spacing of links = 12 x smallest bar diameter
= 12 x 32 = 384 mm
Step 11 Check crack width

N = 2500 kN > 0.2/cuAc = 1920kN
So no check necessary.
Example 4.2 Design of a column with predominant moment about the major axis
Vx
r~ I Mux £
II
x
--~ 0
x 0
UJ
I
SK 4/15 Column with moment
about X- X axis. 14 400=b
J
Rectangular section.
h = 600 mm b = 400 mm
Ultimate bending moment, Mux = 640 kNm
Ultimate direct load, Nu= 1280kN
Ultimate shear force, V_,. = 320 kN
Service bending moment, Msx = 400kNm
Service direct load, N8 = 800 kN
Clear height of column = 4 m between floors
End condition (1) at both ends of column in both directions of bending.
Unbraced column in both directions of bending.
Step 1 Analysis
Not required.
Note: Minimum eccentricity= 20 mm

Muy = 20 X 1280kNmm
= 25.6kNm
By inspection this moment in isolation will not cause a more onerous
design than the predominant moment M ux·
Step 2 Check slenderness of column (see Table 4.2)

Effective height, lex = 1.2 X 4 = 4.8 m
fey = 1.2 X 4 = 4.8 m
lex 4.8
-=-=8<10
h 0.6
lev 4.8
--'- = - = 12 > 10
b 0.4
The column is slender about minor axis.

Exposure = severe
Fire resistance = 2 hours
Maximum size of aggregates = 20 mm
Minimum nominal cover= 30 mm
Diameter of main bars = 25 mm assumed
d = h' = h - cover - dia. of link - ~dia. of bar
= 600 - 40 - 10 - 12.5
= 537.5mm
b' = 400 - 40 - 10 - 12.5
= 337.5mm

Not required.

h
-=15<3
b .
lex= 8 < 20
h
Additional moment about minor axis can be ignored (see Table 4.3).
a
x
= _1_ (lex) hK
2000 b
2
1
=2000x (4800)2 x600x1 (assume K = 1 for conservatism)
400
= 43.2mm
Maddx = Nax
= 1280 x 0.0432
= 55.3kNm
Mx = 640 + 55.3 (see SK 416 - column restrained at both ends)
= 695.3kNm
Design as a beam following Step 10 of Section 2.3.
Md= M + N (~ - d1)
= 695.3 + 1280 (0~6 - 0.0625)

= 999.3kNm
K = --Md = -------
999.3 x 106
fcubd2 40 X 400 X 537.52
= 0.216 > 0.156
Compression reinforcement is required.

z = 0.775d
= 444mm
A' = (K - 0.156)/cubd2
s 0.87/y(d - d')
(0.216 - 0.156) x 40 x 400 x 537.52
0.87 x 460 x (537.5 - 62.5)
= 1459mm2
0.156/cubd2) N
As= ( +A~ - --
0.87/yz 0.87/y
0.156 x 40 x 400 x 537.52)
= ( + 1459 - (1280 x 103)
0.87 x 460 x 444 0.87 x 460
= 2319mm2
Use 3 no. 32mm dia. bars each face (2412mm2)
Design by using Table 11.12.
e = MIN= 0.543 e/h = 0.905
h' 537.5
k = - = -- = 0.90
h 600
N 1280 x 103
- = = 5.33 N/mm2
bh 400 x 600
From Table 11.12 by linear interpolation, p = 2%.
2 x 400 x 600
A SC = 100 = 4800mm2
Use 3 no. 32dia. bars on each face (2412mm2).
Note: The two different design methods produce exactly the same result.
0
0
U)
SK 4/16 Designed column section. 3-¢32


Not required.

M, 640
-= - = 0.5 > 0.60h = 0.36 m
N 1280
Shear check is required.
v =-=
v. 320 x 103
h'b 400 x 536
= l.49N/mm2 < 5N/mm2
h' = 600 - 40 - 8 - 16 = 536mm
lOOAs
p=-;;;;:--
100 x 2412
400 x 536
= 1.125
From Fig. 11.5,
Ve = 0.77N/mm2
0.6NVh
v~ =Ve+ ---
AeM
Vh 320 x 103 x 600

6 = 0.30 < 1
M 640 x 10
0.60 x 1280 x 103 x 0.3
v~ == Oa77 + ---------
400 x 600
= l.73N/mm2 > l.49N/mm2
No shear reinforcement is necessary.
To avoid shear cracks at ultimate load, use the following modification
formula:
I
V~ = Ve(l + ~)2
AeVe
= 0.77( 1
1280 x 103
+ ------ )!
400 x 600 x 0.77
= 2.167N/mm2 > 1.73N/mm2
This modified higher value of design concrete shear strength may not be
used.

Minimum reinforcement= 0.4% satisfied

Step JO Containment of reinforcement

Minimum diameter of link = 0.25 x 32
=8mm
= 12 x 32
= 384mm > 350mm OK
Centre-to-centre spacing of bars = 136 mm< 150 mm
Central 32 mm diameter bar need not be restrained.
Use 2-legged links 8 mm diameter at 350 mm centres.
8
CD
2-+2o{anti-crack)
,___--t-+-4)6at 240 etc

3-~ 32
~__...---~
SK 4/17 Final column section.
Step 11 Check crack width (optional)

As= A~ = 2412mm2
d = 536mm
m = -Es = 10
Ee
d' = 64mm
Service bending moment, Msx = 400kNm
Service direct load, N; = 800kN
The formulae used below are for a triangular concrete stress block (see
Section 1.13.2).
Assume value of x = d/2 = 260 mm, say.
First trial
q1 = bx = 400 x 260 = 104000mm2

(See Section 1.13.2 for explanation of symbols.)
Js
y
b:400 STRAIN STRESS SK 4/18 Calculation of crack
DIAGRAM DIAGRAM width.
0.5q1x+ mAsd + (m - l)A~d'

g=
+ mAs + (m - l)A~
qi
0.5 x 104000 x 260 + (10 x 2412 x 536) + (9 x 2412 x 64)
104000 + (10 x 2412) + (9 x 2412)
= 185.8mm
M 400
e =- =- = 0.5m = 500mm
N 800
k1 =
e-
( -d-
g) + 1
500 - 185.8)
= ( + 1
536
= 1.586
k2 = ;d (1 - ;J
1
= (2 ~~36) ( - 3 ~~36)
= 0.203
k3 = (m - 1)( 1 - :)
= 9(1 - 2~)
= 6.785
fo ~ Nk,( d')
k2bd + k3A~ 1 - d
800 x 1()3 x 1.586
0.203 x 400 x 536 + 6.785 x 2412 x ( 1 - 5~6)

= 21.90 N/mm2
I. = lc(0.5q1 + k3A;) - N
s As
21.90 x (0.5 x 104000 + 6.785 x 2412) - 800 x 103
= 2412
= 289.1N/mm2
d
Check: x=----
1 + (A_)
mfc
536
=------
289.1 )
1 (
+ 10 x 21.9
= 231 mm < 260 mm assumed
Second trial
Assume x = (260 + 231)/2 = 240mm say
q1 = 96000mm2
g = 182.2mm
k1 = 1.593
k2 = 0.190
k3 = 6.60
t: = 23.27N/mm2
f. = 285.0 N/mm2
x = 240.8mm assumed x = 240 mm, hence OK
E = fs = 285 = 1.425 X 10-3

s E. 200 x lW
Eh= c =~)Es
600 - 240)
= ( 536 - 240 x 1.425 x 10-3
= 1.733 x 10-3
b(h - x)2
Emh = Eh - 3EsAs(d - x)
= 1.733 x 10-3 - 400 x (600 - 240)2

3 x 200 x 1D3 x 2412 x (536 - 240)
= 1.612 x 10-3
ac1 = v'(642 + 642) - 16
= 74.5mm
ac2 = v'(642 + 682) - 16
= 77.4mm
llcr = 77.4mm
Wcr =
l + 2 ( llcr - Cmin)
h - x
3 x 77.4 x 1.612 x 10-3
77.4 - 48)
1
+ 2 ( 600 - 240
= 0.32mm > 0.3mm
Crack width slightly exceeded and may be allowed.
Example 4.3 Design of a member with uniaxial moment and tension

Size: 600mm x 400mm
Ultimate direct load in tension = 250 kN
Ultimate bending moment, M, = 250 kNm
Ultimate shear force, Vx = 250 kN
N = 250kN
,
ELEVATION
v
Vxj Mx
r«
I x
v
400 SK 4/19 Member subject to
SECTION uniaxial bending and tension.
Step 1 Analysis
Not required.
Step 2 Check slendernessof member

Not required.
Step 3 Determinationof cover

Exposure = moderate
Minimum nominal cover = 30 mm from Tables 11.6 and 11. 7
Diameter of main bar = 40 mm assumed
h' = h - cover - dia. of link - !dia. of bar
=600-30-10-20
= 540mm
b' = 400 - 30 - 10 - 20
= 340mm
Method I Design as RC beam (see Step 10 of Section 2.3)
rb-400.1
:==f'=60
0
0
s
IO
ID II
II "O
==f'°
II
:c
-- I
SK 4/20 Design of column section. l

Mx = 250kNm
N = -250kN
Md= Mx - NG - di)
= 250 - 250. x (0.3 - 0.06)
= 190kNm
K = Md = 190 x 106
fcubd2 40 X 400 X 54W
= 0.04 < 0.156 no compressive reinforcement
z = h'[o.5 + j(o.25 - 0~)]

= 540[ o.5 + J( 0.25 -

0~~)
J ~ o.95d
= 0.95 x 540 = 513mm
M N
As=---+--
0.87/yz 0.87/y
190 x 106 250 x 103
= 0.87 x 513 x 460
+ 0.87 x 460
= 1550mm2
Use 2 no. 32 dia. (1608mnr') bars on each short face.
Method 2 Simpk steel beam theory
SK 4/21 Design by steel beam

theory.
(1) Assume compression and tension steel in equal amount to form a

couple to resist the moment.
(2) Assume axial tension carried equally by steel on compression and
tension side.
Lever arm of steel (centre-to-centre distance)= a= h' - 60 = 480mm
.
Steel required for bendimg moment = ---M
0.87/ya
250 x 106
1301mm2
0.87 x 460 x 480
0.5N
Steel required for axial tension on each face = --
0.87/y
o.5 x 250 x 1Q3
= 0.87 x 460
= 312mm2
Total steel required on each face= 1301+312 = 1613 mm2
Again, 2 no. 32dia. (1608mm2) on each face will be adequate.
SK 4/22 Designed concrete

section.
Note: Both methods produce the same result but Method 2 is very conservative
usually.

Not required.
Step 6 Biaxial bending and direct load

Not required.

Vx 250 x la3
v=-=
h'b 540 x 400
= l.16N/mm2 < 5N/mm2
lOOAs 100 x 1608
p=--=
bh' 540 x 400
= 0.74%
From Fig. 11.5,
Ve = 0.67 N/mm2
, _ 0.6NVh
Ve - Ve+ ---
AeM
Vh 250 x 103 x 600

------ = 0.60 < 1
M 250 x 106
0.6 x 0.6 x 250 x 1a3
v~ = 0.67 - ---------
400 x 600
= 0.295N/mm2 < l.16N/mm2
Note: N is -ve in tension.
Shear reinforcement is required.

V~ = 0.295 x 540 x 400 x 10-3 = 63.7kN
Assume 8mm diameter links (/y =460N/mm2) at lOOmm centres.
v.s = 0.87/yvAshh'
-~--- s
10-3 x (0.87 x 460 x 100 x 540)
= =2~kN
100
V, > V - V~ = 250 - 63.7 = 186.3kN okay

Minimum reinforcement= 0.4%
Reinforcement provide = 3216 mm2
3216 x 100
400 x 600
= 1.34% okay


Minimum diameter of link = 0.25 x 32 = 8 mm satisfied
12 x 32 = 384 mm satisfied
Step 11 Check crack width
As
:I:
i Eti
: STRAIN STRESS
ClAGRAM DIAGRAM
N
SK 4/23 Crack width calculations.
Service bending moment = 160 kNm

Service tension= 160kN
Assume depth of neutral axis x = h/2 = 300 mm
The formulae used below assume a triangular concrete stress block (see
Section 1.13.2).
Assume eccentricity e from centre of stressed area, i.e. at g from extreme
compressive fibre.
First trial
M 160 x lW
e =- = = 1000mm
N 160
d' = 30 + 8 + 16 = 54 mm
d = 600 - 30 - 8 - 16 = 546mm
x 300
-=- = 0.55
d 546
A. = A~ = 1608mm2
qi = bx = 400 x 300 = 12 x 104mm2
Es
m = - = 10
Ee
0.5q1x + mA5d + (m - l)A~d'
g=
qi + mAs + (m - l)A~
= 183mm
k1=(e:g)-1
= 1.167
k2 = ;d (1 - ;J
= 0.224
k3 = (m - 1)( 1 - ~)
= 7.38
k ~ Nk,( d')
k2bd + k3A~ 1 - d
= 3.13N/mm2
t. = fc(O.Sq1 + k3A~) + N
s As
= 239.4 N/mm2
d
Check x=----
1 +(A_) mfc
= 62.8 mm < 300 mm assumed
Second trial
Assume x = 130mm
q1 = 52000mm2
g = 157mm
k, = 1.119
k2 = 0.11
k3 = 5.26
le= 5.66N/mm2
ls = 221 N/mm2
x = lllmm near enough to 130 mm

No more trials are required.
Tension in steel= 221 N/mm2
x = 115mm say
Es = -Is =
221
= 1.105 x 10-3
. Es 200 x 103
Eh = (: = :)£,.
600 115)
- x 1.105 x 10-3
- ( 546 - 115
= 1.243 x 10-3
b(h - x)2
Eh-Eh-
m - 3E.A.(d - x)
= 1.016 x 10-3
acr = \!(542 + 1462) - 16
= 140mm
3acr Em
Wcr = -------
l + 2(acr - Cmin)
h-x
= 0.29 mm < 0.3 mm OK
Step 12 Spacing of bars (required for members in tension)

See Step 24 of Section 2.3.
MSA+5 =25mm
Dia. of bar= 32 mm
Clear distance between bars= 260 mm> 32 mm OK
Maximum clear spacing of bars in tension s 47 000/Is -s 300 mm
Is= 221 N/mm2 from Step 10.

Maximum spacing:::::: 47 000/221 :::::: 213 mm
Note: Actual clear spacing is 260 mm which does not satisfy this condition. Since
crack width calculations show that the crack of0.3 mm may not be exceeded,
this spacing of bars need not be changed.
Example 4.4 Design of a member with biaxial moment and tension
200
v 200
I
·-
0
..,
0
Mx
x
~
-
,My
---
Vy
.
0
..,
0
x
-
SK 4/24 Section subject to biaxial
bending and tension. v
Size: 600 mm x 400 mm
Ultimate direct load in tension = 250 kN
Ultimate bending moment, M; = 250kNm
Ultimate bending moment, My= 150kNm
Ultimate shear force, Vx = 250 kN
Ultimate shear force, ~v = 150kN
Step 1 Analysis
Not required.
Step 2 Check slenderness of member

Not required because the member is in tension.

Grade of concrete = 40 N/mm2
Exposure = moderate
Minimum nominal cover= 30 mm from Tables 11.6 and 11.7
Diameter of main bar = 40 mm assumed
h' = h - cover - dia. of link - 1dia. of bar

= 600 - 30 - 10 - 20
= 540mm
b' = 400 - 30 - 10 - 20
= 340mm

Not required.

Not required.
b My
·v
Mx
x
d'
d'
SK 4/25 Design as steel beam with

transferred tension.
Step 6 Biaxial bending and direct load
Method 1 Design as steel beam with transferred tension

M, = 250kNm
N = -250kN (tension)
M'x = Mx - N(~2 - d')

= 250 - 250(0.3 - 0.06)
= 190kNm
M'_v = My - N(~2 - d')

= 150 - 250(0.2 - 0.6)
= 115kNm
Note: This operation means that the tension (250 kN) has been transferred to
one corner of the rectangular section.
Taking the steel beam approach, assume that the lever arm to resist
bending moment about each axis is the distance between the centre of
steel reinforcement on each face.
N= 250kN
M' -190kNm rE·. -- 3x330
0
XD--~ - (Cl+
- ·+- 3x330
(Tl
3x342J lJx342
(Tl (Cl
Astx + A sty + H/0-B7fy As
SK 4/26 Design as steel beam with transferred tension.
ax = 600 - 2 X 60 = 480 mm
ay = 400 - 2 x 60 = 280 mm
M'
Asu = x
0.87/yax
190 x 1a6
=-------
0.87 x 460 x 480
= 989mm2
Assume 3 no. bars of 330mm2 each on each short face.

M'
Astv = _v
· 0.87/ya_v
115 x 1a6
0.87 x 460 x 280
= 1026mm2
Assume 3 no. bars of 342 mm2 each on each long face.
Area of bar required at a corner of the member due to the transferred
tension
N
0.87/y
250 x 1()3 2
0.87 x 460 = 625mm
Total area of bar required in one corner = 330 + 342 + 625

= 1297mm2
One no. 40 diameter bar at each corner (1257 mm2) with 1 no. 25 diameter
bar at the centre of each face (491 mm2 each bar) will be adequate because
491 mm2 is greater than 330 mm2 or 342 mm2 found before.
Method 2 Design as steel beam without transferred tension
-1----._My:ISOkNm
I,) i ~ "
'~trEm -~- -o. ~ + m'. I ,.

3xM4m2 ·+ · · '
+ wr111~"f:]~
.
+.
J~f .._ _ _.~~
. .
-e-
.
3x446m2T
~ - L3x446m2
8- ~ :1
(Tl IC)
Astx + A5ty + Ht0·871y As
SK 4/27 Design as steel beam without transferred tension.
ax= 480mm as before

a; = 280mm as before
Mx
Au:=---
s 0.87/yax
250 x 106
0.87 x 460 x 480
= 1301mm2
Assume 3 no. bars of 434 mm2 each on each short face.
Mv
Astv = .
· 0.87/yay
150 x 106
0.87 x 460 x 280
= 1338.5mm2
Assume 3 no. bars of 446mm2 each on each long face.
Area of steel required for tension= 625 mm2 as before
This area can be divided over the total number of 4 no. corner bars in the
member. Hence, use 4 no. bars of 156mm2 each.
Area of corner bars = 434 + 446 + 156
= 1036mm2 (use 40mm dia. bars = 1257mm2)
The arrangement of reinforcement is exactly the same as before. Use 4 no.
40 mm dia. bars in the corners and 1 no. 25 mm dia. bar at the centre of
each face because 1 no. 25 mm bar equal to 491 mm2 is bigger than
434 mm2 or 446 mm2 found before.
+-40
m ------.-
·-40
0
+-25 +-25 s
+-40 +-40
in
SK 4128 Section designed by N
I
Methods 1 and 2. -9-
Method 3 Interaction curve method

(See Reference 13.)
Reinforcement required for Mx only.
M, = 250kNm
d = 540mm
/cu = 40N/mm2
M 250 x la6
K =--= = 0.05
fcubd2 40 X 400 X 5402
z = d[0.5 + J( 0.25 - 0~9) J

= d[ 0.5 + J( 0.25 - ~~:) J
= 0.94d = 508mm
M 250 x 106
A,, = --- = -------
0.87/yz 0.87 x 460 x 508
= 1230mm2
Reinforcement required for My only
M; = 150kNm
d = 340mm
150 x 106
K = = 0.05
40 x 600 x 3402
z = 0.94d = 320mm
150 x 1a6 2
Ast = = 1171 mm
0.87 x 460 x 320
Area of steel required for tension only = _!I__ = 625 mm2

0.87/y
Total reinforcement requirement= 2 x {1230+ 1171) + 625 = 5427 mm2

Try 1 no. 32 mm dia. bar at each corner and 1 no. 25 mm dia. bar at centre
of each side.
Total A, = 5180 mm2•
PN = applied ultimate tension = 250 kN
P0 = capacity of section in tension alone

= A,{0.87[y)
= 5180 x 0.87 x 460 x 10-3
= 2073kN
Mux = ultimate moment in x direction= 250kNm
Mµx = ultimate moment capacity in x direction when tension and My
are zero
Asx = 2 no. <t> 32 + 1 no. <t> 25
= 2099mm2
Compression in concrete = tension in steel (see Section 1.5.1)
or 0.402fcubx = 0.87 [yAs
or x = 0.87[yAs
0.402fcub
0.87 x 460 x 2099
0.402 x 40 x 400
= 130mm < 0.5d = 270 mm OK
z = d - 0.45x = 540 - 0.45 x 130 = 481.5 mm

Mpx = 0.87fyAsz = 0.87 X 460 X 2099 X 481.5 X 10-6
= 404kNm
Mu_v = ultimate moment in y direction = 150kNm

Mpy = ultimate moment capacity in y direction when tension and Mx
are zero
A sy = 2099mm2
0.87fyAs 0.87 x 460 x 2099

x= ------- = 87 mm < d/2 = 170 mm OK
0.402fcuh 0.402 x 40 x 600
z = d - 0.45x = 340 - 0.45 x 87 = 301 mm
Mµy = 0.87[yAsz = 0.87 x 460 x 2099 x 301 X 10-6 = 252.6kNm
Unity equation
PN
-+ (Mux)
- 1.5
+ (Mu_v)
-- 1.5 s;l
Po Mpx Mpy
or 250 + (250) 1.5 + ( 150 ) 1.5 1.065 > 1 unacceptable

2073 404 252.6
Increase reinforcement to 8 no. 32 dia. bars instead of 4 no. 32 dia. and

4 no. 25 dia. No more checking is necessary.
Area provided by this method is 6432 mm2 compared with 6992 mm2 by
the other two methods. This gives an 8% saving in reinforcement when the
interaction formula is used. The interaction formula is not yet codified.
The exponential changes from 1.5 for rectangular sections to 1. 75 for
square sections.
J-+32
0
g 2-+J2
SK 4/29 Section designed by J-t32

interaction curve.

Following ACI 318 - M83, Clause 11.3.2.3,141 members subject to
significant axial tension have a concrete shear resistance given by:
Vex = 0.11( 1 - 0.3 ::)vt~d

= 0.17 x (1 -
0.3 x 250 x 1Cl3) x y(0.8 x 40) x 400 x 540 x 10-3
400 x 600
= 142.8kN
Similarly,
0.3 x 250 x 103)
Vcv
.
= 0.17 X (1 - 400 x 600
X \/(32) X 600 X 340 X 10-3
= 134.9kN
<j> Vex = 0.85 X 142.8 = 121.4 kN < Vux = 250 kN
 Vey = 0.85 x 134.9 = 114.7 kN < Vuy = 150 kN
Shear reinforcement required for both orthogonal directions of shear.
It is assumed that concrete shear resistance will be effective in the x
direction only. In the y direction the total shear force will be carried by
shear reinforcement.
Assume Svx = Svy = 100 mm
Vs:c "= V ux - <j> Vex = 250 - 121.4 = 128.6 kN
x 103 x 100
128.6
0.85 x 400 x 540
= 70mm2
V,_v ~ Vuy = 150 kN

YsvSvv
Asv_v = -0.-S-5 f-:-d
150 x 103 x 100
= 0.85 x 400 x 340
= 130mm2
Asv is the larger of Asvx and Asvr i.e. 130mm2 at lOOmm spacing or
(Asvf Sv) = 1.3
Use lOmm dia. links at 120mm centres (AsvfSv = 1.30).
Note: ACI 318[4] restricts stress in shear reinforcement to a maximum of

400N/mm2•
Design of Shear reinforcement using BS 8110: Part 1: 1985.llJ
v = -
v, =
250 x 103
= l.14N/mm2
x bh' 400 x 540
Asx = 3 no. 32dia. bar= 2412mm2
iooa., 100 X 2412
Px =~ = 400 x 540 = l.l2
Vex = 0.76 N/mm2 from Fig. 11.5
Asy = 3 no. 32dia. bar= 2412mm2
lOOAsv 100 X 2412

Pv = --- = = 1.18
- b'h 340 x 600
Vey= 0.82N/mm2
Vv 150 x 103 2
v =-'- = = 0.74N/mm
y bd 600 x 340
Modify Vex and Vey to take into account axial tension.
, - Vxh = 0.6 < 1

Vex - Vex + (0.6NVxh)
A M M
c x x
- - (0.6 x 250 x 103 x 0.6)

- 0.76 400 x 600
= 0.385N/mm2
Vvb
V~y = Vey + --- = 0.4 <1
My
0.6 x 250 x 103 x 0.4)

= 0.82 - (
400 x 600
= 0.57N/mm2
0.385 x 1.14
v"ex
1.14 + 0.74
= 0.23N/mm2
V~yVy 0.57 X 0.74
V~y = Vx + Vy 1.14 + 0.74
= 0.22N/mm2
V~x = V~xbh' = 0.23 X 400 X 540 X 10-3 = 49.7kN
V~y = V~yb'h = 0.22 x 340 x 600 x 10-3 = 44.9kN
Assume lOmm dia. bar (Jy = 460N/mm2) used as links at a spacing of
150 mm. Area of two legs is 157 mm2•
0.87[yvAshh'
Vsx = S
0.87 x 460 x 157 x 540 x 10-3
= = 226.2 kN
150
0.87/yvAsbb'
v, = S
0.87 x 460 x 157 x 340 x 10-3

= = 142.4 kN
150
Check: Vsx2: Vx- V~x = 250-49.7 = 200.3kN <226.2kN OK
V,.v 2: V.v - V~.v = 150- 44.9 = 105.1kN<142.4kN OK
Note: Slightly less shear reinforcement required when designed to BS 8110:

Part 1: 1985.!11

Reinforcement provided= 6432mm2 = 2.68% > 0.4%

Maximum reinforcement= 6% not exceeded.

All reinforcement in tension. Containment rules do not apply.
Rules for minimum shear reinforcement in beams, as in Section 2.3 Step
13, should apply.
. . Asv 0.4b
Minimum - = ---
s; 0.87/yv
0.4 x 600 157
= 0.87 x 460
= 0.6 < -
150
= 1.04 OK
Step 11 Check spacing of bars for crack width

See Section 2.3, Step 24.
MSA=20mm
Dia. of bar= 32 mm
Minimum clear distance between bars= 112 mm > 32 mm
Maximum clear distance between bars= 212 mm with 3 no. 32 dia. on the
long side
Service stress, I, = ~ t, assumed
= ~ x 460 = 287.5N/mm2
8
47000
Maximum allowable clear spacing = = 163 mm < 212 mm provided
287.5
This means that to reduce the probability of the crack width exceeding
0.3mm, 4 bars should be used on the long face, i.e. 2 no. 32dia. and 2 no.
25 dia. (total 6 no. 32 dia. and 4 no. 25 dia. in the member).
3-~32
2 -ct2S
2-~25
i---~..+-+-- '10 at 150 ck:
3-+32
SK 4/30 Final designed section.

Chapter 5
Design of Corbels and Nibs
5.0 NOTATION
av Distance from centre of load to nearest face of column for a corbel

av Distance from free edge of nib to nearest link in beam
As Area of steel reinforcement in tension to resist bending
Ash Area of horizontal steel reinforcement to resist shear in corbel
b Width of corbel
d Effective depth from bottom of corbel to centre of tensile
reinforcement
db Depth of corbel at edge of loaded area
t, Tensile stress in steel
{y Characteristic yield strength of steel
Fe Concrete strut force in compression
F1 Steel tensile force
Fbt Tensile force in reinforcement at start of a bend
h Overall depth of corbel
M Applied moment on a section
r Internal radius of a bend in a bar
Sh Spacing of horizontal links in a corbel
T Tension force applied to corbel along with vertical load
v Shear stress in concrete (N/mm2)
Ve Design shear stress in concrete (N/mm2)
v~ Modified design shear stress to account for av
V Vertical load on corbel
x Distance of neutral axis from bottom of corbel
~ Angle of inclination to horizontal of concrete strut in a corbel

Es Strain in steel reinforcement
<j> Diameter of reinforcing bar or equivalent diameter of a group of bars
5.1.1 General rules See Section 2.2.1.
193
5.2 STEP-BY-STEP DESIGN PROCEDURE FOR CORBELS
Step I Determine ultimate loads on the corbel

Follow load combination rules of Section 2.2.
Step 2 Determination of corbel geometry
Outside edge of bearing

to be kept clear of bend in
main reinforcement !minimum
clearance = 1 bar diameter)
SK 5/1 Corbel geometry.
Bar welded to
main bar
..c
hy< O·Sh.
SK 5/2 Alternative corbel

geometry.
Check the following:
(1) Bearing stress on concrete under bearing plate es 0.8/cu·

(2) Distance from end of loaded area to face of corbel should be as
shown.
(3) Depth at root of corbel should be such that shear stress VI bd is less
than 0.8y /cu or 5 N/mm2, whichever is the lesser.
Design of Corbels and Nibs 195
(4) Depth at outer edge of loaded area should be at least half the depth at
the root.
(5) If av is greater than d, the corbel should be designed as a cantilever
beam.
Step 3 Evaluation of internal forees
SK 5/3 Strut and tie diagram of a FORCE DIAGRAM STRAIN DIAGRAM STRESS DIAGRAM
reinforced concrete corbel. b= WIDTH OF CORBEL
Draw strut and tie diagram as shown and find the following parameters.
v =-
v
bd
Find vlfcu and avid.
Find zld from Fig. 5.1.
Find z and x = (d - z)/0.45
Find Ft= T+ Vavlz
Ft = tension in steel reinforcement
T = applied horizontal load along with V
z = depth of lever arm; x = depth of neutral axis
Fi 0.5V T
A,=--:::--+--
. 0.87/y 0.87/y 0.87/y
Alternatively,
Vav
F1 = Fccosj) + T =- + T
z
0.67fcu)
Fe= ( -- b 0.9xcos(3 = 0.402/cubxcosj)
1.5
V = Fcsinj)
z = d - 0.45x
By iteration, find x after assuming x in first trial. With final value of x, find
z and F1• From F1, find A5•
Step 4 Check shear

lOOA,
p=--
bd
Find Ve from Figs 11.2 to 11.5 and multiply by Zd!a; to get v~ for corbel.
If v < v;, provide nominal shear reinforcement
Nominal reinforcement area= 0.5As
As is obtained in Step 3. Provide nominal links in upper two-thirds of
effective depth d.
If v > v;, design shear reinforcement
Ash I Area of all legs of I in ks)
pacing ;;:-2'3d
h
SK 5/4 Typical reinforcement

arrangement in a corbel.
bSh(v - vc)
Ash ;::: 0.87fy
Provide Ash in upper two-thirds of d at a spacing of Sh.
Note: Total area of all legs of links in a vertical plane should be more than or
equal to 0.5A,.

A,;:::0.004bh
Step 6 Maximum tension reinforcement

A, :s 0.040bh

The following must be satisfied:
2fcu
bearing stress = Fb1r<j> :s ----
1 + 2(!)
See step 22 of Section 2.3 for notation
-···· ·--·-··----·
Residual tension in steel at bend.

llb2 Ob]
•••
1
SK SIS Bearing stress inside bend. CHOOSE SMALLEST ab SECTION 1- 1

Minimum clear spacing horizontally= MSA + 5 ~ dia. of bar
where MSA = maximum size of aggregate.
M.uumum
. cl ear spacing
. vertica
. ll y 2 MSA
= -- 3-
. . . . 47000
Maximum clear spacmg of bars in tension :s: -- :s: 300
t.
f, = service stress in bar
5.3 STEP-BY-STEP DESIGN PROCEDURE FOR NIBS
Vertical wa II
reinforcement
SK S/6 Typical arrangement of
nibs. NIB FROM WALL NIB FROM BEAM
Step 1 Determine cover to reinforcement

Step 2 Determine ultimate Wads on nib

Follow load combination rules of Section 2.2.
Step 3 Determine nib geometry
(1) Bearing stress under load :s 0.4fcu for dry bearing

:s0.6fcu for bedded bearing.
(2) Find effective bearing length which is the least of:
(a) bearing length
(b) one-half of bearing length plus 100mm
(c) 600mm.
design ultimate support reaction
(3) Find net bearing width = :=:: 40mrn
(effective bearing length) x 0.4fcu
(4) Find allowance for spalling, as per Tables 5.1 and 5.2.
(5) Find allowance for inaccuracies, as per Table 5.3.
(6) Nominal bearing width= (net bearing width)+ (allowances for
spalling) +(allowances for inaccuracies)
(7) Nib projection= (nominal bearing width)+ 25 mm
Allow chamfer minimum 15 mm.
(8) Overall depth of nib should be less than 300 mm.
(9) Select diameter of reinforcement and find av and d.
S allin allowance Net bearin width

for slab
Constructional S allih allowance
inaccuracy of slab for nib
Slab
Theoretical line
of nib
Theoretical bearin
widt
Wall Nib
SK 5/7 Typical calculation for net

.. I I .. Constructional
inaccuracy of wall bearing width of nib.
Step 4 Design of nib

M = Vav
V = ultimate load per metre
M
K=--
bd2fcu
b = 1 metre
z = d[ 0.5 + J( 0.25 - 0~9)] -s 0.95d
M
As = -0 f per metre
.87 yZ
Step 5 Determine minimum reinforcement

Minimum reinforcement= 0.0013bh
Step 6 Maximum spacing of bars

Maximum allowable spacing= 3 x (effective depth)+ (diameter of barj es
750mm
47000
Clear spacing -s -- :::; 300 mm
I,
where Is= service stress.
Step 7 Check shear

V = ultimate load per metre
v=-
v
bd
b = 1 metre
lOOAs
p=--
bd
Find Ve from Figs 11.2 to 11.5.
.
Fmd v~ = (2d)
av Ve
Check that v :::; v~

If not, increase depth of nib.
Note: If tensile reinforcement found in Step 3 is kept straight and exposed at

end, shear stress v should be less than v~/2.
Step 8 Extra vertical rein/orcement in beam

v
Asv = 0.87/y per metre length of beam
Step 9 Isolated loads on continuous nib

To find effective width of load dispersal, assume a 45° angle of line of
failure crack as shown.
le = effective width for isolated load on continuous nibs
la
b 2la -b = le
la
Wall
SK 5/8 Plan of wall and nib
showing effective length of nib for
a line load of width b,
"'<J.
··.: ».
o
le= 21,,+ zb-s
·,' ' ·~ '
: ·. <· .:-,·
..~- ,,,.. · .
SK 519 Plan of wall and nib
Nib showing effective length with
multiple line loads.
5.4 WORKED EXAMPLES
Example 5.1 Design of a corbel
v 30
SK 5/10 Elevation of corbel.
Step 1 Determine ultimate loads on the corbel

Ultimate vertical load = V = 800kN
Ultimate horizontal load = T = 80 kN
(Ignore small eccentricity of horizontal load from tension steel.)

Line of action of load at 400 mm from face of column.
Size of column = 600 mm x 400 mm
Corbel about the major axis of column.
Width of corbel = 400 mm
Step 2 Determination of corbel geometry
[cu= 40N/mm2
[y = 460N/mm2
Minimum cover to reinforcement = 30 mm
Assumed diameter of main reinforcement = 32 mm
Assumed diameter of horizontal links = 10 mm
Bearing plate used.
Maximum bearing stress= 0.8fcu = 32N/mm2
Length of bearing plate = 300 mm
v 800 x 103
Minimum bearing width = x = x = 83 mm
32 300 32 300
Actual width of bearing plate = 100 mm = lw > 83 mm OK
I = length of corbel = av + 21 lw .
+ length of bend of bar + mm. cover +
dia. of link + min. cover
= 400 + 50 + 5 x 32 + 30 + 10 + 30
= 680 mm say 700 mm
Use h = 750 mm at column face.

d = 750 - 30 - 16 = 704 mm
Maximum allowable shear stress at column face= 5 N/mm2
d>-=
v 800 x 103
=400mm
5b 5 x 400
v =-
v
bd
800 X lW 2 , I 2
= = 2.84N/mm < 0.8v'fcu = 5.05N/mm
400 x 704
Step 3 Evaluation of forces
First trial
From strut and tie diagram (Step 3 in Section 5.2),
Vav
Fi = Fe cos 13 + T = - + T
z
0.67/cu)
Fe= ( -- b 0.9xcosl3 = 0.402fcubxcosl3
1.5
V = Fcsinl3
z = d - 0.45x
Assume x=0.4d=282mm, say.
z = d - 0.45x
= 704 - (0.45 x 282)
= 577mm
av 400
cotf = - = - = 0.6932
z 577
sin 13 = 0.8218 cos 13 = 0.5697
v
Fe = 7[.i = 973.5 kN
SIIlp
Fe
x = ------'---
0 .402 i» COS 13
x HP
973.5
0.402 x 40 x 400 x 0.5697
= 265.7mm
Second trial
x = 265mm
z = 584.7mm
cot 13 = 0.6841
sin 13 = 0.8254
cos 13 = 0.5646
Fe= 969.2kN
x = 266.9mm OK
Final z = 585 mm
Vav
Fi=-+ T
z
= (
800 x 103 x 400) + 80 x 103 = 627 x 103N
585
704 - 265)
Es = 0.0035 X
( 265
= 5.798 x 10-3 > 0.002
So the steel will be at the yield stress level
/y = 460 N/mm2
As= F1 ( 0.5V)
--:2:: -- + ( -- T ) = 1200mm2
0.87 /y 0.87 /y 0.87fy
627 x 1()3
=----
0.87 x 460
= 1567mm2 > 1200mm2 OK
Use 2 no. 32dia. bars as main tension reinforcement (1608mm2).
Alternatively by use of the chart in Fig. 5.1,
2·84
~ = = 0.071
t: 40
- = 400
av
- = 0.568
d 704
From Fig. 5.1,
~= 0.83
d
z = 704 X 0.83 = 584mm
Note: The chart gives the same z as is obtained by iteration. Having found z
from the chart, find F1 and As
Step 4 Check shear

lOOAs
p=--
bd
100 x 1608
400 x 704
= 0.57
From Fig. 11.5,
Vc=0.608N/mm2
2d) 2 x 704 x 0.608
v'cave
= (- v = 400 = 2 . 14N/mm2 < 2 . 84N/mm2
Shear reinforcement is required.

Horizontal links are provided. Assume Sh = 200 mm.
bSh(v - v~) 400 x 200 x (2.84 - 2.14)
~:2::
0.87/y
= 0.87 x 460
=~~ 2
Required: 2-legged 10 mm diameter links at 200 centres for the upper two-
thirds of d.
2 2
-d = - x 704 = 470 mm
3 3
Required: 3 sets of links of 10 mm diameter at 200 mm centres.
Total area of legs= 471mm2<0.5 x 1567 = 783.5 mm2

Main tension steel required= 1567mm2
Use 5 sets of links lOmm diameter at lOOmm centres (785mm2).
2¢32
5 ¢10 LINKS
100
100
100
100
100
250
SK 5/11 Elevation of designed

corbel.

A,> 0.004bh = 1200mm2 satisfied
Step 6 Maximum tension reinforcement

A,< 0.040bh = 12 000 mm2
Not exceeded.
88 8
72 32
~ SK 5/12 Bearing stress inside

SIDE ELEVATION FRONT ELEVATION bend.
Fbt = ( Ft )(~)
no. of bars As prov
627 1567
=-X--
2 1608
= 305.5kN
Ultimate anchorage bond stress
/bu = 0.5 V!cu (for Type 2 deformed bar as obtained from Table 3.28
·of BS 8110: Part 1) ·
= 0.5\140 = 3.16N/mm2
. Fb1
Anchorage bond length required = --
mj> !bu
305.5 x 1()3
Jt x 32 x 3.16
= 962mm
In the column, the straight length of bar before start of bend is taken as
approximately equal to 350 mm which is say one-third of the required
anchorage length. Hence
.
Tension . bar at start of bend
m = -
2 Fbi
3
= 32 x 305.5 = 203.7kN
r = internal radius of bend

= 4 x 32 (minimum)
= 128 mm standard
<j> = 32mm
ab = cover + bar diameter for corner bar
= 72 + 32 = 104mm
Centre-to-centre distance of bars = 224 mm > 104mm
:. ab = 104mm
F, 203.7 x 103
_b_t = = 49.73N/mm2
r<j> 1 28 x 3 2
u.; 2 x 40
1 + e~) -----
1 + 2(:~)
= 49.52N/mm2 < 49.73N/mm2
Standard radius bend will be adequate.

Calculation of anchorage bond length:
Anchorage value standard bend = 12 x 32 = 384 mm (includes 4 diameter
straight)
Straight before bend = 350 mm
Bar should project vertically into column after standard bend by minimum of
962 - 384 - 350 + (4 x 32) = 356mm
Minimum horizontal spacing = 20 + 5 = 25 mm
. 47 OOO
M aximum c I ear spacing
. o f b ars in
. tension
' < -- < 300
ls
ls =service stress (from crack width calculations in Step 9)
= 226.4N/mm2
47000 47000
-- = -- = 208mm
ls 226.4
Actual clear spacing= 224 - 32 = 192 mm< 208 mm OK
Clear distance between the corner of corbel and the nearest tension bar
should not be greater than 80mm as per clause 3.12.11.2.5 of BS8110:
Part 1: 1985. Actual clear distance is 72mm.
Note: No crack width calculation is required if maximum spacing of bars in

tension does not exceed the recommendations of clause 3.12.11.2 of
BS 8110: Part 1.
Note: This step is optional and is included to show the method of calculation of
crack width for a corbel.
83
END ELEVATION STRAIN DIAGRAM

OF CORBEL SK 5/13 Crack width calculations.
Service horizontal load = 50 kN
Service vertical load = 500 kN

Moment at face of column= 500 x av = 200 kNm
See Section 1.13 and assume A~ = 0
x = m:s [ ( 1 + :~Y - J 1
10 x 1608 [(1 + 2 x 400 x 704)! - 1]

400 1608 x 10
= 201mm
x
z=d--
3
201
= 704 -
3
= 637mm
M
/sb =-
Asz
200 x 106
= 1608 x 637
= 195.3N/mm2 due to flexure
50x103
!sh = = 31.1 N/mm 2 due to horizontal load
1608
I, = fsb + fsh
= 195.3 + 31.1
= 226.4N/mm2
Es = -ls = 226.4
= 1.132 x 10- 3
Es 200 x lW
Eh=
=
c =:)Es
(750 - 201) x 1.132 x 10-3
704 - 201
= 1.235 x 10-3
b(h - x)2
Eroh = Eh - 3EsAs (d - x)
= 1.235 x 10-3 - 400(750 - 201)2

3 x 200 x 103 x 1608 x (704 - 201)
= 0.9866 x 10-3
acl = y'(882 + 462) - 16 = 83.3 mm
ac2 = y'(1122 + 462) - 16 = 105 mm

acr = 105mm
3acr
"1cr = ~~~~~~~- Em
l + 2(acr - Cmin)
h - x
3 x 105 x 0.9866 x 10-3
105 - 30)
1 2(
+ 750 - 201
= 0.244mm < 0.3mm
Crack width criterion is satisfied.
Example 5.2 Design of concrete nib "';
.·
. · ~.· ~~ . . .
,. a
. ;,, '
, ,
. ,
, . J,
SK 5/14 General arrangement of
Precost concrete slob nib.
Reinforced concrete in-situ floor beams with nibs to carry precast floor
units.
Clear gap between beams = 4.5 m
Width of floor units = 400 mm
Depth of floor units = 100mm
False floor+ finish on units= 2.5 kN/m2
Imposed load on floor=5.0kN/m2
Grade of concrete for beam = C40
Assume dry bearing.
Step I Determine cover to reinforcement

Exposure = mild
Fire resistance = 1 hour
Minimum thickness of floor = 95 mm
Step 2 Determine loading

Self-weight of precast unit= 2.5 kN/m2
False floor+ finish= 2.5 kN/m2
Total dead load= 5 kN/m2
Imposed load = 5 kN/m2
Ultimate load= 1.4 x 5 + 1.6 x 5 = 15 kN/m2
Reaction at either end of precast floor unit ( 400 mm) = 4.5 x 15 x 0.5 x 0.4
= 13.5kN
Step 3 Determine nib geometry

Allowable bearing stress= 0.4/cu = 0.4 x 40 = 16 N/mm2
Effective bearing length is the least of:
(a) bearing length= 400mm
(b) one-half bearing length + 100 = 300 mm
(c) 600mm.
Effective bearing length = 300 mm
. . ultimate support reaction
Net bearmg width = ~ 40
(effective bearing length) x 0.4/cu
13.5 x 1()3
= = 2.8mm
300 x 16
Net bearing width= 40 mm
Allowance for spalling (from Tables 5.1 and 5.2) = 20 + 0 = 20mm
Allowance for inaccuracies (from Table 5.3) = 25 mm
Nominal bearing width = 40 + 20 + 25 = 85 mm
Nib projection = 85 mm + 15 mm (chamfer) + 10 mm(clearance) = 110 mm
Nominal length of precast units = 4.5 m - 2 x 10 mm (clearance)
=4.48m
Minimum depth of nib= 2 x (minimum cover)+ 8 x (diameter of bar)
=2 x20+8x 8= 104mm<300mm
Minimum depth of nib 105 mm, say.
Note: The depth of the nib can be reduced if 6mm diameter mild steel bars are
used or welded anchor bars are used at straight ends of flexural bars.
Step 4 Design of nib

av = 110 - 15 (chamfer) + 20 (cover) + 5 (half dia. of link)
= 120mm
d = 105 - 20 - 4 = 81 mm
M = bending moment per metre

= (load per metre run) x av
= 43.5 x 0.5 x 15 x 0.12
= 4.05kNm/m
M
K=--
fcubd2
4.05 x 106
40 x 1000 x 812
= 0.0154
z = d[ 0.5 + J( 0.25 - 0~9)] -s 0.95d
= 0.95d = 77 mm
M 4.05 x 106
A, = --- = = 131 mm2/m
. 0.87/yZ 0.87 X 460 X 77
Step 5 Determine minimum reinforcement

Minimum reinforcement = 0.0013bh
= 0.0013 x 1000 x 105
137mm2/m
Step 6 Maximum spacing of bars

Maximum spacing = 3 X effective depth + bar dia.
= 3 x 81 + 8
= 251 mm centres
Use 8mm dia. bars at 250 centres (201 mm2/m).

(See Example 2.3, Step 25 for refinement.)
120
4110 Link in beam
95 15
U"I
U"I
0
SK 5/15 Typical reinforcement in

~B Hairpins at 25QC/c nib.
Step 7 Check shear

V = ultimate load per metre length
= 4.5 x 0.5 x 15
= 33.75kN/m
v =-=
v 33.75 x 103
bd 1000 x 81
= 0.42N/mm2
lOOAs
p=--
bd
100 x 201
1000 x 81
= 0.25
From Fig. 11.5,
Ve = 0.62 N/mm2
0.62 x 2 x 81
120
= 0.84N/mm2 > 0.42N/mm2
Step 8 Extra vertical reinforcement in beam

In addition to links, an area of reinforcement is required in the beam to
carry the load from the nib.
A=--
v
sv 0.87/y
33.75 x 103
= 0.87 x 460
= 84mm2/m
5.5 FIGURES AND TABLES FOR CHAPTER 5
VALUES OF z/d
0.25
'n
-· -
-....
v -~ ... In <c r-i,
0.2
v r-,
I"'-.
I !;"' ....... r-- ,......_ .....
i> r-,
/ , JV
z d• O.BO -]'.,..._ "r--. ....
.....
........ - r- ........
J
/v
t>
,.... r-i.r-i,
I
~-
I
0.15
I J
I I/
I /
v
z d' 0.:15
-- - i-.
.......
!'-....
I I J v zd o.ro
~
Jv
I I/' r--
J ) t>
I I I 'v I/
v 2 d• o.rs
v v vv
........ ,__
0. 1
i I I' I v ~ vv
I I / v -r
I
'/ I I / v
v ~,-
,_ -·-
- i.- - ·-
11 J I/ / -r /
~"
~
IV•
i..-
v v ....
/Ali / J / "' I/'
//, v vi v v v
0.05
o.so z d=
-
I./
V/J V, v v ---
II
/ I/ i...-i...-
v
'(//. ~ /
v
.......
v
zra• IV. ~t>
v v v,.... .._.
--
~ ...... t-- f-'"
~ "
0 "--
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8
Fig. 5.1 Chart for determining z/d.

l in metres
Table 5.1 Allowance for effects of spalling at supports.
Material of support Distance y (mm)
Steel 0
Concrete Grade 30 or over 15
Brickwork or masonry 25
Concrete below Grade 30 25
Reinforced concrete nib less than Nominal cover to reinforcement
300mm deep
Reinforced concrete nib less than Nominal cover plus inner radius of
300 mm deep with vertical loop bend
reinforcement exceeding 12 mm in
diameter
Table 5.2 Allowance for effects of spalling at supported members.
Reinforcement at bearing of Distance x (mm)

supported member
Straight bars, horizontal loop or 10 or end cover, whichever is

vertical loop reinforcement not greater
exceeding 12 mm diameter
Tendons or straight bars exposed at 0
end of member
Vertical loop reinforcement of bar End cover plus inner radius of bend
diameter exceeding 12 mm of bar
Table 5.3 Allowance for construction inaccuracies.
Material of support Construction inaccuracy (mm)
Steel or precast concrete support 15 or 3L, whichever is greater

Masonry supports 20 or 4L, whichever is greater
In-situ concrete supports 25 or SL, whichever is greater
Chapter 6
Design of Pad Foundations
6.0 NOTATION
acr Point on surface of concrete to nearest face of a bar

A Length of a side of a rectangular pad foundation
As Area of tensile reinforcement
Asx Area of tensile reinforcement to resist bending about x-axis
As_v Area of tensile reinforcement to resist bending about y-axis
B Width of a side of a rectangular pad foundation (least dimension)
c Soil cohesion (kN/m2)
Cx Size of column in x-direction
Cy Size of column in y-direction
Ckct Cone resistance by static cone penetration tests (kg/cnr')
d Effective depth to tensile reinforcement of a concrete section
d; Effective depth to tensile reinforcement resisting moment about x-axis
dy Effective depth to tensile reinforcement resisting moment about y-axis
D Depth of foundation below ground level
ex Resultant eccentricity of all column vertical loads in x-direction
e_v Resultant eccentricity of all column vertical loads in y-direction
exg Eccentricity of vertical end reaction from ground beams in the
x-direction
eyg Eccentricity of vertical end reaction from ground beams in the
y-direction
f, Tensile stress in steel reinforcement
/cu Characteristic cube strength of concrete at 28 days
F Frictional resistance to horizontal movement under pad foundation
h Overall depth of concrete section/thickness of pad
H Effective depth of soil under foundation for computation of settlement
Ha Active pressure on side of a foundation (kN)
Hp Passive resistance on side of a foundation (kN)
Hu Ultimate factored horizontal load at underside of a foundation
H; Unfactored horizontal shear from column on foundation in the
x-direction
215
Unfactored horizontal shear from column on foundation in the

y-direction
u.; Factored horizontal shear from column on foundation in x-direction
n.; Factored horizontal shear from column on foundation in y-direction
Ka Active pressure coefficient of soil
Kh Modulus of subgrade reaction for horizontal movement in soil
Kp Rankine passive pressure coefficient of soil
Ix Dimension of a rectangular pad footing in x-direction
t, Dimension of a rectangular pad footing in j-direction
m Modular ratio EJ Ee
Coefficient of volume compressibility of soil (m2/MN)
Unfactored moment from column on foundation about x-axis
Unfactored moment from column on foundation about y-axis
Unfactored moment on foundation about x-axis due to eccentric
surcharge
M*y Unfactored moment on foundation about y-axis due to eccentric
surcharge
Unfactored fixed end moment from ground beams on foundation
about x-axis
Factored moment from column on foundation about x-axis
Combined unfactored total moment on foundation about x-axis
Unfactored fixed end moment from ground beams on foundation
about y-axis
Factored moment from column on foundation about y-axis
Combined unfactored total moment on foundation about y-axis
Factored moment on foundation about x-axis due to eccentric
surcharge
Factored moment on foundation about y-axis due to eccentric
surcharge
u.; Factored fixed-end moment from ground beams on foundation about
x-axis
«.: Combined factored total moment on foundation about x-axis
M_vgu Factored fixed-end moment from ground beams on foundation about
y-axis
M_v_vu Combined factored total moment on foundation about y-axis
nh Coefficient to determine horizontal modulus of subgrade reaction
N Unfactored vertical load from column on foundation
Ne Soil bearing capacity coefficient as per Terzaghi
Nq Soil bearing capacity coefficient as per Terzaghi
Nu Factored vertical load from column on foundation
N" Soil bearing capacity coefficient as per Terzaghi
p Total overburden pressure at foundation level
Po Effective overburden pressure at foundation level/centre of layer
Px Percentage of tensile reinforcement to resist moment about x-axis
P_v Percentage of tensile reinforcement to resist moment about y-axis
p Unfactored combined total vertical load on soil under a pad
foundation
Ps Sliding resistance of concrete pad foundation on soil
Design of Pad Foundations 217
Pu Factored combined total vertical load on soil under a pad foundation

Pv Allowable vertical load on soil under a pad foundation
Pttx Sliding resistance of base in x-direction
PH_v Sliding resistance of base in y-direction
qn Net pressure on soil for settlement computation (MN/m2)
qu Unconfined compressive strength (kN/m2)
quit Ultimate bearing capacity of soil under a pad foundation
r or R Radius of circular footing
R Restraint factor for computation of early thermal cracking
s Shear strength of soil
Shear strength from unconfined tests ( = quf2)
Differential temperature in a concrete pour for calculation of early
thermal cracking
Perimeter of column at prescribed multiples of effective depth of pad
Perimeter of column footprint on pad foundation
Design concrete shear stress
Shear stress in concrete at perimeter defined by U,,
Shear force across critical section in a pad foundation
Shear force in a critical perimeter defined by U11
Factored end shear of ground beam
Wmax Maximum crack width (mm)
x Depth of neutral axis in a concrete section from compression face
z Depth of top of pad foundation below ground level
Coefficient of thermal expansion of concrete/°C

y Unit weight of soil (kN/m3)
Yw Unit weight of water (kN/m3)
b Angle of friction between soil and concrete
~ Horizontal movement of foundation
Maximum allowable horizontal movement of foundation
Calculated strain in concrete at a depth h from compression face
Strain corrected for stiffening effect
Tensile strain in concrete due to temperature gradient causing early
thermal cracking
Es Strain at centre of steel reinforcement
Emh Strain at depth h corrected for stiffening effect
Pcrit Critical percentage of steel required to distribute early thermal
cracking
Vertical stress at centre of a layer of soil due to net foundation
pressure
Angle of internal friction
6.1 ANALYSIS FOR BEARING PRESSURE ON SOIL
6.1.1 Isolated single column pad (bearing pressure calculations)
-'Y-
COLUMN
- H i t ....
h
! 1 -PEDESTAL
/PAD
SK 6/1 Typical column foundation in reinforced SK 6/2 Typical mass concrete

concrete. foundation.
Loads from column
N = combined vertical load unfactored
M, = combined moment about x-x unfactored

My = combined moment about y-y unfactored
Rx = combined horizontal shear in x direction unfactored
Hy = combined horizontal shear in y direction unfactored
ex = eccentricity in x direction of vertical load N from CG of base
ey = eccentricity in y direction of vertical load N from CG of base
H
x
Hy
SK 6/3 Typical loads from
I column on foundation shown on
I~ plan.
Loads at underside of pad on soil

P = vertical load = N + weight of foundation + weight of backfill +
surcharge on backfill
Mxx =moment about x-x = Mx +Ney+ Hyh + M:
M_vy =moment about y-y =My+ Ne, + Hxh + Mj
where M: and Mj are moments with respect to CG of base due to
eccentric surcharge on backfill.
Note: In finding the load on the soil at the underside of the pad footing the
directions of the loads, eccentricities and moments must be taken into
account. With reversible horizontal loads and moments, all possible com-
binations should be examined. Eccentric heavy surcharge on part of the
backfill on foundation may in certain cases produce higher bearing pressure
and should be investigated.
6.1.2 Single column pads connected by ground beams (bearing pressure calculations)
Ground beam SK 6/5 Plan of foundations connected by

ground beams.
Pad foundation
SK 6/4 Typical arrangement of ground beams
to column foundation.
Assumptions
(1) The pad foundation is assumed rigid and its rotation is very small.
(2) The ground beam may be designed as fixed to the foundation with
zero rotation at the ends.
(3) The horizontal loads in any orthogonal direction from all columns with
connected foundations will be algebraically added and then divided by
the number of columns. The total horizontal load in any direction will
be shared equally between connected foundations.
(4) Because of the very high rotational stiffness of the pad foundations
relative to the ground beam, it is assumed that the horizontal loads,
moments and load eccentricities at the top of the foundation will cause
cantilever moment on the soil-pad foundation interface and the ground

beam will be unaffected.
(5) The pad foundation will be designed to resist the fixed-end moments
from the connected ground beams. The ground beams may also be
designed and detailed as pin-jointed to the foundation when there will
be no fixed-end moments on the foundation.
(6) The pad foundation should be designed to resist the fixed-end moments
from ground beams due to differential settlements, if any, of connected
foundations. The ground beams may also be designed and detailed as
pin-jointed to the foundation when the fixed-end moments due to
differential settlements will be negligible.
Note: To avoid excessive stresses and serious damage, ground beams should
preferably be cast on a compressible or rapidly degradable layer of material
such that some free vertical movement is allowed to cater for vertical
ground movements and differential settlements.
Loads from columns
r"> M+Hh SK 6/6 Horizontal shear causing

additional moment.
N = combined vertical load - unfactored
Mx = combined moment about x-x - unfactored

My = combined moment about y-y - unfactored
H; = combined horizontal shear in x direction - unfactored
ex = eccentricity in x direction of vertical load N from CG of base
ey = eccentricity in y direction of vertical load N from CG of base
Loads from ground beams

1:V = combined end shear (vertical) unfactored of all beams
1:Mxg =combined fixed-end moment about x-x unfactored (beams running
y-y direction)
M M
SK 6/8 Fixed-end moments due to differential
SK 617 Fixed-end moments from ground settlement.
beams.
M\jg
SK 6/9 Bending moment and
eccentricity of load from ground
beams.
IMyg = combined fixed-end moment about y-y unfactored (beams running

x- x direction)
exg = eccentricity of vertical shear V from CG of foundation
eyg = eccentricity of vertical shear V from CG of foundation
Note: Mxg and Myg should include the effects of dead load, live load and differ-
ential settlements on the ground beam - unfactored.
P = vertical load = N + IV + weight of foundation + weight of

backfill + surcharge on backfill
Mxx = moment on x-x = M, + IMxg + Ney + 'J:.(Veyg) + Hyh + M:
Myy = moment on y-y = My + 'J:.Myg + Ne, + I(Vexg) + Hxh + MJ
H = horizontal shears = H; and Hy
where M: and Mt are moments with respect to CG of base due to
eccentric surcharge on backfill.
Note: In finding the load on the soil at the underside of the pad footing the
directions of the loads, eccentricities and moments must be taken into
account. With reversible horizontal loads and moments, all possible com-
binations should be examined. Eccentric heavy surcharge on part of the
-~~
x - e~gr _ ,_ - x
- r-- - --- ~-
-e~g exg
~
SK 6/10 Eccentricity of
surcharge on plan of pad
foundation. ~
SK 6/11 Eccentricity of load from simply
supported end of ground beam.
backfill on the foundation may in certain cases produce higher bearing

pressure on the soil and should be investigated.
6.1.3 Isolated multiple column pad (bearing pressure calculation)
Loads from columns
'i.N = summation of all column vertical loads - unfactored
'i.Mx = algebraic summation of all column moments about x- x -

unfactored
'I.My = algebraic summation of all column moments about y-y -
unfactored
'i-Hx =algebraic summation of all column horizontal shears in x-direction -
unfactored
"1:.Hy = algebraic summation of all column horizontal shears in y-direction -
unfactored
ex = distance in the x-direction of CG of all column vertical loads from
CG of base
ey = distance in the y-direction of CG of all column vertical loads from
CG of base
P = vertical load = "i:.N + weight of foundation + weight of backfill +

surcharge on backfill
Mxx = moment about x-x =
+ "1:.Ney + "1:.Hyh + M':
"i:.Mx
Myy = moment about y-y = 'I.My + "1:.Nex + "1:.Hxh + M_t
H = horizontal shears = "i:.Hx . and "i.Hy

where M: and M_~ are due to eccentric surcharge.
6.1.4 Multiple column pads connected by ground beams (bearing pressure calculations)
Assumptions See Section 6.1.2.
Loads from columns See Section 6.1.3.
Loads from ground beams See Section 6.1.2.
Loads al underside of pad foundation
P = vertical load = "i.N + "i. V + weight of foundation + weight of

backfill + surcharge on backfill
Mxx =moment on x-x = "i.Mx + "i.Ney+ "i.Mxg + "i:.(Veyg) + "i:.Hyh + M:
Myy =moment on y-y = "i:.My + "i.Nex + "i:.Myg + "i:.( Vexg) + "i:.Hxh + M_~
H = horizontal shear = "i:.Hx and "i:.Hy
where Mf and M; are due to eccentric surcharge on backfill.
6.2 ANALYSIS FOR ULTIMATE LOAD
6.2.1 Isolated single column pad
Note: Use load factors and combinations as stated in Section 6.3.
Load from column
Nu = combined vertical load - factored

Mxu = combined moment about x-x - factored
Myu = combined moment about x-x - factored
Hxu = combined horizontal shear x-direction - factored
Hyu = combined horizontal shear y-direction - factored
ex = eccentricity of Nu in x-direction
ey = eccentricity of Nu in y-direction
Loads at underside of pad foundation
Pu = Nu + 1.4 (weight of foundation + weight of backfill) + 1.6

(surcharge on backfill)
Myyu = M_vu + Nuex + Hxuh + Mju

Hu = Hxu and n.;
where M:u and Mju are ultimate moments on base due to eccentric
surcharge on backfill.
6.2.2 Single column pads connected by ground beams
Note: Use load factors and combinations as stated in Section 6.3. For assumptions,
see Section 6.1.2.
Load from columns See Section 6.2.1.
Load from ground beams
~Vu = combined factored end shear of all beams
~Mxgu =combined factored end moment about x-x (beams running y-y)
~Mygu =combined factored end moment about y-y (beams running x-x)
exg = eccentricity of Vu from CG of base in x-direction (beams x-x)
eyg = eccentricity of Vu from CG of base in y-direction (beams y-y)
Note: Mxgu and Mygu should include the effects of dead load, live load and
differential settlements on the ground beam.
Loads at underside of pads foundation on soil
Pu =Nu+ ~Vu + 1.4 (weight of foundation+ weight of backfill) + 1.6

(surcharge on backfill)
Mxxu = Mxu + ~Mxgu + Nuey + ~( Vueyg) + Hyuh + Mfu
Myyu = Myu + ~Mxgu + Nuex + ~( Vuexg) + Hxuh + Mju
Hu= n.; and n.;
where M;u and Mju are ultimate moments on base due to eccentric
surcharge on backfill.
6.2.3 Multiple column pads
Note: For multiple column pad foundations with or without ground beams, use
the same philosophy as in Sections 6.2.1 and 6.2.2 but with the following
loads from all columns on the base summed up, algebraically.
~Nu = summation of all ultimate vertical loads from columns

~Mxu = summation of all ultimate moments about x-x axis
~Myu = summation of all ultimate moments about y-y axis

"i:.Hxu = summation of all horizontal shears in x-direction
L.Hyu = summation of all horizontal shears in y-direction

ex = resultant eccentricity of all column vertical loads in x-direction
e.v = resultant eccentricity of all column vertical loads in y-direction
Loads from the columns will be combined using the following principles.
6.3.1 Bearing pressure calculations
LC1: l.ODL + 1.0IL + 1.0EP + 1.0CLV + l.OCLH

No increase in allowable bearing capacity.
LC2: 1.0DL + 1.0EP + 1.0CLV + l.OCLH + 1.0WL (or 1.0EL)
25% increase in allowable bearing capacity.
LC3: 1.0DL + LOIL + l.OEP + l.OWL (or l.OEL)
LC4: l.ODL + 1.0WL (or 1.0EL)
where DL = dead load
IL = imposed load
EP = earth pressure and water pressure
CL V = crane vertical loads
CLH = crane horizontal loads
WL =wind load
EL = earthquake load
6.3.2 Bending moment and shear calculations
LC5: 1.4DL + l.6/L + l.4EP

LC6: 1.2DL + 1.2/L + l.2EP + 1.2WL (or 1.2EL)
LC7: 1.4DL + 1.4WL (or 1.4EL) + 1.4EP
LC8: l.ODL + 1.4WL (or l.4EL) + l.4EP (if adverse)
LC9: l.4DL + l.4CL V + l.4CLH + l.4EP
LC10: l.4DL + l.6CLV + l.4EP
LC11: l.4DL + l.6CLH + l.4EP
LC12: l.2DL + l.2CLV + l.2CLH + l.2EP + 1.2 WL (or l.2EL)
6.3.3 Settlement computation

1.0DL + 0.5/L
(vertical direct loads only)
6.4 SIGN CONVENTION
Hy I
x x
SK 6/12 Sign convention showing

positive loads and eccentricity.
To avoid mistakes the following sign convention should be followed:
Vertical loads: downwards positive

Moments on base: clockwise positive
Horizontal shears: left to right positive: +vex-direction
bottom to top positive: +ve y-direction
Eccentricities: +ve for +ve x and +ve for +ve y
6.5 ESSENTIALS OF SOIL MECHANICS
6.5.1 Ultimate bearing capacity
D
h
I. Borr
B = Least plan dimensionaf pad foundation SK 6113 Typical parameters for

r = Radius of circular foundation the calculation of bearing capacity.
From soil investigation and laboratory tests the following parameters should
be available:
c = soil cohesion (kPa)
 = angle of internal friction (degrees or radians)

y = unit weight of soil (kN/m3)
p = total overburden pressure at foundation level
Po= P - Ywh
h = height of water above foundation level
Yw = unit weight of water (kN/m3)
quit = ultimate bearing capacity as per Terzaghi (conservative approach)
Bearing capacity calculations for cohesionless and (c~t/J) soils.
For continuous foundation

quit = cNe + p0(Nq - 1) + 0.5yBNy + p
For square foundation
quit = 1.3cNc + p0(Nq - 1) + 0.4yBNy + p
For circular foundation
a = e(0.75Jt - <)l/2)tan /2)
Ne = (Nq - l)cot<j>
Ny = 0.5tan<j> ( K~v -
cos 
1)
Table 6.1 Values of Kpy (as per Reference 6).
 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
Kpy 10.8 12.2 14.7 18.6 25.0 35.0 52.0 82.0 141.0 298.0 800.0
Nq, Ne and Ny may be obtained from Fig. 6.1.

Allowable bearing capacity = qu1113
Bearing capacity calculations for cohesive soils

quit= cNc + p
Ne may be obtained from Table 6.2.
Allowable bearing capacity = qu1t/3
Table 6.2 Values of Ne for cohesive soils (as per Reference 6).
Types of footing DI B or D/2r Values of Ne
Circular or 0 6.2
square footing 0.5 7.3
l.O 8.2
l.5 9.1
2.0 9.3
2.5 9.3
3.0 9.3
3.5 9.3
4.0 9.3
Strip footing 0 5.2

0.5 6.2
1.0 7.1
1.5 7.7
2.0 8.1
2.5 8.2
3.0 8.2
3.5 8.2
4.0 8.2
D = depth below ground to underside of pad foundation

B = least plan dimension of pad foundation
r =radius of circular pad foundation
Note: There are many different ways of calculating ultimate bearing capacity
which take into account depth, water tables, load inclinations, various
shapes of foundations, soil layers, etc. It is normal practice to have the
allowable bearing capacities for various sizes of foundations determined by
specialists carrying out the site investigation.
In the absence of laboratory tests for finding c, y and <j>, values from
Tables 6.3 and 6.4 may be used to determine allowable bearing capacity if
the description of the soil is known.
Table 6.3 Typical values of angle of internal friction, <j>.
Soil type Angle of internal friction,

 (degrees)
Medium gravel 40-55

Sandy gravel 45-50
Loose dry sand 28-34
Loose saturated sand 28-34
Dense dry sand 35-46
Dense saturated sand 33-44
Loose silty sand 20-22
Dense silty sand 25-30
Saturated clay 0
Table 6.4 Typical values of cohesive strength, c.
Soil type Cohesive strength, c (kN/m2)
Hard boulder clays >300

Hard fissured clays >300
Deep London and gault clays >300
Hard weathered shales >300
Hard weathered mudstones >300
Very stiff boulder clay 150-300
Very stiff blue London clay 150-300
Very stiff weathered Keuper Marl 150-300
Stiff boulder clay 75-150
Stiff blue London clay 75-150
Stiff weathered Keuper Marl 75-150
Firm normally consolidated clay 40-75
Upper weathered 'brown' London clay 40-75
Soft normally consolidated clay 20-40
Note: Presumed allowable bearing capacities for various types of soil and grades
of chalk and Keuper Marl may be obtained from Tables 2 and 3 of
BS8004: 1986.[2]
6.5.2 Settlement of foundation
Method 1 Quick approximate method

Soil parameter: Coefficient of volume compressibility (in m2/MN) = m;
Values of m; should be available after soil investigation tests. Approximate
values of m; for clays may be obtained from Table 6.5.
Table 6.5 Typical values of coefficient of volume compressibility, m.,
Soil type Coefficient of volume

compressibility, mv
(m2/MN)
Heavily overconsolidated boulder clays <0.05

Stiff weathered rocks <0.05
Hard London clays <0.05
Boulder clays 0.05-0.1
Very stiff London clays 0.05-0.1
Upper blue London clays 0.10-0.3
Weathered boulder clay 0.10-0.3
Weathered Keuper Marl 0.10-0.3
Normally consolidated alluvial clays 0.30-1.5
Estuarine clays 0.30-1.5
Organic alluvial clays and peats >1.5
'
SK 6/14 Pressure distribution for

settlement computation.
Consolidation settlement = m; o, H
where m; = average m; of all layers up to a depth of l.5B
B = width of foundation (least dimension)
02 = 0.55qn (average pressure in centre of layers)
qn = net pressure on the soil (MN/m2)
H = l.5B (metres)
Note: Immediate settlement is ignored in these calculations.
Method 2 Settlement from static cone penetration tests

Soil parameter: Cone resistance (in kg/cm2) = Ckct
147Ckct
Constant of compressibility = C = ---
Po
where p., = effective pressure at the centre of layer = p - Ywh
(in kN/m2)
p = total overburden pressure at the centre of layer (kN/m2)
h = height of water to the centre of layer (metres)
Yw = unit weight of water (kN/m3)
02)
Settlement of layer = S = H log.,(p + metres
C Po
where o, = vertical stress at centre of layer (kN/m2) as a result of net
foundation pressure (q0)
H = thickness of the layer of soil (metres)
o, may be obtained from Fig. 6.2 (see Reference 5).
Total estimated settlement= summation of settlement of each layer
Note: The cone penetrometer curve should be broken down into separate layers,
each having approximately the same value of cone resistance within the
layer. Even if the cone penetrometer curve does not indicate any layering
of soil, the settlement should be computed in layers because the value of
Oz falls off rapidly with depth.
6.5.3 Sliding resistance
6.5.3.1 Sliding of concrete on soil
.........
.... · . :.
· .. ~' ',
:· :. : ··.~:::·. } .\
;,
:·. ~- :-:·
·.
I.
p
SK 6/15 Sliding resistance of pad h ~H,
foundation.
Sliding resistance of concrete foundation on soil, P, = F +Hp - Ha

where F = frictional resistance under base
Hp = passive resistance due to horizontal movement of foundation
Ha = active pressure due to horizontal movement of foundation
F = PtanC>
11 = horizontal movement of foundation into soil (metres)
11max = maximum allowable horizontal movement on the basis of soil
shear strength (metres)
For cohesionless soil 11max = (~:) y
For cohesive soil Ii max = yD + 2c

K,,
K11 = n1,I B for cohesionless soil

= k5;fl.5B for cohesive soil
(See Table 6.7 for typical values of n11 and k5;.)
h = thickness of concrete pad foundation
<> = friction angle between concrete and soil (see Table 6.6).
 = angle of internal friction of backfill material (see Table 6.3)
KP = tan2 (45° + <\)/2)
y = unit weight of backfill material (kN/m3)

B = width of foundation over which horizontal soil pressure is active
(metres)
Hp = 0.5tlBhK1r (Z + D) for cohesionless soil
= K1r!l.Bh for cohesive soil
Ka = active pressure coefficient of the backfill material
= tan2 (45° - cp/2) for cohesionless soil
= negligible for cohesive soils
Ha = 0.5Ka (Z + D) Bhy for cohesionless soil
P = total vertical load on the soil including the weight of foundation and
backfill
D = depth of soil to underside of pad foundation
Z = depth of soil to top of pad foundation
Note: In practice it is very difficult to decide how much horizontal movement

may be allowed without causing excessive stresses in other parts of the
structure. It is good practice to provide total sliding resistance by frictional
resistance only. The Rankine passive pressure coefficient, KP, should not
be used in these computations because a large movement is necessary to
generate the full passive resistance. A factor of safety of 1.5 should be
allowed against sliding.
Check: P, 2 l.5H
6.5.3.2 Horizontal bearing capacity of soil

Allowable horizontal bearing capacity of soil, PH = qA tan (_1_)
1.5
+ ~ cA
3
where c =cohesion of foundation soil (kN/m2)
A =area of foundation
q = average unit pressure under foundation (kN/m2)
 = angle of internal friction of foundation soil
Check: Ptt~F
6.6 BEARING PRESSURE CALCULATIONS
6.6.1 Rectangular pad - uniaxial bending - no loss of contact
Mvv
ex =-··
p ey = 0
Pt= ( P) + (6M••)
AB A2~ Pi= ( ABP) - (6Myy)
AB 2
Table 6.6 Typical values of friction angle between concrete and soil, <>.
Concrete on the following Friction angle,
soil types 6 (degrees)
Clean sound rock 35

Clean gravel, gravel-sand mixtures 29-31
Coarse sand 29-31
Clean fine-to-medium sand 24-29
Silty medium-to-coarse sand 24-29
Clayey gravel 24-29
Clean fine sand 19-24
Silty-to-clayey fine-to-medium sand 19-24
Fine sandy silt 17-19
Very stiff and hard residual clay 22-26
Medium stiff and stiff clay 17-19
Bituminous or water-proofing membrane 0-5
1~
I
~,
I
-
x f-----Eb----- -
x
B
-PMy
p,~p
PRESSURE DIAGRAM FOR NO LOSS OF CONTACT
P1
SK 6116 Pressure diagrams for

uniaxial bending and direct load on
base. PRESSURE DIAGRAM FOR LOSS OF CONTACT
Table 6. 7 Typical coefficients of horizontal modulus of subgrade reaction.
Values of nh (cohesionless)
(MN/m3)
Loose Medium Dense
Dry or moist sand 2.2 6.6 17.6

Submerged sand 1.26 4.4 10.7
Values of k,; (cohesive)

(MN/m3)
Types of clay Stiff Very stiff Hard
7.2 14.4 28.8
6.6.2 Rectangular pad - uniaxial bending - loss of contact
2P
Pi = (1.SA - 3ex)B
x = l.SA - 3ex
6.6.3 Rectangular pad - biaxial bending - no loss of contact
SK 6/17 Typical pressure diagram

for biaxial bending and no loss of
contact.
p
1
= (~) +
AB
(6Myy)
A2B
+ (6Mxx)
AB 2
P2 = ( ABP ) + (6Mvv)
2
(6Mxx)
A B - AB 2
PJ = ( ABP ) - (6Mvv)
2
(6Mxx)
A B - AB 2
P4 =
P)
( AB -
(6M
A
••) + (6Mxx)
2~ AB 2
6.6.4 Rectangular pad - biaxial bending - loss of contact
Partial contact of soil/foundation (see Fig. 6.3).

The resultant of soil pressure diagram under base has co-ordinates ex and
ey.
6.6.4.1 Resultant in Zone I of base (see Fig. 6.3)

Factor of safety for overturning is less than 1.5. Redesign size of base.
6.6.4.2 Resultant in Zone 2 of base (see Fig. 6.3)

No loss of contact of base. Calculate pressures as in Section 6.6.3.
B
x
SK 6/18 Biaxial bending - loss of

contact. Zero pressure on line
p3-p4.
Mvv
ex =-·· e.v =- p
Mxx
p
s = -B
12
[B-+ (B2-
ey
2
ey
12 )t]
3(A - 2ex)
tan<¥=----
2(S + ey)
12P ) ( B + 2S )
Pi = ( Btan<¥ B2 + 12s2
s--B2
P2 = --B- Pt
s+ -
2
p3 = p4 = 0
xi = (S + ~)tan a x2 = ( S - ~)tan a
I-- _Al.J _J SK 6/19 Biaxial bending - loss of

contact. Zero pressure on line
P2-p3.
t =- A [A- + (A2 2 - 12)~]

12 ex ex
tan f = 3(B - 2ey)

2(t + ex)
Pt = ( 12P ) ( A + 2t )
A tan ~ A2 + 12t2
A
t - -
2
p4 = --A- Pt
t + -
2
P2 = p3 = 0
Yi = (t + ~)tan~
SK 6/20 Biaxial bending - loss

of contact. Zero pressure on line
p3-p3.
ex ev
k=-+-=-
A B
Pi = (:B)k[12 - 3.9(6k - 1)(1 - 2k)(2.3 - 2k))
S and t are as in Sections 6.6.4.3 and 6.6.4.4.
s-!!..
2
P2 = --B- Pi
s+-2
p3 = 0
A
t - -
2
p4 = --A- Pi
t +-
2
A
t +-
2
B
s+-2
Note: To find maximum pressure at a comer the design chart in Fig. 6.4 may be
used. At the initial design stage when the size of the foundation is being
determined, this design chart becomes very useful.
Find ex/A and e.l B.

Read from Fig. 6.4 the value of K.
. PK
Maximum pressure = AB
6.6.5 Multiple column - biaxial bending - no loss of contact
I
y,
-r--X-+- _ ~F- G__
I X3
Ll- _ x
[]
SK 6/21 Typical unsymmetrical
pad foundation and co-ordinates of
comers to find bearing pressure.
(1) Find area of foundation, A.

(2) Find centre of gravity of plan area of foundation.
(3) Find second moments of area about two orthogonal axes going through
CG of area of foundation Uxx and lyy)·
(4) Find maximum ordinates X and Y of corner points of foundation with
respect to CG of area of foundation.
(5) Find eccentricities of all vertical loads from CG of area of foundation.
(6) Find total vertical load through CG of foundation and total moments
about orthogonal axes passing through CG of area of foundation ( P,
Mxx and Myy)·
(7) Find maximum and minimum pressures at various points on foundation
using the equation below.
P MxxYn MvvX11
p =-+--+-··-
" A t.; t.;
Note: This method is valid only when there is no loss of contact between the
foundation and the soil. Use a consistent sign convention as in Section 6.4.
6.6.6 Circular pad - biaxial bending - no loss of contact
A = -rtD4 2 = 0 . 7854D2
x x
SK 6/22 Circular pad foundation. D

nD3
Z = 32 = 0.0982D3
M = (Mxx
2 + M2Y.V )!
M D
e=-::;-
p 8
p M
Pmax =A+ Z
Design forces in pad foundation

Maximum shear force across diameter D = V = l.285pR2 + l.571qR2
Maximum bending moment across diameter D = M1=0.595pR3 + 0.667qR3
where R = radius of circular pad = D/2
q = minimum pressure = (PIA) - (MIZ)
p + q = maximum pressure = (PIA) + (MIZ)
p = 2MIZ.
6. 7 Step-by-step design procedure for pads
Step 1 Select type and depth of foundation

The types of foundations are as follows:
(A) Reinforced concrete pad with single column.

(B) Reinforced concrete pad with multiple column.
(C) Reinforced concrete pad with single column and ground beams.
(D) Reinforced concrete pad with multiple column and ground beams.
(E) Mass concrete pad with single column.
Note: Type E may be used for light single-storey structures only.
The depth of the foundation is governed by the following:
• Shrinking and swelling of clay.

• Frost attacks.
• Holding-down bolt arrangement of columns.
• Suitable bearing stratum.
• Water table and soluble sulphates.
• Width of foundation which is normally kept more than depths for
shallow foundations.
Step 2 Select approximate size

From the ground investigation report and from Tables 1-3 of BS 8004:
1986,121 find the presumed allowable bearing capacity.
Find total maximum unfactored vertical load from column.
Find maximum unfactored moments Mx and My from column.
B X
__ .r£~ le,_ x
I. A J SK 6/23 Equivalent eccentricity of

direct load on pad foundation.
u.; Mxx
Find eccentricities ex = -·-·
p and e.v = --p
Assume A ~ 6ex and B ~ 6e.v
For biaxial bending,
find e.l A and eylB, and from Fig. 6.4 find the value of K.
. . PK
Maximum approximate pressure = -
AB
Check whether the maximum pressure is lower than presumed allowable
bearing capacity.
Note: At this stage some of the loads from the self-weight of the foundation,
ground beams, backfill, eccentricities of surcharges, etc. have not been
included and hence a margin has to be left in the bearing pressure to
account for these. Moreover, the actual bearing pressure computations
and settlement computations may further enhance the size of the foundation.
SK 6124 Dimensions of column or pedestal on

pad foundation. SK 6/25 Effective depth of pad.
Determine minimum thickness of pad:

Find Vmax = 0.8\} /cu or 5 N/mm2 whichever is lesser
Find column perimeter= U0 = 2( C; + Cy)·
Find total ultimate vertical load from column= Nu
Find d ~Nu/( Vmax U0)
also d ~ 0.5[(Cr + 4C2)0·5 - C 1] whichever gives larger d.
C1 = U /6
0
Cz = Nul12vc (assume Ve, which is dependent on percentage of tensile

reinforcement)
Choose overall depth of pad allowing for cover.
Note: Consideration need not be given to anchorage length of column bars in

pad foundation if all column bars are in compression.
Step 3 Calculate bearing capacity of soil

Follow Section 6.5.
Step 4 Calculate column load combinations

Follow Section 6.3.
Step 5 Calculate approximate settlement

Follow Method 1 of Section 6.5.2.
Note: The approximate settlement computation will help to determine the level
of differential settlement for which the building should be designed.
Step 6 Carry out analysis for bearing pressure

Follow Section 6.1.
Step 7 Calculate bearing pressures under foundation

Follow Section 6.6.
Step 8 Calculate sliding resistance of foundation

Follow Section 6.5.3.
Step 9 Check combined sliding and bearing

Check: .:-Pv + (Hx)
-
PHx
(Hv)
+ -·
PHy
<
-
1
where P = total vertical load unfactored

P; = area of base x allowable bearing capacity
Hn Hy = total horizontal load unfactored in x- and y-directions
PHx, Ptt_v = sliding resistance of base (Step 8) in x- and y-directions (see
Section 6.5.3.)
Step 10 Carry out analysis of bearing pressure for bending moment and shear
Follow Section 6.2.
Step 11 Calculate bearing pressure for bending moment and shear

Follow Section 6.6.
Step 12 Calculate bearing moments and shears in pad

Critical sections for bending moments and shears:
3 2 4
d d
I I
I I
I I
~ ~
I I
d 2
+-~~~~~1----1~
d 3
Le/2 Le/2
SK 6/26 Critical section for checking bending SK 6/27 Critical section for bending moment.
moments and shears in pad foundation.
• Sections 1, 4 - design bending moment.

• Section 1 - shear.
Note: When calculating bending moments and shears the downward loads on the
pad will be considered with the upwards loads.
In a complicated unsymmetrical combined column foundation the bending
moment and shear force diagram based on the pressure distribution should
be drawn and critical sections determined from these diagrams.

From the soil investigations report, find the concentration of sulphates
expressed as S03.
From Table 17 of BS8004: 1986,121 find the appropriate type of concrete.
Class of Total S03 Minimum cover on Minimum cover

exposure (%) blinding concrete elsewhere (mm)
(mm)
l <0.2 35 75
2 0.2-0.5 40 80
3 0.5-1.0 50 90
4 l.0-2.0 60 100
5 >2.0 60 100
Note: Concrete in 'class of exposure 5' needs protective coating.
Step 14 Calculate area of tension reinforcement and distribution

M = bending moment due to ultimate loads in pad
Find effective depth, d.
b = total width of section

M
K = -- 2 -s 0.156
fcubd
z = d[ 0.5 + J( 0.25 - 0~9) J :S 0.95d
M
As=---
0.87/yz
Lx
1
t
1. Sd
" "-. CxI
=== ~=~~--t- L~
/I:
I I
I:\
I I \
I I
SK 6/28 Rules for distribution of reinforcement

in pad foundation.
t ·--··---
ly, ...............
<, Clq
,,. Cy,
le/2 ,,. ...........
le/2
ly2
t ------- -----------
_ _....
_,.,,-I
I
I
I
\
Y2
\
'\
le
ly
I \
I \
I \
SK 6/29 Detailing rules for pad foundation with Cx +3dx

two columns.
Note: Increase depth of pad foundation if K is greater than 0.156.
Distribution of tension reinforcement

Case I
If Ix> 1.5 ( C, + 3dx), distribute two-thirds of total reinforcement in
y-direction in the zone ( Cx + 3dx)·
Case 2
If Ly> 1.5 (Cy+ 3dy), distribute two-thirds of total reinforcement in
x-direction in the zone (C, + 3d_v)·
Case 3
If Ix> 1.5 ( Cx1 + 3dx) or 1.5( Cx2 + 3dx), whichever is the lesser, distribute
two-thirds of total reinforcement (top) in y-direction in the zone (ex! +
3dx) or ( Cx2 + 3dx), whichever is the lesser.
Case 4
For bottom reinforcement in the combined foundation, follow the rules in
Case 1 and Case 2, assuming individual foundations to the centre of column
spacing (/c/2).
Note: dx relates to effective depth for resistance against moment M, which is

about the orthogonal axis x. Similarly, d; relates to effective depth for
resistance against moment My which is about the orthogonal axis y, or, in
other words, the reinforcement in the z-direction is to resist moment about
the y axis and the effective depth is d.:

See Step 12.
Shear at Section 1
Check shear stress:
Vi
v1 = bd ::s: 0.8y /cu or 5 N/mm2
where V1 = total shear at Section 1

b = total width of Section 1
d = effective depth of Section 1.
Shear at Section 2
Check shear stress:
The value of Ve is obtained from Figs 11.2 to 11.5, depending on lOOA.lbd

where As is the total area of tensile reinforcement in the section.
Shear at Section 3
Check shear stress:
Note: Change the thickness of the pad if the shear stress at any section exceeds
the allowable limit. It is not cost-effective to provide shear reinforcement
in the pad foundation.
"O
1·5d Cx ~
I L
~J
Uo
SK 6/30 Punching shear

perimeters in pad foundation. l
Nu = maximum ultimate vertical load from column

Find perimeters U0, U1 and U2•
d = + dy)
0.5(d .r
Uo = 2(Cx + Cy)
U1 = (U0 + 12d)
Nu ,; 2
Check: v0 = -- s 0.8y fcu or SN/mm
U0d
Nu - P1A1
V1 = S Ve
U1d
A1 = (Cx + 3.0d)( Cy + 3.0d)
where p1 = average upwards pressure over area A 1 enclosed by perimeter
U1.
The value of Ve is obtained from Figs 11.2 to 11.5 corresponding to Px or
P.v, whichever is the lesser.
lOOA....
p... =ldx x
1·
-~ ;
1
,, '-
Ly
~
x
. .
I
-~ " SK 6/31 Typical tensile

reinforcement plan for pad
- Asy foundation.
Change the thickness of the pad if the punching shear stress exceeds
Ve, otherwise shear reinforcement will be required as per Step 7 of
Section 3.3.
Note: Apply the same principle individually to each column for a combined
foundation.
Step 17 Check minimum reinforcement for flexure

Minimum tensile reinforcement = 0.0013bh in both directions (fy =
460N/mm2)
Note: Provide this muurnum reinforcement also at the top of the foundation
where top reinforcement is required for flexure.
Step 18 Check spacing of reinforcement

Clear spacing of bars should not exceed 3d or 750mm.
Percentage of reinforcement Maximum clear spacing of

lOOAJbd in pad (%) bars for /y=460N/mm2 (mm)
1 or over 160
0.75 210
0.5 320
0.3 530
less than 0.3 3d or 750
Note: The above rules for spacing of bars in tension will in most cases ensure
adequate control of crack widths to 0.3 mm where the cover does not
exceed 50mm.

Determine pour configuration:
(1) Massive pour cast on blinding concrete: R = 0.1 to 0.2

(2) Massive pour cast on existing mass concrete: R = 0.3 to 0.4 at base
R = 0.1 to 0.2 at top
where R = restraint factor.
Determine the value of temperature, Ti. for OPC concrete cast on ground
from the table.
Section thickness (mm) TI(0C)
300 17
500 28
700 28
1000 28
Calculate E, = 0.8T1aR
where a = 12 x 10-6/°C, or values from Table 2.3 may be used
W = 3acr Er
max l + 2 (llcr -Cmin)
h-x
Note: The design crack width is 0.3 mm. If this is exceeded, closer spacings of
bars may be used.
)I= h/2
·-·-]
Cmin
DETAIL 1
SK 6/32 Early thermal crack width

calculation. DETAIL 1.
Step 20 Check minimum reinforcement to distribute thermal cracking

Pcrit = 0.0035 for t, = 460 N/mm2
Up to 300 mm thickness of pad foundation
Ast= 0.00175bh near top surface in each direction
From 300 mm to 500 mm thickness of pad foundation
A,1 = 0.001 75bh mm2 near top surface in each direction
Asb = 0.35b mm2 near bottom surface in each direction
Over 500 mm thickness of pad foundation
A,1 = 0.875b mm2 near top surface in each direction
Asb = 0.35b mm2 near bottom surface in each direction
where b = width of pad perpendicular to the direction of reinforcement
(mm)
h = overall thickness of pad (mm).
Step 21 Check crack width due to flexure

Loading conditions LC1 to LC4 in Section 6.3.
Find bending moment M across a critical section, as in Step 12.
Es
m= - = 15 for long-term loading
Ee
x
z=d--
3
M
t.=r:':
Asz
b(h - x)2
Emh = Eh - 3E,As(d - x)
3acr Cmin
Wmax = --------
2( acr - Cmin)
1+~----
h - x
Note: In extremely severe exposure conditions it is prudent to check crack widths

and provide adequate reinforcement to limit it to an allowable value.
Step 22 Design mass concrete foundation
'
,/ ' ' -,
,,
,
,, ''
'
45.min},
'
,\45"min.
B
0
N
+ SK 6/34 Critical sections in mass
u I
concrete foundation.
co
I. A- Cx + 20
.I
SK 6/33 Typical plan and
elevation of mass concrete pad
foundation.
The size and depth will be determined based on a 45° dispersion of load
from column through mass concrete on to soil.
D = depth of foundation.
At critical section 1, find the bending moment and shear from the soil
pressure diagram for unfactored loads: serviceability limit state.
M = bending moment across critical section
V = shear across critical section
Check: fib = stress in concrete in bending tension
6M 6M
= --2 or --2 :5 0.37y !cu
BD AD
vd = shear stress in concrete

v v
or AD :5 0.037 /cu
BD
.
Punchmg shear stress
v )
= 2( Cx +Cy s 0.037/cu
D
Bearing stress under column base plate = --

v s 0.275/cu
CxC_v
Step 23 Calculate settlement

Follow Method 2 of Section 6.5.2.
Use load combination LC13 of Section 6.3.
Note: The settlement calculations should be carried out to give a better under-
standing of the global effects on the structure. It may be necessary to alter
the sizes of some of the pad foundations in a structure in order to even out
the differential settlements. It is also important in certain cases to feed
back these settlements in the analysis of the structure.
6.8 WORKED EXAMPLES
Example 6.1 RC pad with single column

Internal column.
Column size == 400 mm x 400 mm
Column spacing = 6 m x 6 m on plan
The unfactored column loads are given in the following table:
Dead Imposed Wind
Vertical load N (kN) 610 480

Horizontal shear H, (kN) 42
Horizontal shear Hy (kN) 38
Moment M; (kNm) 95
Moment My (kNm) 105
Suitable bearing stratum at 1000mm below ground level. Medium dense

silty sand.

Type: Reinforced concrete pad with single RC column
Depth: lOOOmm below finished ground level

1150 mm below finished floor level.
Depth selected from considerations of:
• Frost attack.
• Swelling of soil.
• Suitable bearing stratum.

Presumed allowable bearing capacity from BS 8004: 1986121 = 150 kN/m2
Maximum Vertical load V = 610 + 480 = 1090kN
Maximum ecccntricity = ex= MylV= 105/1090 == 0.1 m
- .. T031985 0011339 203 ..
6ex =0.6m :sA

v 2
150=7.3m
Assume a 3m x 3m foundation pad with area of 9m2: A= 3m and

B=3m.
Determine minimum thickness of pad

Assume grade of concrete = C30
Vmax = 0.8\/ !cu or 5 N/mm2 (whichever is lesser)= 4.38 N/mm2
V0 = 2(Cx + Cy) = 2(400 + 400) = 1600mm
Total factored load from column
Nu = 1.4 x 610 + 1.6 x 480 = 1622kN
Nu 1622 x 103
d~---= =231mm
VmaxVo 4.38 X 1600
1 1
or d ~ 2[(Cy + 4C2)i - Ci)= 430mm
V0 1600
where C1 = - = -- = 267 mm
6 6
Nu 1622 x lW
C2 = -- = = 300370mm2
12vc 12 X 0.45
Assumed Ve= 0.45 N/mm2 which corresponds to about 0.3% tension rein-
forcement for !cu= 30N/mm2• Choose overall depth of pad equal to 500mm
allowing for adequate cover.

Note: This step may not be necessary if the allowable bearing capacity for the
selected size of foundation is already available from the soils investigation
report. However, for completeness of a foundation design problem, this
step is included.
From field and laboratory tests the following soil parameters of the bearing
stratum are known:
ground water table= 2.0 m below ground level
h = 0, i.e. height of water table above foundation level is zero.
y = unit weight of soil = 18 kN/m3
p = total overburden pressure at the foundation level.

= 18 x 1 (below ground)
= 18kN/m2
Po= P - Ywh = 18kN/m2

Yw = unit weight of water
c = soil cohesion = 10kN/m2
<j> = angle of internal friction = 22° = 0.384 radian
a = e (0. 75Jt - qi/2) tan 4'
= e (0. 75Jt - 0.192) tan 22"
= 2.3974
a2
Nq = ) = 9.19
2 cos2( 45° + ~
Ne= (Nq - l)cot<j> = 20.3

Kpy = 29.0 from Table 6.1 in Section 6.5.1
Ny= =: 2
Kp_v
cos2<j>
- 1) = 6.6
quit = l.3cNc + p0(Nq - 1) + 0.4yBNy + p

= 1.3 x 10 x 20.3 + 18 x (9.19 - 1) + 0.4 x 18 x 3 x 6.6 + 18
= 572kN/m2
.
Allowable beanng capacity
.
=
quit
3 = 572
3 = 190kN/m
2

(See Section 6.3.)
Bearing pressure calculations

LC, = 1.0DL + I.OIL
LC3 = 1.0DL + I.OIL + I.OWL
LC1: Combined vertical column load, N = 610 + 480 = 1090kN
Hx = 0 Hy = 0 M, = 0 My = 0
LC3: N = vertical load = 1090kN
Hx = 42kN M; = 105kNm Hy= 0
Note: By inspection, wind in one direction only may be checked for a square
foundation.
Bending moment and shear calculations

LCs = l.4DL + l.6IL
LC6 = 1.2DL + l.2IL + l.2WL
LC1 = l.4DL + l.4WL
LC5: Nu = 1.4 x 610 + 1.6 x 480 1622 kN
=
n.; = 0 Hyu = 0 Mxu = 0 u; = 0
LC6: Nu = 1.2 x 610 + 1.2 x 480 = 1308kN

Hxu = 1.2 X 42 = 50.4kN Hyu = 0
Mxu = 0 Myu = 1.2 X 105 = 126 kNm
LC1: Nu =1.4 x 610 = 854kN
Hxu = 1.4 X 42 = 58.8 kN H_vu = 0
Myu = 1.4 X 105 = 147 kNm

This step may be ignored since the foundations are not connected by
ground beams and the differential settlements will have little effect on the
design of this foundation.
400x400 Column
3 · 1
--~
0
Ba~~.!!'~;}i·\"t-
•• · - ..... "'"' •f".
0
Ill
.I
0
0
L 3000 x 3000 x :;
SK 6/35 Section through pad

foundation.
y
SK 6/36 Eccentric surcharge on
pad foundation on plan.
Weight of foundation= 9m2 x 0.50m x 24kN/m3

= 108kN
Weight of backfill + ground slab = 9 m2 x 0.50 m x 18 kN/m3 + 9 m2

x 0.15m x 24kN/m3
113.4kN
Surcharge on ground slab == 5 kN/m2
Weight of surcharge on half foundation = 4.5 m2 x 5 kN/m2 = 22.5 kN
Eccentricity of surcharge = 0. 75 m
Weight of surcharge on full foundation = 45 kN
LC1: p == total vertical load
= 1090 + 108 + 113.4 + 45
= 1356.4kN
H; = 0 My= 0
LC3: P = 1090 + 108 + 113.4 + 22.5
= 1333.9kN
H, = 42kN My= 105kNm Hy== 0
Mxx = 0 My_v = 105 + 42 X 0.45 + 22.5 X 0.75 = 140.8 kNm
Step 7 Calculate bearing pressure under foundation

(See Section 6.6.)
1356.4
LC1: p = -9- = 150.7kN/m2 < 190kN/m2
Mvv
ex = ---
p
= 0.104m < A/6 = 0.50m
p 6Mvv
Pt ==AB + A2 B
1333.9 6 x 140.8
=--+----
9 9 x 3
= 179.5 kN/m2 < 190 x 1.25 = 237.5 kN/m2
Note: 25% overstress on allowable bearing capacity may be allowed for combi-
nations including wind.
Bearing pressures are within allowable limits.
Step 8 Calculate sliding resistance off oundation

Ignore passive resistance because horizontal movement of the foundation
should be avoided.
Assume b = 17° from Table 6.6.
P = 610 + 108 + 113.4 (dead load only) = 831.4kN
P. = Ptano = 831.4 x tanl7° = 254kN > l.5H = 1.5 x 42 = 63kN
Ptt = qA tan + cA
= 831.4 x tan22° + 10 x 9
= 426kN > P, = 254kN

P == 1356.4kN
P; = 190kN/m2 X 9m2 = 1710kN
H, = 42kN
Pttx = 426kN
P n, 1356.4 42
-+-=--+-
r, PHx 1710 426
= 0.89 < 1 OK
LCs: Nu = 1622kN
Pu =Nu+ 1.4 (foundation+ backfill)+ 1.6 (surcharge on backfill)
= 1622 + 1.4 x (108 + 113.4) + 1.6 x 45
= 2004kN
Hxu = 0 n.; = 0 Mxxu = 0 M_vyu = 0
LC6: Pu = Nu + 1.2 (foundation + backfill + surcharge)
= 1308 + 1.2 (108 + 113.4 + 22.5)
= 1601kN
Mxxu = 0
Myyu = My~ + Hxuh + M:u
= 126 + 50.4 x 0.45 + 1.2 x 22.5 x 0.75
= 168.9kNm
LC7: Pu = Nu + 1.4 (foundation + backfill)
= 854 + 1.4 (108 + 113.4)
= 1164kN
Mxxu = 0
Myyu = Myu + Hxuh
= 147 + 58.8 x 0.45
= 173.SkNm
tr J,00 x 400 Column
I I~
I 3000 x 3000 • I
SK 6/37 Uniform bearing pressure tttttttttffft
for load combination LC5• 222·7kN/m2
Pu 2004
LC5: p =AB= -9- = 222.7kN/m 2
Pu 6Mvyu
Pi= AB+ A;_B
1601 6 x 168.9
=--+----
9 27
= 177.9 + 37.5 = 215.4kN/m2
IT"'° '400 Column

11400 x 400 Column
·1.
!--1 --~'~
3000 • I ------'~
I. .I
u I r I I n:nw
3000
u,40·4
kN/m2
i~;!. ii?...
SK 6/38 Bearing pressure for load combination SK 6/39 Bearing pressure for load combination
LC6. LC1.
_ ~ _ 6Myyu
p2 - AB A2B
= 140.4kN/m2
Pu 6Mvvu
LC1: Pt =AB+ A;~
1164 6 x 173.5
= --+ ----
9 27
= 129.3 + 38.5 = 167.8kN/m2
P2 = 129.3 - 38.5 = 90.8 kN/m2
Step 12 Calculate bending moments and shears in pad

LC5: Downward load on pad= Pd
Pd =self-weight of pad +backfill + surcharge
Upward load on pad =Pu
Pu = pressure of ground on pad
(see Step 10).
3000
3. 2
400x400
Column g
0
M
425 425
SK 6/40 Critical sections for

bending moment and shears on
3 2 plan of pad foundation.
5,kN/m2 [~rcharge
Floor slab
SK 6/41 Calculation of Pd for Concrete of

downward load on overhang. pad foundation
Pd = (0.50 x 24 + 0.50 x 18 + 0.15 x 24) x 1.4 + (5 kN/m2) x 1.6

= 42.4kN/m2
Pu = 222.7kN/m2 constant
SK 6142 Typical loading on pad

foundation overhang at section
1-1.
Cantilever overhang at section 1 -1 = 1500 - 200 = 1300 mm = l

. . (Pu - Pd)B/2
Bending moment at section 1 = M1 = --- 2--
180.3 x 3 x 1.32
2
= 457.1 kNm
Shear at section 1 = V1 = (Pu - Pd)BI
= 180.3 x 3 x 1.3
= 703.2kN
Assume d = 425 mm
Shear at section 2 = V2 = (Pu - Pd)B(l - 0.425) = 473.3 kN
Shear at section 3 = V3 = (Pu - Pd)B(I - 2 x 0.425) = 243.4kN
1·3 0·2
215·4 1404
SK 6/43 Loading on overhang of

pad foundation due to LC6•
37.5 x 0.2 2
LC6: Pressure at section 1-1 = 177.9 + = 182.9kN/m
1.5
Pd = 1.2(0.50 x 24 + 0.50 x 18 + 0.15 x 24 + 5) = 35.5kN/m2
1 32
Bending moment = M1 = (182.9 - 35.5) x 3 x ~
+ (215.4 - 182.9) x 0.5 x 1.3 x 3 x 32 x 1.3
= 428.6kNm
The shears at sections 1, 2 and 3 need not be checked. By inspection they

will be less critical than LC5•
LC7 need not be checked. By inspection it will not be critical.
Step 13 Determine cover to rein/orcement

From SI report, total S03 = 0.5%
Class of exposure = 3
(See write-up of Step 13 in Section 6.7.)
75 mm blinding concrete will be used.
Minimum cover on blinding concrete = 50 mm
Assume 16 mm diameter HT Type 2 deformed bars.
Effective depth of top layer (symmetrical reinforcement in both directions),
d = 500 - 50 - 16 - 8 = 426 mm
Step 14 Calculate area of tensile reinforcement

Maximum bending moment on section 1-1 = 457.1 kNm ( LC5)
M 457.1 x 106
K = -- = = 0.028
fcubd2 30 X 3000 X 4262
z = d[ o.5 + J( 0.25 -
0~)
J s o.95d
= d[ 0.5 + J( 0.25 - 0~~!8) J = 0.95 x 426 = 405 mm
M 457.1 x 106
A - --- - -------
st - 0.87/yZ - 0.87 X 460 X 405
= 2820mm2
Use 15 no. 16 dia. Type 2 HT bars in each direction (3015 mm2).
Distribution of tension reinforcement

Cx = Cy= 400mm
dx = 500 - 50 - 8 = 442mm
d; = 500 - 50 - 16 - 8 = 426 mm
l.S(Cy + 3d_v) = 2517mm <Ly= 3000mm
l.5(Cx + 3dx) = 2589mm <Ix = 3000mm
~A
3 st 3 x 2820
= ~ = 1880mm2
Reinforcement over central Cy + 3dy(1678 mm) and Cx + 3dx(l 726 mm)

1880
= -- = 1120mm2/m
1.678
2-~16 equally 2-+16 equally

spaced spaced
SK 6/44 Distribution of
reinforcement in pad foundation.
Use 11 no. 16mm dia. bars at 175mm centres (1149mm2/m) over the
central zone in each direction.
Use 2 no. 16 mm dia. bars on each side outside the central zone.
Total number of 16 mm bars used= 15(3015mm")
All bars are HT Type 2.

(See Step 12 - LC5.)
V1
Check v1 = bd :S 0.8yfcu or 5N/mm2
703.2 x 1()3 0 I 2 0 8' IE

= 3000 X 426 = .55N mm < . VJcu
Check
Vz
V2 = bd S 2vc
= 473.3 x 103 = 0.37N/mm2

3000 x 426
A,1 = 15 no. 16mm dia. bars = 3015mm2
Use larger d (442 mm) for calculation of p.
lOOAst
p=--
bd
= 100 x 3015 = 0.23%

3000 x 442
From Fig. 11.3 for /cu = 30N/mm2,
Ve = 0.42 N/mm2 > v2
No more shear checks are necessary.

d; = 442mm dy = 426mm
d = 0.5 (442 + 426) = 434mm
V0 = 2 (Cx + Cy) = 2(400 + 400) = 1600mm
V1 = (V0 + 12d) = 1600 + 12 X 434 = 6808mm
or 5N/mm2
(See Step 4 - LC5.)

Nu = 1622kN
1622 x 103 2
V0 = = 2.34N/mm < 0.8yfcu
1600 x 434
Pt = Pu - Pd = 180.3 kN/m2 (see Step 12)
Ai = (C, + 3.0dx)(Cv + 3.0dv)
= (400 + 3.0 x 426)(400 3.0 x 442) x 10-6 +
= 2.90m2
Nu - P1A1
V1 =
Urd
(1622 - 180.3 x 2.9) x 1()3
6808 x 434
= 0.37N/mm2 OK
Ve = 0.42N/mm2 (from Step 15)
Step 17 Check minimum reinforcement for flexure

Minimum tensile reinforcement = 0.0013bh = 0.0013 x 3000 x 500
= 1950mm2 < 3015 mm2
provided
No top tension in pad foundation.
Step 18 Check spacing of reinforcement

Percentage reinforcement p = 0.23% (see Step 15)
Maximum spacing = 750 mm not exceeded

R = 0.15, say
T1 = 28°C
~= 12 x 10-6/°C
Er= 0.8T1~R
= 0.8 x 28 x 12 x 10-6 x 0.15
= 4.032 x 10-5
x = h/2 = 250 mm (assumed)
acr = y'(742 + 137.52) - 8 = 148mm
Wmax = l + ( 2(acr - Cmin))

h-x
3 x 148 x 4.032 x 10-5
1 + (2(148 - 66))
500 - 250
= 0.01 mm < 0.3 mm
Step 20 Check minimum reinforcement to distribute thermal cracking

(See write-up of Step 20 in Section 6. 7.)
Top reinforcement = 0.00175bh
= 0.00175 x 3000 x 500
= 2625 mm2 over 3000mm
Bottom reinforcement = 0.35b

= 0.35 x 3000
= 1050mm2
Note: If thermal cracking has to be avoided, then a top mesh of 16 dia. bars at
200 c/c should be provided. This may seem unnecessary in the present
circumstances since the pad will be fully buried in the ground.
Step 21 Check crack width due to flexure
A
y
Fl!= 29·6 kN/m2

~ ;18kN/m3
1·3m
AxB
3000 x 3000
SK 6/46 Calculation of net foundation pressure

at serviceability limit state.
SK 6/45 Pressure diagram for serviceability
limit state.

Loading condition LC1• (See Step 7.)
Pu = 150.7kN/m2
Pd = 0.5 x 24 + 0.5 x 18 + 0.15 x 24 + 5 = 29.6kN/m2
M = (Pu - Pd)B/2
2
(150.7 - 29.6) x 3 x 1.32
= 307kNm
2
m = 15 As= 3015mm2 b = 3000mm d = 426mm
x = [( m:sr 2m:sdr - m:s

+
15 x 3015)2 + 2 x 15 x 3015 x 426]! - 15 x 3015

[( 3000 3000 3000
= 99mm
x 99
z = d - - = 426 - - = 393 mm
3 3
M 307 x 106
I.5 = - = = 259N/mm2
zAs 393 X 3015
t; 259
Es =- = = 1.295 X 10-3
E, 200 x 1()3
Eh
h -
= ( --
d - x
fs x) = (500 -
426 -
99)
99 X 1.295 X 10-3 = 1.588 X 10-3
b(h - x)2
fmh = Eh - 3E.A.(d - x)
3000 x (500 - 99)2
= 1.588 x 10-3 - = 0.773 x 10-3
3 x 200 x 103 x 3015 x (426 - 99)
Cmin = 50 + 16 = 66 mm for second layer
llcr = 148mm (see Step 19)
3acr Emh
Wmax = -------
l + 2( llcr - Cmin)
h-x
3 x 148 x 0.773 x 10-3
= 2(148 - 66)
l+ 500-99
= 0.24 mm < 0.3 mm OK
Note: The crack width should be checked if the foundation level is below the
water table and the total S03 is higher than 1 % .
Step 22 Design mass concrete f oundation

Not required.
Step 23 Calculate settlement

Load combination LC13: (See Section 6.3.)
LC13 = 1.0DL + 0.5/L (vertical loads only)
P = 610 + 0.5 x 480 + 108 + 113.4 + 22.5 = 1093.9kN
H
Layizr 1
layer 2 Wat r Table-;
---rz
__f
SK 6/47 Calculation of settlement.
p
Gross foundation pressure = AB = 121.5 kN/m2
Weight of soil removed = ABDy = 3 x 3 x 1 x 18 = 162 kN

162
q.; = net foundation pressure = 121.5 - 9 = 103.5 kN/m2
A
-=1 A= B = 3m
B
Complete the settlement computation table up to Z = 2.5B.

Ground water table at 2.0 m below ground level
Total settlement = 24.53 mm
ckd = cone resistance (kg/cnr')
C 147 Ckdf Po
=
o, = vertical stress at centre of layer (kN/m2)
Z = depth to centre of layer
h = height of ground water above centre of layer
Po= P - Ywh
o, is obtained from Fig. 6.2.
Note: Check whether this long-term predicted settlement is going to cause any
problem elsewhere in the structural system.
Step 24 Design connection of pad to column (see Chapter 10)
Example 6.2 RC pad with multiple columns

Foundation for the braced columns.
Unfactored loads from the columns.
~ ~
600 356x171x51 UB
I
®-· +
o- + +
2 x4-32+
1000 H.D. BOLTS
6000
ROOF LEG CRANE LEG
SK 6/48 Combined pad foundation for a braced SK 6/49 Typical arrangement of steel columns
bay. at braced bay.
~--------- -
Settlement computation table for Example 6.1
H z ZIB o,lqn o, ckd h Po c S (mm)
1.0 0.5 0.167 0.8 82.8 35 0 27 190 7.38

1.0 1.5 0.5 0.52 53.82 35 0.5 40 129 6.61
1.0 2.5 0.833 0.35 36.22 35 1.5 48 107 5.25
1.0 3.5 1.167 0.22 22.77 65 2.5 56 170 2.00
1.0 4.5 1.5 0.16 16.56 65 3.5 64 149 1.54
1.0 5.5 1.8333 0.10 10.35 90 4.5 72 184 0.73
1.0 6.5 2.167 0.08 8.28 90 5.5 80 165 0.60
1.0 7.5 2.5 0,075 7.76 120 6.5 88 200 0.42
Loading table for Example 6.2
Columns DL IL CLV CLH WL1 WL2
v H v H v H v H v H v H
Al +80 +40 +200 ±12 +105 ±9 +50 ±25

A2 +80 +40 +105 ±9 ±50 ±25
Bl +50 +20 +900 ±200 ±12 ±105 ±9 +50 ±25
B2 +50 +20 ±105 ±9 ±50 ±25
WL1 =transverse wind WL2 = longitudinal wind
600 mm x 300 mm wide ground beam to carry 230 mm brickwork 3 m high.

Suitable bearing stratum at 1200 mm below ground level.
Finished floor level is 150 mm above finished ground level.
Stiff to very stiff clay layer.
Step I Select type and depth of foundation

Type: Reinforced concrete pad foundation - combined 2 sets of columns.
Length of 32 mm diameter HD bolts anchorage assembly= 400 mm.
The bottom of grout under base plate will be 500 mm below finished floor
level.
It is easier for construction if the HD bolt is in the pedestal.
Height of pedestal = 1000 mm say

Thickness of pad = 650 mm assumed
Underside of base at 1650 mm below floor level which is 1500 mm below

finished ground level.

Size of pedestal = 1400 mm x 2500 mm
Presumed allowable bearing capacity from BS 8004: 1986121 = 200 kN/m2
Assume a projection of 1750mm around the pedestals. The trial size

200
-
200
+ +
B ,.---
- -- I
I
i I 60()
I
!
+ +
L_ ,... . x 200
-
200
+ +
A ~- ,.__ -- I i I
600
I I
+ ! +
200
-, I
'
I
I 300
I
f
LGround
0
~
0
0
"'
gl 0
..,
0
0
0
"' "'
0
0 beam SK 6/50 Typical detail of column
base and pedestal on plan.
Finished floor level
-0-500
PEDESTAL SK 6/51 Typical section through

pedestal column connection.
becomes 11000 x 6000. This is based on experience and may need some
revision after all the calculations are carried out.
Determine minimum thickness of pad.
Ultimate vertical load on pad through one pedestal =
Nu = 1.4 x (80 + 80 + 50 + 50) + 1.6 x (900)
= 1850 kN including weight of pedestal
U0 = 2(Cx + Cy) = 2 X (1400 + 2500) = 7800mm
C, = U0/6 = 1300mm
C2 = Nulvc = 1850/0.4 = 4265mm2
1400
Finished floor level
0
0
-------1
1-------1
I
I 8 I
~~-!£1 j
r------
1-
600 clup
Ground beam
52
6000
.I
SK 6/52 Elevation of pad foundation.
0
in
(0
SK 6/53 Section through pad

foundation. I. 6000x11000
Ve = 0.4N/mm2 assumed for /cu = 30N/mm2

d = 0.5[(Ct + 4C2)°"5 - Ci) = 3.5mm
Punching shear will not be critical.
Note: This step may not be necessary if the soils investigation report includes the
allowable bearing capacity calculations for different sizes of foundation.
From field and laboratory tests the following soil parameters of the bearing
stratum are known.
Ground water table= 2.0m below ground level

h=O (ground water table below the level of foundation)
Purely cohesive bearing stratum.
qu11 = cNc +p
p = overburden pressure = yD = 19 x 1.5 m = 28.5 kN/m2
c = cohesive strength = 75 kN/m2
D
D =I.Sm B = 6.0m - = 0.25
B
Ne= 6.7 from Table 6.2 in Section 6.5.1
quit = 75 X 6.7 + 28.5 = 531 kN/m2
Allowable bearing capacity = q;11 = 177 kN I m2
LC1 = l.ODL + I.OIL + l.OEP + 1.0CLV + 1.0CLH
Load Combination no. Column no. Vertical Ecc., Ecc., Vex Vey Hx Hy
case load, V ex (m) ey (m) (kNm) (kNm) (kN) (kN)
no. (kN)
LC1 1 Al -80 -3.0 -0.5 +240 +40 +12

DL+IL+CLV A2 120 3.0 -0.5 +360 -60
+CLH Bl 1170 -3.0 +0.5 -3510 +585 +12
82 70 3.0 +0.5 +210 +35
Totals 1280 -2700 +600 +24
LC1 2 Al 320 -3.0 -0.5 -960 -160 -12

DL+IL + CLV A2 120 3.0 -0.5 +360 -60
-CLH Bl 770 -3.0 0.5 -2310 +385 -12
B2 70 3.0 0.5 +210 +35
Totals 1280 -2700 +200 -24
LC2 = 1.0DL + l.OEP + l.OCL V + 1.0CLH + 1.0WL1 (or ± l.OWL2)

(total 8 possible combinations)
case load, V ex (m) ey (m) (kNm) (kNm) (kN) (kN)
no. (kN)
LC2 Al -225 -3.0 -0.5 +675 +113 +21

DL+CLV A2 -25 3.0 -0.5 -75 +13 +9
+CLH+ WL1 Bl 1255 -3.0 0.5 -3765 +628 +21
82 155 3.0 0.5 +465 +78 +9
Totals 1160 -2700 +832 60
LC2 2 Al -70 -3.0 -0.5 +210 +35 -25 +12

DL+CLV A2 +30 3.0 -0.5 +90 -15 -25
+CLH-WL2 Bl 1200 -3.0 0.5 -3600 +600 -25 +12
82 0 3.0 0.5 -25
Totals 1160 -3300 +620 -100 +24

Weight of backfill = (6 x 11 - 1.4 x 2.5) x 0.85 m x 18 kN/m3

= 956kN
Weight of ground slab (150mm) = (4 x 11) x 0.15 x 25kN/m3
= 165kN
Eccentricity, ey = + 1.0 m
SK 6/55 Plan of foundation showing areas of superimposed loads.
Surcharge on ground slab@ 25kN/m2 = 4 x 11 x 25 = llOOkN

Eccentricity, ey = 1.0m
Weight of ground beams + brickwork = (12 - 2.8) m x 0.3 m x 0.6 m x
25 kN/m3 (ground beams)
+3m x 0.23m x 22kN/m3
(brickwork)
= 224kN
Eccentricity, ey = -1.15 m
Differential settlement = 10 mm assumed (see Step 5)
6oEI
M = --
y 12 = 126kNm for each beam
E = 14 x 106kN/m2 long-term Young's modulus

Beam size = 300 mm x 600 mm
12oE/ 2Mv
Beam end reactions = -3- = --·
I I
252
= - = 42kN
6
Moment on the foundation= 2 x (-126) + (-42 x 6) = -504kNm
Note: There are many possible alternatives of the differential settlement. The
worst, from the point of view of bearing pressure considering other loadings,
is found by inspection.
Note: Most of the other combinations can be ignored by inspection. Also by

inspection it is clear that load cases LC3 and LC4 will not produce more
onerous design.

(See Method 1 in Section 6.5.2.)
Soil parameter required from soil investigation report = m; m2/MN
Assume this is not available.
From Table 6.5 of Section 6.5.2, assume
m; = 0.15 m2/MN
Consolidation settlement = mvOzH
q« = average pressure = 50 kN/m2 assumed

Oz = 0.55qn = 27 .5 kN/m2
B = width of foundation = 6 m
H = l.5B = 9.0m
0.15
Settlement = mvOzH = 1000 x 27.5 x 9.0 x 1000 = 37mm
Assume quarter of this predicted settlement as differential settlement. This

is because the predicted maximum settlement is 40 mm, say, the minimum
settlement is half (i.e. 20mm) and the average settlement is 30mm, so the
average differential settlement is lOmm (40- 30).
Differential settlement= lOmm
42kNi 42kNi
42kN i
~6kNm
10mm differential
10mm differential settlement
settlement
SK 6/54 Loads and moments due to differential settlement of pad foundation.

Self-weight of foundation = 2 x 1.4 x 2.5 x 1.0 x 25 kN/m3 (pedestal) +
6 x 11 x 0.65 x 25 kN/m3 (base)
= 1248kN
--····-·-·····-~-
Load case Load type Vertical, Mx My Hx Hy

V(kN) (kNm) (kNm) (kN) (kN)
Column vertical 1280 +600 -2700

Column horizontal +28 +24
Foundation self-weight 1248
LC1 Backfill 956
Combination 1 Ground slab 165 +165
Surcharge on slab 1100 +1100
Ground beam 224 -258
Differential settlement -504
LC1 Totals 4973 +1635 -3204 +24
Load case Load type Vertical, Mx My Hx Hy

V(kN) (kNm) (kNm) (kN) (kN)

Column horizontal +28 -115 -100 +24
Foundation self-weight 1248
LC2 Backfill 956
Combination 2 Ground slab 165 +165
Surcharge on slab 1100 +1100
LC2 Totals 4853 +1655 -3919 -100 +24
ll·Om
y
1· -Hx
·1
~t
x
Mx -B--)-B E
x 9
U)
SK 6/56 Sign convention of

positive forces on foundation. y
Note: The foundations are connected by ground beams in the x-direction. The
horizontal force H; may be distributed equally among all connected foun-
dations. For the sake of conservatism this has not been done.
Step 7 Calculate bearing pressures
II
x
P.
- -
y
-
p4
x
,
- -
A= 11
P2 p3
SK 6/57 Footprint of foundation.
y
SK 6/58 Bearing pressure locations.
LC1:
p )
p = ( AB ±
(6Mx) (6Mv)
AB2 ± A2~
Pt = ( 4973 ) + (6 x 1635) + (6 x 3204)

6 x 11 11 x 62 112 x 6
= 75 + 25 + 26
= 126kN/m2 < 177kN/m2 (see Step 3)
Similarly,
P2 = 75 - 25 + 26 = 76kN/m2
p3 = 75 - 25 - 26 = 24kN/m2
p4 = 75 + 25 - 26 = 74kN/m2
LC2: Pt = 74 + 25 +32 = 131 kN/m2
P2 = 81kN/m2
p3 = 17kN/m2
p4 = 67kN/m2
All bearing pressures are within allowable limit.
Step 8 Calculate sliding resistance of foundation

Check sliding between concrete and soil: ignore passive resistance.
Assume very aggressive soil and membrane tanking is used.
Assume b = 5° tan o = 0.09 H, = lOOkN Hy= 24kN
Load case LC2

Frictional resistance = Ptan b = 4853 x 0.09 = 437 kN > H, and Hy
437 437
Factor of saf ety agamst
. s liiding
. =
2 2
\l(Hx + Hv)
= 4.2 OK
Check horizontal bearing capacity of soil:
For cohesive soil,
PHu = cA = 75 X 6 X 11 = 4950 kN
PHx = PHy = -PHu

1.5 = 3300 kN
Load case LC2

P = 4853kN H, = lOOkN H; = 24kN
P; = allowable bearing capacity x area = 177 x 66 = 11682 kN
P n, n, 4853 100 24
-+-+-· =--+--+--
Pv PHx PH_v 11682 3300 3300
= 0.45 < 1 okay
Ultimate column load combinations
case load, ex ey
no. V(kN) (m) (m) (kNm) (kNm) (kN) (kN)
LC9 Al -168 -3.0 -0.5 +504 +84 +16.8

l.4DL A2 +112 3.0 -0.5 +336 -56
+l.4CLV Bl +1610 -3.0 +0.5 -4830 +805 +16.8
+1.4CLH B2 +70 3.0 +0.5 +210 +35
Totals +1624 -3780 +868 +33.6
Ultimate loads on foundation
Load case Combination Load type Vertical, V Mx My Hx Hy

(kN) (kNm) (kNm) (kN) (kN)

Column horizontal +38.6 33.6
1.4DL Foundation self-weight 1747
+l.4CLV Backfill 1338
LC9 +l.4CLH Ground slab 231 +231
Totals 5254 +776.6 -4486 33.6
Note: It is most important that a complicated loading system on a multiple

column foundation should be investigated in a structured manner using
tables as shown. Otherwise mistakes will creep in.
Only one load case has been analysed to show the method. All other
load cases should be similarly investigated.
Load case LC9
Pi = ( ABP ) + (6Mx)
AB
(6Mv)
+ A 2 2~
= (5254) + (6 x 776.6) + (6 x 4486)

66 11 x 62 112 x 6
= 80 + 12 + 37 = 129kN/m2
P2 = 80 - 12 + 37 = 105kN/m2
p3 = 80 - 12 - 37 = 31kN/m2
p4 = 80 + 12 - 37 = 55kN/m2
Note: Pressures for load case LC9 only have been calculated to show the method. In
an actual design, other load cases should also be investigated.
129 [ t CCJss
105
~-~I·~ 31
1 OS [f I__J..___l..-_,__-::J
31 SK 6/59 Bearing pressure
diagrams for load case LC9•
Step 12 Calculate bending moments and shears in pad
Load case LC9

Find pressures at critical sections 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 as shown. They are p.,
p2, p3, p4, etc.
Average pressures at section 1 = p1
Assume d = 550 mm
Distance from y-y axis = 4.8m = x1
Pt.av= (:B) + c~:I)

12 x 4486 x 4.8
=80+------
113 x 6
= 112kN/m2
Similarly,
11·0m
y
P, P,
700 3000
' rt
3000 700
E
9 x
ID
P2
-i-
4- +~ . 4-
-
9
(")
E
P3
S·Sm y
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
y
x
- -
-550+ -
x
d:SSO d:
'
SK 6/60 Bearing pressure

locations on plan and critical
sections for bending moment and 4·8m y
shear.
P2.av = 109 kN/m2

P3,av = 105 kN/m2
P4.av = 96kN/m2
Ps.av = 80 kN/m2
P6.av = 64kN/m2
P7.av = 55 kN/m2
Average pressures at edges are 117kN/m2 and 43kN/m2•
Pd = downward load on pad (ultimate)
= self-weight of foundation + backfill
= (0.65m x 25kN/m3 + 0.85m x 18kN/m3) x 1.4
= 44 kN/m2 uniform excluding ground slab
Equivalent weight of ground slab acting on half the foundation width

= 0.5 x 0.15m x 25kN/m3 x 1.4
= 3kN/m2
Total downward load = 47kN/m2
Draw net pressure diagram.
1800 2300 2300

y
Critical sections t
~~4 49 33 . 8
70~ SK 6/61 Net bearing pressure

diagram to find bending moments
and shears - load case LC9•
58 x21.82 + (70 -
Bending moment at section 3 = 6 x [
358)1.82]
= 642kNm
LC9: Column loads on A 1 + B 1 = (1610 - 168) = 1442 kN (factored)

Weight of pedestal = 1.4 x 1.4 m x 2.5 m x 1.0 m x 25 kN/m3 =
123 kN (factored)
33 x 5.52 (70 - 33) x 5.52]
Bending moment at section 5 = 6m x [
2
+
3
- (1442 + 123) x 3m
= 538kNm (no top tension)
8 x 1.82 12 x 1.82)
Bending moment at section 7 = 6 m x ( -
2 3
= OkNm
Shear at section 1 = 0.7]

6 m x [ (70 + 65) x 2
= 284kN
Shear at section 2 = 6m x [ (62 + 70) x 2

1.25]
= 495kN
Shear at section 3 = 6 m x [ (70 + 58) x 2

1.8]
= 691kN
Shear at section 4 = 6 m x [ (70 3.2]

+ 49) x 2 - (1442 + 123)
= -423kN
Note: It is useful to draw the bending moment diagram for the load case.
Similarly bending moments and shears should be calculated for all load
cases and all critical sections parallel to the x- x and y-y axes following
the recommendations in Step 12 of Section 6.7.

Follow Step 13 of Section 6. 7.
Step 14 Calculate area of tension reinforcement and distribution

Follow Step 14 of Section 6.7.
Step 15 to Step 23
Similar to Example 6.1.
Note: The numerous other checks required in Step 15 to Step 23 in this example
are not shown for brevity. They have already been shown in Example 6.1.
Example 6.3 Mass concrete pad - side bearing in cohesive soils

Foundation for roadside signpost.
3·2m
E
0
"'
E
..,
0
SK 6/62 Roadside signpost.
Vertical load = 18 kN
Horizontal wind shear = 4.5 kN
Bending moment due to wind = 25 kNm
Size of columns = 203 x 203 x 46 kg/m UC
Size of base plate = 400 x 400
Size of foundation bolts = 4 no. M24
Bolt spacing = 300 mm
Soil condition is stiff to very stiff clay.

50 Grout
SK 6/63 Details of column base

plate.
0
0
en
600 x 600
SK 6/64 First trial of a side

bearing mass concrete foundation.

Assume 100 mm projection on all sides of base plate.
The foundation size selected is 600 x 600 x 900 deep.
Note: This foundation will be designed as side bearing for the horizontal load
and the applied moment. The vertical load will be carried by the direct
bearing on the soil. It is very important that this foundation is cast against
the soil.

p = total overburden pressure at foundation level
= yD = 19 x 0.9 = 17.lkN/m2
h = height of water above foundation level = 0m
Po= p = 17.lkN/m2
c = minimum undrained soil cohesion = 150 kN /m2
Quit= C Ne+ p
D 0.9
1.5
B 0.6
Ne= 9.1 from Table 6.2 in Section 6.5.1
quit= 9.1 X 150 + 17.1 = 1382.lkN/m2
Allowable vertical bearing capacity = q;' 1 = 460 kN/m2
Maximum horizontal bearing capacity is the ultimate passive resistance of

soil given by the following equation:
qh = Po tan2 ( 45° + <j>/2) + 2c tan (45° + <j>/2)
= 2c at ground level for = 0° and P» = 0
= 300kN/m2
Step 4 Calculate column load combination

(See Section 6.3.)
For bearing pressure calculations:
LC3 = l.ODL + LOIL + l.OWL
N = 18kN H, = 4.5kN Mx = 25kNm My= 0
For bending moment and shear calculations:
LC7 = l.4DL + l.4WL
N = 25.2kN Hx = 6.3kN M, = 35kNm

This step can be ignored.
Step 6 Carry out analysis for hearing pressure
Self-weight of foundation = 0.6m x 0.6m x 0.9m x 25 kN/m3 = 8.1 kN

P = 18 + 8.1 = 26.lkN H, = 4.5kN Mx = 25kNm

Soil is stiff to very stiff clay.
Determine horizontal modulus of subgrade reaction.
Assume ks; = 14MN/m3 (see Table 6.7 in Section 6.5.1)
B = width of foundation = 0.6 m
ks; 14
Kh = = = 15.5 MN/m 3
1_58 1.5 x 0.6
Note: Horizontal load and vertical load are treated separately to find the bearing
pressures. It is assumed that the vertical load will be carried uniformly on
the base; size 600mm x 600mm. The horizontal load and moment will be
carried by side bearing in the manner shown.
Assumptions:
(1) Foundation block is fully rigid.

)(
><
I
.c
d(h-x) 15·5MN/m3 15·5d(h-x)MN/m2

x MODULUS OF x
DISPLACEMENT SUBGRADE REACTION PRESSURE
SK 6/65 Displacement and pressure diagrams of side-bearing foundation in

cohesive soil.
(2) Displacement d at top of foundation when subjected to bending moment

M, and horizontal shear Hi,
(3) Conservatively, that there is no net horizontal movement of whole
foundation block. Moment and horizontal force are resisted by rotation
only. The pressure diagram will be as shown if x is depth from ground
level of point of rotation.
(4) Neglect friction on sides of foundation block.
(5) Neglect contribution from non-uniform pressure distribution on bottom
surface of foundation.
P = 0.5KhBxd = 4.65dx MN
Q = 0.5KhB(h - x)2 t!:_ = 4.65(h - x)2 t!:_MN

x x
h = 0.9m
H = applied horizontal load = 4.5 kN = 0.0045 MN
Considering horizontal load equilibrium:
P = H + Q or P - Q = H
(0 9 - x)2]
or 4.65d [ x - · x = 4.5 x 10-3
Taking moment about the foundation level:
P( h - ~) - Q(h
3- x) - M - Hh = 0
4·65d(h
or 4.65dx(h - ~) - - x)3 = 25 x 10-3 + 4.5 x 10-3 x 0.9
3 3x
or 4.65d[ x( 0.9 - ~) - (O.\: x)3] = 29.05 x 10-3
Solving for the two unknowns d and x using a computer-assisted equation

solver.
Displacement = d = 22 mm
Point of rotation, x = 460mm
Maximum allowable shear stress in mass concrete = 0.037!cu =
0.925N/mm2
P = 4.65dx = 47 .3 kN
Q = 4.65(h - x)2(~) = 42.8kN
Maximum horizontal pressure on the soil = 15.5dMN/m2

22
= 15.5 x 1000 x -- kN/m2
1000
= 341kN/m2
This pressure is higher than the unconfined compressive strength of soil,
which is 300kN/m2• To prevent local heave of soil, revise size of foundation
to 900 mm x 900 mm x 1300mm.
k: 14
K - -'-' - ---- 10.4MN/m3
h - l.5B - 1.5 x 0.9
P = 0.5KhBxd
d
Q = 0.5KhB(h - x)2 -
x
P-Q=H
h = 1.3m M = 25kNm H = 4.5kN B = 0.9m
By solving the above equations,
P = 34.5kN
d = 11.0mm
x = 673mm
Q= 30.0kN
p = 114kN/m2 maximum pressure< 300kN/m2 ultimate pressure
300
Factor of safety on ultimate = = 2.63
114
Note: The displacement of 11 mm at ground level will mean 130mm displacement

at top of an 8000mm high structure. This should be checked for clearances
or other obstructions.
Revised weight of foundation= 26.3 kN

---- M:2SkNm
H:4·SkN
4·SkN
M
.....
<.O
.....
N
<.O
.EQB.Cf.. PRESSURE SHEAR MOMENT

DIAGRAM DIAGRAM 'DiAGRAM DIAGRAM
SK 6/66 Diagrams at serviceability limit state.
. . p 44.3 2 2
Vertical Bearmg Pressure = - = = 54.7kN/m < 460kN/m
A 0.9 x 0.9
Step 8 Calculate sliding resistance

Not required.

Not required.
Not required.
Step 11 to Step 21
Not required.

Use C25 concrete /cu = 25 N/mm2
I
Maximum allowable tension in bending = 0.37\/ /cu = 0.37 x (25)2 =
1.85N/mm2
Maximum bending moment = 25 kNm approximately
Maximum shear= 30.0kN
Section modulus, Z = (D x 9003 = 1.215 x 108mm3
M 25x106
Bending tensile stress in mass concrete =- =
z 1.215 x 108
= 0.20N/mm2
Allowable bending tensile stress = 1.85 N/mm2 OK
30 x 1()3
Shear stress= = 0.037N/mm2 < 0.925N/mm2 OK
900 x 900
Example 6.4 Mass concrete pad - side bearing in cohesionless soils

Same loading and example as in Example 6.3. Soil is dense sandy gravel
with <j> = 35°.
Step 1 Select type and depth of foundaJion

Similar to Step 1 in Example 6.3.

Choose 1000 x 1000 x 1500 deep foundation.
Note: In cohesionless soil the size of the foundation will be larger than in
cohesive soil because the allowable horizontal bearing capacity at higher
levels is lower. It will be very difficult to cast this foundation against the
soil because the sides of the excavation may not stay vertical. It will be
necessary to have well compacted granular backfill using mechanical
compactors.

B = lm
y = unit weight of soil = 18kN/m3
p = total overburden pressure at foundation level = 18 x 1.5 m =

27kN/m2
Po =p - Ywh = 27kN/m2 ash= 0
c=O
 = angle of internal friction = 35°
a = e(0.75n-cp/2) tan ( K~v -

cos 
1) = 42.4
= 27 (41.4 - 1) + 0.4 x 18 x 1 x 42.4 + 27
= 1423kN/m2
Allowable vertical bearing capacity = q;,11 = 474 kN/m2
Maximum horizontal bearing capacity is ultimate passive resistance of soil

given by the following equation:
qh =»; tan2( 45° + ~) + 2ctan( 45° + ~) = yh tan2( 45° + ~)

= 66hkN/m2
Step 4 Calculate column load combination

See Step 4 of Example 6.3.

Can be ignored.

Self-weight of foundation= 1 x 1 x 1.5 x 25kN/m3 = 37.5kN
P = 37.5 + 18 = 55.5kN
H, = 4.5kN Mx = 25kNm

Assumptions:
(1) Foundation is rigid.

(2) Foundation carries part of moment and total horizontal shear by side
bearing up to ultimate horizontal bearing pressure of 66Z kN/m2 (see
Step 3).
(3) Residual moment is carried by bottom surface of foundation as a
variable pressure on surface. Factor of safety against overturning will
be 1.5 or more.
(4) Rotational deformation of foundation is proportional to distance from
point of rotation.
(5) There is no net horizontal movement.
(6) Point of rotation is assumed at depth x from ground level.
Modulus of subgrade reaction = Kh = nh Bz

B = 1.0m
nh = 6.6MN/m3 assumed
(See Table 6.7 in Section 6.5.3.)
Kh = 6.6ZMN/m3
Z = depth from ground level (metres)
B
P = l.65dx2 - for idealised triangular pressure distribution
2
Q = 6 6hdB ( h - x )2 for idealised triangular pressure distribution

. 2x
d(h-x) 6·6h
x
DISPLACEMENT MOQULUS OF PRESSURE (IDEALISED)
SUBQRADEREACTION
SK 6/67 Displacement and pressure diagrams of side-bearing foundation in

cohesionless soil.
P=Q+H
M + Hh + Q(h - ~) - P(h - ~) = 0 for idealised triangular

distribution
H = 4.5kN
Maximum pressure = p = l.65dx from pressure diagram
66x
also p = MN/m2 (from Step 3)
2000
Equating the two gives
66x
l.65d.x = -
2000
d = 20mm
Ultimate horizontal passive pressure on side of foundation is reached at a
depth x/2 when horizontal deformation at top reaches 20 mm. It is assumed
that moment-carrying capacity of foundation through side bearing will
have a limiting value when deformation reaches 20 mm at top.
Find M when
h = l.5m
d = 20 x 10-3m
H = 4.5 x 10-3MN
B = l.Om
or P = 0.0165x2 Q =
0.099(1.5 - x)2/x P = Q + H
Q(l.5 - x)
and M = P(l.5 - 0.5x) - - Hh (MNm)
3
Solving the equations:
P = 19.4 x 10-3 MN
x = l.092m
Q = 14.9 x 10-3 MN
M = 9.7 kNm (maximum allowed by side bearing)
Residual moment = 25 - 9.7 = 15.3kNm
By rigorous analysis:
d' = displacement at bottom
d = displacement at top
X = depth of neutral axis
Y = bottom of foundation to neutral axis
Y = point of application of Q from bottom of foundation
P = 1: (X ~ x) dB6.6x dx = 6.6 Bd( ~2) = 1.1 BdX2
Q = 6.6d'Bf: y(X; y) dy = 6.6d'B[ (~y) + ~ 2]
= 1. ld' B(3XY + 2 Y2)

x y
x + y = 1.5
d d'
M + 4.5 x 1.5 + QY - P( f) = 0
h -
y
- foy2(X+y)dy
y = Y- Y
I 0
y(X + y)dy
= Y[l _ (X/3 + Y/4)]

(X/2 + Y/3)
Solving the above equations:
X = 1.0317m Y = 0.4683m
d' = 8.9 mm pressure = 88.1 kN/m2
d = 19.7mm
Q = 18.57kN P = 23.07kN
M = 13.25kNm
Y = 0.314Y
This gives a higher value of M and hence is less conservative.
Vertical load on foundation = P = 55.5 kN (see Step 6)
M 15.3 A
e =- =- = 0.276 m > - = 0.167 m
p 55.5 6
2P
(l.5A - 3e)B
2 x 55.5
(1.5 x 1 - 3 x 0.276) x 1
= 165 kN/m2 < 474kN/m2 (see Step 3) OK
x = l.5A - 3e = 0.672m
A
Restraining moment = 55.5 x - = 55.5 x 0.5
2
= 27.75kNm
Overturning moment = 15.3 kNm
. 27.75
Factor of safety agamst overturning = -- = 1.8 > 1.5 OK
15.3
-----t-4·5 kN
T2SkNm
i
JS.SkN/m
.. 'r.: ·~;~-· . i;.., _.-.;.:· .< ~
.
. 1
. - .. ~i .: ~. · . ···
',
·•1: .· _,· ·.
~
~~~~ . . ,• .. ~-·
"·.
· ..... • ; .-:~·- . ·-~.-.:.o
672
.- .. q . -~"· ·, • • e"..
.....
MASS 165kN/m2
SK 6/68 Soil pressure diagram on CONCRETE
mass concrete side-bearing
foundation in cohesionless soil.
Note: This is a very conservative estimate of factor of safety against overturning

because in practice the value of moment resisted by side bearing will not
be restricted to 9. 7 kNm but will increase till the pressure diagram becomes
rectangular and not triangular as assumed in the analysis.
Maximum pressure at x/2 from ground level = 1.65dx MN/m2

= 1.65 x 20 x 10-3 x 1.092
x 103kN/m2
= 36kN/m2
Maximum passive pressure that can be generated at x/2 = 66 x 1.092/2 =
36kN/m2
Step 8 to Step 21
Not required.

Use C25 mass concrete L:> 25 N/mm2
Bending about vertical plane:
follow same principle as in Example 6.3.
Bending about horizontal plane:
Overhang = 200 mm
Maximum shear assuming uniform pressure of 165 kN/m2 less weight of
foundation= 1.5 x 25 = 37.5 kN/m2
Net pressure upwards= 165 - 37.5 = 127.5 kN/m2
Shear= 127 .5 x 0.3 x 1.0 = 38.2 kN
38.2 x 103
Shear stress = x = 0.025N/mm2 negligible OK
1500 1000
Bending stress need not be checked.
6.9 FIGURES FOR CHAPTER 6
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Fig. 6.2 Calculation of mean vertical stress (oJ at depth z beneath rectangular area
ax b on surface, loaded at uniform pressure q.;
fl
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Chapter 7
Design of Piled Foundations
7 .0 NOTATION
a Deflection due to slenderness of a circular pile

av Distance of shear plane from nearest support
ax Deflection due to slenderness producing additional moment about x-axis
ay Deflection due to slenderness producing additional moment about y-axis
Ac Net area of concrete in a pile cross-section
AP Cross-sectional area of pile (m2)
As Surface area of pile in contact with soil
Av Total area of link bars perpendicular to longitudinal bars
Ase Total area of steel reinforcement in a pile
Ast Area of tensile reinforcement in pile cap
A,v Area of steel effective in resisting shear in a pile
Asx Area of tensile steel in a pile section resisting moment about b-axis
Asy Area of tensile steel in a pile section resisting moment about h-axis
b Overall dimension of rectangular pile section
b' Effective depth of tensile reinforcement in b direction
B Width or diameter of pile
B Overall width of a group of piles
c Soil cohesion for a stratum (kN/m2)
CH Horizontal load-carrying capacity of a single pile
Cv Vertical load-carrying capacity of a single pile
d Effective depth to tensile reinforcement in a concrete section
D Depth of a group of piles below ground
Dr Relative density
ex Eccentricity of combined unfactored vertical load on pile cap in x-direction
ey Eccentricity of combined unfactored vertical load on pile cap in y-direction
ehx Eccentricity in x-direction of combined unfactored horizontal load Hy
ehy Eccentricity in y-direction of combined unfactored horizontal load Hx
Er Stress-strain modulus of pile material (kN/m2)
Es Stress-strain modulus of soil (kN/m2)
fc Stress in concrete due to prestress alone
Is Skin resistance at soil/pile interface
ft Maximum design principal tensile stress in concrete
IY Characteristic yield strength of steel reinforcement
lei Cube strength of concrete at transfer of prestress
293
fcp Average concrete stress in a prestressed concrete section after losses

Jpe Average tensile stress in steel tendons after all losses
fpu Characteristic ultimate strength of steel tendons
fyv Characteristic yield strength of shear reinforcement
h Overall depth of pile cap
h Overall dimension of a rectangular pile
h Overall diameter of a circular pile
h' Effective depth of tensile reinforcement in a rectangular pile in h-direction
H Unfactored horizontal load on a single circular pile
H; Unfactored combined horizontal loads on pile cap in x-direction
Hy Unfactored combined horizontal loads on pile cap in y-direction
Hpx Unfactored horizontal load on a single pile in x-direction
Hp_v Unfactored horizontal load on a single pile in y-direction
Hxu Ultimate horizontal load on pile cap in x-direction
Hyu Ultimate horizontal load on pile cap in y-direction
Hpxu Ultimate horizontal load on a single pile in x-direction
H pyu Ultimate horizontal load on a single pile in y-direction
Ir Moment of inertia of pile (rn")
/2 Polar moment of inertia of a group of piles about z-axis through CG
lxx Moment of inertia of a group of piles about x-x axis through CG of group
lyy Moment of inertia of a group of piles about y-y axis through CG of group
k, Modulus of subgrade reaction of soil (kN/m3)
K, Coefficient of friction
K1 Factor used to determine transmission length of prestressing wires or
strand
le Effective length of pile for calculation of slenderness ratio
[0 Unsupported length of pile
11 Transmission length of prestressing wires or strands
L Depth of penetration of pile
L Overall length of a group of piles
Lb Average depth of pile in ground
m Modular ratio Es! Ee
m; Coefficient of volume compressibility (m2/kN)
M Factored bending moment in a circular pile section
M0 Moment to produce zero stress at tension fibre of a prestressed section
with 0.8fcp (average uniform prestress)
MP Unfactored bending moment in a single circular pile
Mx Unfactored combined moment on pile cap about x-axis
My Unfactored combined moment on pile cap about y-axis
M~ Modified bending moment about x-axis to account for biaxial bending
M_~ Modified bending moment about y-axis to account for biaxial bending
M: Unfactored moment about x-axis due to eccentric surcharge on pile cap
Mj Unfactored moment about y-axis due to eccentric surcharge on pile cap
Mpx Unfactored bending moment in a single pile about x-axis due to Hp_v
Mp_v Unfactored bending moment in a single pile about y-axis due to Hpx
Mxx Unfactored combined moment on pile group about x-axis
M_vy Unfactored combined moment on pile group about y-axis
Design of Piled Foundations 295
Mpxu Ultimate bending moment in pile about x-axis

Mpyu Ultimate bending moment in pile about y-axis
Maddx Additional bending moment in pile about x-axis due to slenderness
Maddy Additional bending moment in pile about y-axis due to slenderness
n Slenderness ratio in a prestressed pile
N Statistical average of SPT number for a soil stratum
N Combined vertical load on pile cap - unfactored
Nq Soil bearing capacity coefficient as per Terzaghi
Nu Ultimate vertical load on a circular pile
Ny Soil bearing capacity coefficient as per Terzaghi
N~ Adjusted bearing capacity factor for cohesion
N~ Adjusted bearing capacity factor for LIB > 1
Nuz Design ultimate capacity of a concrete section subjected to axial load only
Nbal Design axial load capacity of a balanced section ( = 0.25fcubd)
p Percentage of tensile reinforcement in a circular pile
Px Percentage of tensile reinforcement in a pile section to resist bending
about x-axis
P_v Percentage of tensile reinforcement in a pile section to resist bending
about y-axis
p Total vertical load on a group of piles
Pa Allowable unfactored vertical load on pile
Pu Ultimate axial compressive load on pile
Ppu End-bearing resistance of pile
P,; Skin friction resistance of pile
ij Effective vertical stress at pile point
qc Statistical average of cone resistance of soil in a stratum (kN/m2)
qu Unconfined compressive strength (kN/m2)
qcs Side friction resistance in a cone penetrometer
R Number of piles in a group
R;H Initial estimate of number of piles based on total horizontal load
R;v Initial estimate of number of piles based on total vertical load
s Spacing of nodes in pile for finite element analysis
Sv Spacing of links used as shear reinforcement
T Unfactored torsion on a group of piles
Ta Allowable unfactored tension load on pile
Tu Ultimate axial tensile load on pile
u Perimeter at punching shear plane in a pile cap
v Shear stress in concrete in pile cap
Design concrete shear stress in concrete
Shear stress in concrete for shear due to bending about x-axis
Shear stress in concrete for shear due to bending about y-axis
Modified design shear stress to take into account axial compression
Design shear stress in concrete for shear due to bending about x-axis
Design shear stress in concrete for shear due to bending about y-axis
Ultimate shear force in a circular pile section
Shear resistance of a concrete section
Shear resistance of uncracked prestressed section
Shear resistance of cracked prestressed section
w Weight of pile (kN)

Coefficient for calculation of skin resistance of a pile

f3 Factor for computation of effective length of a pile
f3 Factor for conversion of biaxial bending moment into uniaxial bending
y Unit weight of soil (kN/m3)
b Angle of friction between soil and concrete
µ Poisson's ratio
<!> Angle of internal friction
<!> Nominal diameter of tendon in prestressed concrete section
7.1 VERTICAL LOAD - SINGLE PILE CAPACITY
Pu =Applied load
1 · r
Psi 1\ tPsi
1 , tSkin friction
1 t
Ppu= End bearing SK 711 Single pile capacity.
Pu = Ppu + LPsi - W
Tu= r.P,; + W
where Pu = ultimate compressive load on pile
Tu ultimate tensile load on pile
=
LP5; skin friction resistance
=
Ppu= end-bearing resistance
W = weight of pile
First method for point resistance
(see Reference 6, page 602)
where AP = cross-sectional area of pile (m2)

N = statistical average of the SPT number in a zone of about 88
above to 3B below the pile point
B = width or diameter of pile

Lb = average depth of pile in the ground
Second method for point resistance

Ppu = Apqc (see Reference 6, page 602)
where Ap = cross-sectional area of pile (m2)
qc = statistical average of cone point resistance in a zone of about
88 above to 3B below pile point (kN/m2)
Third method for point resistance

(see Reference 6, page 598)
where Ap =
cross-sectional area of pile (m2)
c =
cohesion or undrained shear strength Su = qul2 kN/m2
qu = unconfined compressive strength
ij = effective vertical stress at pile point
N~ = adjusted bearing capacity factor for cohesion (see Fig. 7.2)
N~ = bearing capacity factor adjusted for LI b > 1 dependent on
initial angle of shearing resistance (see Fig. 7.2). (See
Reference 8, page 600.)
L = depth of penetration
LIB should be greater than Lei B as obtained from Fig. 7 .2 for the value
of <j>.
Note: Find point resistance by more than one method if soil test data allow and
take the lowest for a conservative estimate.
Determination of skin resistance

LP,; = LAsfs
where As = pile perimeter x pile length over which ls acts (m2)
ls = skin resistance (kN/m2)
First method of skin resistance
fs = 2NkN/m2 for large volume displacement piles
ls= NkN/m2 for small volume displacement piles
where N = statistical average blow count in stratum for SPT.
Second method of skin resistance

ls = 0.005qc kN/m2
where qc = cone penetration resistance (kN/m2).
Third method of skin resistance

ls= qcskN/m2 for small volume displacement piles
ls = l.5qcs to 2.0qcs for large volume displacement piles
where qcs = side friction resistance in cone penetrometer.
Fourth method of skin resistance

ls= a:c + 0.5 q Kstan6 (see Reference 8, page 603)
where c = average cohesion or Su of stratum (kN/m2)
q= effective vertical stress (kN/m2)
6 = angle of friction between soil and pile
Ks = coefficient of friction
D, = relative density of sand.
Table 7.1 Values of K, (Reference 8, page 603).
Pile type ?) Ks for low D, Ks for high D,
Steel 20° 0.5 1.0

Concrete 0.75<1> 1.0 2.0
Wood 0.67<)> 1.5 4.0
(See Reference 7, page 136.)
Table 7.2 Values of n (Reference 7, page 126).
Soil condition Values of n
DIB c=50 c= 100 c= 150 c=200 c=250
Sands or sandy gravel <10 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0

overlying stiff to very 20 1.0 0.9 0.75 0.75 0.75
stiff cohesive soil >40 0.9 0.65 0.4 0.4 0.4
Soft clays or silts 10 0.35 0.30 0.25 0.2 0.2
overlying stiff to very >20 0.75 0.70 0.63 0.55 0.5
stiff cohesive soil
Stiff to very stiff 10 0.9 0.7 0.3 0.2 0.2
cohesive soils without >40 1.0 0.9 0.3 0.3 0.3
overlying strata
The units of c are kN/m2
Note: Find skin resistance by more than one method if soil test data allow and
take an average.
Pu Tu
p =- T =-
a 2.5 a 2.5
where Pa = allowable pile load in compression

Ta = allowable pile load in tension
7.2 HORIZONTAL LOAD - SINGLE PILE CAPACITY
Method I Cohesive soils
k,B = l .3(EsB4)fI (~)

Etft 1 - µ
as per Vesic, 1961 (see Reference 6).
where k, = modulus of subgrade reaction (kN/m3)
B = width or diameter of pile (m)
E, = stress-strain modulus of soil (kN/m2)
Et = stress-strain modulus of pile material (kN/m2)
It= moment of inertia of pile (m")
µ= Poisson's ratio of soil
E, may be obtained by the following methods:
(1) Triaxial tests.

(2) Borehole pressuremeter tests.
(3) Es = 650N (kN/m2)
N = SPT number of blows.
(4) E, = 3 (1- 2µ)/mv where mv =coefficient of volume compress-
ibility (m2/kN).
Method 2 Cohesive soils

k; = 240qu kN/m3
where qu = unconfined compression strength (kN/m2).
Cohesionless soils
k, = 80 [CzqNq + C1 (0.5 y BNy)) kN/m3
as per Vesic (see Reference 8, page 631 and page 323, equation 9-8).
where C1 = C2 = 1.0 for square piles
C1 = 1.3 to 1.7 for circular piles
C2 = 2.0 to 4.4 for circular piles
q = effective stress (kN/m2)
y = unit weight of soil
Nq and Ny may be obtained from the following table (Hansen equations)
- see Reference 8, page 137, Table 4-4:
Finite element model of vertical pile

Spring stiffness= SBk, kN/m
where S = node spacing not greater than B
B = width or diameter of pile (m)
k; = modulus of subgrade reaction (kN/m3)
Table 7.3 Values of Nq and Ny (Reference 8, page 137).
<j> (degrees) Nq Ny
0 1.0 0
5 1.6 0.1
10 2.5 0.4
15 3.9 1.2
20 6.4 2.9
25 10.7 6.8
30 18.4 15.1
35 33.3 33.9
40 64.2 79.5
45 134.9 200.8
50 319.0 568.5
Rotation about
X Z axis
Translations about
x and y axis
Translations
SK 7 /2 Two-dimensionalmodel of
pile in soil (degrees of freedom -
'-Rotation about 1' top and bottom of pile).
Note: For horizontal loads which are not constant and are reversible or repetitive,
the top l.5B of pile may be assumed unsupported by soil.
Boundary conditions
(1) Free head pile
Translations x, y Free at top
Rotation z Free at top
Translations y Restrained at bottom
Rotation z Free at bottom
(2) Fixed head pile
Translations x, y Free at top
Rotation z Rigid at top
Translations y Restrained at bottom
Rotation z Free at bottom
Material type
For sustained horizontal load due to dead load, water pressure, earth
pressure, etc., use short-term Young's modulus of concrete for bending

moment computations but long-term Young's modulus of concrete for pile
head deformation.
For short-term horizontal loads due to wind, earthquake, crane surge,
etc., use short-term Young's modulus of concrete for bending moment and
deflection computations.
Software
Use any fully validated software which has a suite for analysis of 2-D plane
frame with sprung boundaries.
Member type
For rectangular pile use minimum width Bin all computations involving B.
A cracked section moment of inertia may be used for reinforced concrete
piles based on Section 2 .1.
7.3 PILE GROUP EFFECTS
7.3.1 Spacing of piles
S?:. 2B for end-bearing piles

S?:. 3B for friction piles
where S = spacing of piles
B = least width or diameter of pile.
Note: Piles carrying horizontal load should not be spaced at less than 3B.
7 .3.2 Pile group capacity
Ultimate group capacity = group friction capacity + group end-bearing

capacity
Ultimate group friction capacity = 2D( B + L )ca'.
SK 7/3 Group of piles - plan of

overall dimensions of group.
Pile Cap
D
~G,oop
I Friction
Group Bearing
SK 714 Elevation of group of piles
showing group capacity.
where c = average cohesion of clay

= average Su = average qu/2
ex= coefficient (from Section 7.1, Table 7.2)
D = depth of pile group below ground
B = overall width of group
L = overall length of group.
Ultimate group end-bearing capacity= BL (N~c + ijN~)

where c = cohesion or undrained shear strength Su = quf2 at bottom of
pile group
qu = unconfined compressive strength
ij = effective stress at bottom of pile group
N~ = bearing capacity factor (see Fig. 7.2)
N~ = bearing capacity factor (see Fig. 7.2)
Note: Total vertical load on a group of piles should not exceed the group
capacity. Individual pile loads inside the group will be limited by the single
pile capacity. Piles carrying horizontal load and spaced at 3B or more need
not be checked for group effects due to horizontal load.
ultimate group capacity + ultimate group

end-bearing capacity
Allowable group capacity = --------=-~--'-----
2.5
7 .4 ANALYSIS OF PILE LOADS AND PILE CAPS
7 .4.1 Rigid pile cap
N = combined vertical load on pile cap - unfactored

Mx = combined moment about x-x - unfactored
My= combined moment about y-y - unfactored
SK 715 Loads and eccentricity on pile cap.
y
e,.
~v...- t Qf RI.
~invcrt1c~ 1r
l~IOl'l
~DM' Jey
x - ~~-i x
ehx tHy !
I
- -
SK 7/6 Plan view of loads and
eccentricity on pile cap. y
H; = combined horizontal load on pile cap - unfactored in x-x direction

Hy= combined horizontal load on pile cap - unfactored in y-y direction
ex= eccentricity of N from CG of pile group in x-x direction
ey = eccentricity of N from CG of pile group in y-y direction
ehx = eccentricity of Hy from CG of pile group in x- x direction
eh_v = eccentricity of H, from CG of pile group in y-y direction
h = depth of pile cap.
Loads on pile group
P = vertical load on pile group

= N + weight of pile cap + weight of backfill on pile cap + surcharge
on backfill
Mxx = moment about x-x on pile group
= Mx + Ney + H_.)1 + M:
Myy = moment about y-y on pile group
= My + Ne; + Hxh + M_~
y
/iC.G. of pile group
-~ I>"- ----- t·~ Et----
/· '
Y1
x ·----< Eo-- 1--. t--·--. lo--· x

y )2 Y3
y' '
-~--· I
I R= Total number of piles
'
x' x, x2 - ~x'
X= R
X3 X4
x XS -y = .!Rt
y x' and y' are orthogonal
distances of each pile
from corner pile
SK 7/7 Typical pile foundation showing CG of group and co-ordinates of piles.
C.G. of group
of piles v ~/R
x
Tr/lz
SK 718 Group of piles subject to

HORIZONTAL FO VE DIAGRAM ON A PILE horizontal loads and torsion.
where Mt and M_t are moments with respect to CG of pile group due to
eccentric surcharge on backfill or pile cap.
T = torsion on pile group
= Hxi!h_v + Hyehx
lxx ~y2 about x-x axis passing through CG of pile group
=
I vv = u2about y-y axis passing through CG of pile group
I, = lxx + t.,
R = number of piles in group.
Vertical load on a pile = ( ~) ± (MxxY) ± (Myyx)

R t., lyy
. . (Hi + H~)~ T(x2 + y2)!

Honzontal load on any pile = resultant of · and -----
R I,
Sign convention
Vertical loads: downwards positive
Torsion on pile group: clockwise positive
Moments on pile group: clockwise positive
+ve Mxx produces compression in piles which have +ve y ordinates.
+ve M_v_v produces compression in piles which have +ve X ordinates.
H, is positive in direction of increasing x in positive direction.
H; is positive in direction of increasing y in positive direction.

Eccentricities are +ve for +ve x and +ve for +ve y.
Bending moments in pile cap
x x
x x
SK 7 /9 Critical sections for

bending moment in a pile cap.
y v
Take sections X - X or Y- Y through pile cap at faces of columns or base

plates. Find pile reactions due to combined and load factored basic load
cases. Consider all upward and downward loadings across sections X - X
and Y-Y. Find bending moments across section. Find horizontal load on
each pile by using the following expressions:
where R is number of piles in pile cap. Find bending moments in pile Mpxu
corresponding to Hp_vu and Mpyu corresponding to Hpxu assuming an end
fixity to pile cap following the method in Section 7.2. Hxu and H_vu are
combined factored ultimate horizontal loads.
SK 7/10 Additional bending

moment in pile cap due to pile
fixity.
Algebraically add the bending moments in pile cap due to vertical load
and pile fixity moments due to horizontal load to find design bending
moments in pile cap.
7 .4.2 Flexible pile cap
Large pile caps including piled raft foundations should be modelled as

flexible. The modelling will normally be carried out using either a grillage
suite of a computer program or a general-purpose finite element program.
The piles should be modelled as springs in the vertical direction. The
vertical spring stiffness should be obtained from test results on site. A
parametric study can be carried out using minimum and maximum stiffness
of the pile if there is a large variation.
Grillage model
(1) Divide pile cap into an orthogonal grillage network of beams. Ensure
that piles are located at crossing of orthogonal beams. Each grillage
beam represents a certain width of pile cap.
(2) Use short-term Young's modulus for concrete material properties.
(3) Full section concrete stiffness properties may be used for hypothetical
grillage beams (hypothetical width x depth of pile cap).
(4) Piles will be modelled as sprung supports vertically.
(5) Vertical loads on pile cap may be dispersed at 45° up to central depth
of pile cap.
(6) Apply at each node with a pile, the moments given by the following
formulae:
Hvh
M =--- about x-axis
x R
Pile
+-+-+-+-------Pile
-----~+-+-+-+-----.-
+-+-+-+-~ . .
II
II
SK 7/11 Plan of raft on piles showing idealised grillage elements - flexible

analysis.
Column
Columngrillage
onto
load may spread
element
Pile Cap/Raft
spring
of raft al
Pile
as modelled clealised gr i Hage
element centre
elements
Pile---
SK 7/12 Part section through raft showing details of grillage idealisation.
about y-axis
(7) Find horizontal load on each pile by using the following expressions:
Hx Hv
Hpx = R and Hp_v = R
where R is total number of piles in group.
(8) Find bending moments in pile, Mpx corresponding to Hpy and Mpy
corresponding to Hpx• assuming an end fixity to pile cap following
method in Section 7.2. Apply these moments to pile cap grillage
model as nodal loads. The pile head to pile cap connection may be
assumed as hinged and then M px and M P.v will be zero.
(9) Find bending moments in pile cap by grillage analysis. Divide bending
moments by width of hypothetical strips of pile cap representing
grillage beams and obtain Mn My and Mxy in pile cap per metre
width. Apply load factors and combine basic load cases. Modify these
combined moments by Wood-Armer method to find design bending
moments.ltl.llJ
(10) Combine basic load cases at serviceability limit state to find reactions
at pile nodes. Compare maximum reaction with pile capacity.
Finite-element model
SK 7 /13 Typical finite element

modelling of a circular raft on
piles.
(1) Create a finite element model of pile cap using either 4-noded or
8-noded plate bending elements. The elements may only have three
degrees of freedom at each node viz z , ex and Sy. The piles will be
represented by vertical springs.
Piles will come at nodes in finite element model. Between two piles'
nodes there should be a minimum of one plate node without pile.
(2) Use short-term Young's modulus for concrete material properties.
(3) Full section concrete section properties may be used in the analysis.
(4) Vertical loads on pile cap may be dispersed at 45° up to central depth
of pile cap. These loads may be applied as nodal loads or uniformly
distributed loads on plate elements depending on software used.
(5) Apply at each node with a pile, the moments given by the following
formulae.
about x-axis
about y-axis
(6) Find horizontal load on each pile by using the following expressions:
u, H,
Hpx = R and Hpy = R
where R is total number of piles in group.
(7) Find bending moments in pile, Mpx corresponding to Hpy and Mpy
corresponding to Hpx• assuming an end fixity to pile cap following
method in Section 7.2. Apply these moments as nodal loads in finite
element model at nodes with piles. These moments will be zero in the
case of a hinged connection of pile to pile cap.
(8) Carry out analysis using a validated general-purpose finite element
software. Apply load factors to combine basic load cases. Modify the
combined Mn M, and Mxv using the Wood-Armer method to find
design bending m"oments.l1.1•121
(9) Combine basic load cases at serviceability limit state to find reactions
at pile nodes. Compare maximum reaction with rated pile capacity.
Applied loads on pile cap will be combined using the following principles.
7.5.1 Pile load calculations
LC1: l.ODL + l.OIL + l.OEP + 1.0CLV + 1.0CLH

LC2: 1.0DL + 1.0EP + l.OCLV + l.OCLH + I.OWL (or 1.0EL)
LC3: 1.0DL + 1.0/L + l.OEP + I.OWL (or l.OEL)
LC4: l.OL + 1.0WL (or l.OEL)
where DL =dead load
1L = imposed load
EP = earth pressure and water pressure
CLV = crane vertical loads
CLH = crane horizontal loads
WL =wind load
EL = earthquake load.
7 .5.2 Bending moment and shear calculations in pile cap or piles
LC5: l.4DL + l.6/L + l.4EP

LC6: 1.2DL + 1.2/L + 1.2EP + 1.2WL (or 1.2£L)
LC1: 1.4DL + 1.4WL (or 1.4£L) + 1.4EP
LC8: 1.0DL + l.4WL (or 1.4£L) + 1.4EP (if adverse)
LC9: 1.4DL + l.4CL V + 1.4CLH + 1.4EP
LC10: l.4DL + l.6CL V + l.4EP
LC11: 1.4DL + l.6CLH + 1.4EP
LC12: 1.2DL + 1.2CLV + 1.2CLH + 1.2EP + 1.2WL (or l.2£L)
7.6 STEP-BY-STEP DESIGN PROCEDURE FOR PILED FOUNDATIONS
Step 1 Select type of pile

The type of pile will depend on the following principal factors:
• Environmental issues like noise, vibration.

• Location of structure.
• Type of structure.
• Ground conditions.
• Durability requirements.
• Programme duration.
• Cost.
The commonly available types of piles can be broadly classified as below.
Large-displacementpiles (driven)
• Precast concrete.
• Prestressed concrete.
• Steel tube with closed end.
• Steel tube filled with concrete.
Small-displacement piles (driven)
• Precast concrete tube with open end.

• Prestressed concrete tube with open end.
• Steel H-section.
• Screw pile.
Non-displacement piles
• Bored and cast-in-situ concrete pile.

• Steel tube in bored hole filled with concrete.
• Steel or precast section in drilled hole.
Step 2 Determine vertical capacity of single pile

Follow Section 7 .1.
Step 3 Determine horizontal capacity of single pile

Note: Horizontal capacity of a single pile is limited by maximum deflection of

pile cap that structure can accommodate and also by pile structural capacity.
Step 4 Determine approximate number of piles and spacing

H
RiH =CH
R; = Riv or Ritt, whichever is greater

where R, = approximate number of piles
P = total vertical load on pile cap - unfactored
Cv = rated working load capacity of pile - vertical load
Ctt = rated working load capacity of pile - horizontal load
H = total horizontal load on pile cap - unfactored
I
= (H; + H;)i
Spacing of piles should be according to Section 7 .3. To minimise the cost
of pile cap, the spacing should be kept close to minimum allowed. Larger
spacing increases the pile group capacity and pile group moment capacity.
~~:~~~p
• • • C.G. of group
right cl Y-Y
·---+- -+---..-
• • • • •
x x
• •
SK 7/14 Determination of
• t :~·
C.G.ofgroup l~C.G.of group
C.G. of the
Pile Group
approximate number of piles. left of V- Y below X- X
(1) Select a group of piles with approximate number of piles= R;.

(2) Find CG of pile group and locate orthogonal axes x-x and y-y
through the CG.
(3) Find CG of group of piles on left of axis y-y and right of axis y-y.
(4) Find the x-axis distance between these two CGs and call it Sx.
(5) Similarly, find s, about y-axis.
(6) Find Mxf Pi=e.; and Myf P=ex, where M, and My are total combined
applied moments on pile cap about x-x and y-y respectively.
(7) Find exi S x and eyl s;
(8) Find Ex and s, from Fig. 7.1.
1.1 R;v
(9) R = -- ;?; Ritt
ExEy
where R = number of piles in group for checking pile load.
Note: The factor 1.1 is introduced to cater for additional vertical loads from self-
weight of pile cap, surcharge on pile caps, backfilling, etc.
Revise the number of piles in group from R, to R.

Step 5 Determine size of pile cap

Allow l.5B from centre of pile to edge of pile cap.
Depth of pile cap is governed by the following:
• Shrinking and swelling of clay.

• Frost attacks.
• Holding down bolt assemblies for columns.
• Water table and soluble sulphates.
• Pile anchorage.
• Punching shear capacity of pile cap.
Step 6 Carry out load combination

Follow Section 7.5.
Step 7 Check pile group effects

Follow Section 7.3.
Step 8 Carry out analysis of pile cap

Follow Section 7.4.

From the soils investigations report, find the concentration of sulphates
expressed as S03•
Find, from Table 17 of BS 8004: 1986[21, the appropriate type of concrete.
Table 7.4 Minimum cover to reinforcement for class of exposure.
Class of Total S03 Minimum cover Minimum cover

exposure percentage on blinding (mm) elsewhere (mm)
1 <0.2 35 75
2 0.2 to 0.5 40 80
3 0.5 to 1.0 50 90
4 LO to 2.0 60 100
5 >2.0 60 100
Note: Concrete in 'class of exposure 5' needs protective membrane, or coating.

The uneven heads of piles normally necessitate a minimum 75 mm cover
over blinding for pile caps. The concrete piles will have minimum cover as
specified elsewhere.
Step 10 Calculate area of reinforcement in pile cap

M = bending moment as found in Step 8 at ultimate limit state
M
K = --2 s 0.156
/cubd
where /cu = concrete characteristic cube strength at 28 days
b = width of section over which moment acts

d = effective depth to tension reinforcement.
If K is greater than 0.156, increase depth of pile cap.
M
Ast= ---
0.87/yz
z = d[ 0.5 + J( J
0.25 - 0~9) :s 0.95d
Distribute this area of reinforcement uniformly across the section.
Note: The effective depth to tension reinforcement will be different in the two
orthogonal directions.
Step 11 Check shear stress in pile cap
Pile diameter +
Critical section for

shear check at f/5
" , inside pile
Column
,
\. /
Pile cap (effective depth= d)

SK 7115 Critical section for
checking shear stress in pile cap. Enhancemmt of shear stress is allowed if ays1·5d
The critical section for checking shear stress in a pile cap is Q'>/5 into the
pile. All piles with centres outside this line should be considered for
calculating shear across this section in pile cap. For shear enhancement, av
is from face of column to this critical section. No enhancement of shear
stress is allowed if av is greater than l.5d. Where pile spacing is more than
3<j> then enhancement of shear should be applied only on strips of width
3<j>. The rest of the section will be limited to unenhanced shear stress.
"LP
V=-:sv or enhanced Vet if applicable
Bd c
where "LP = sum of all pile reactions at ultimate loading on left of

section
B = width of pile cap at critical section
d = average effective depth at critical section
Vc1 = Ve e~) -s 0.8Vfcu or 5N/mm2
For rectangular piles the critical section may be considered at face of pile.
Pile with e,,quivalent

diameter + Critical section
for shear
t-----+-Vc (design concrete
shear stress)
-+-.I..+-,'--
L. ...1
-~r~-•t-----~v.
L.
3• 2d (enhanced desiqn
c 1i; concrete sheaf
stress)
Column
---+-Ve
r
L..J --t~tr-"""t:~---"..1-Vc lQ..
av
..+---+-Ve
SK 7 /16 Diagram showing zones

Pile cap of enhanced shear stress on critical
section.
The value of vc1 can be found from Figs 11.2 to 11.5 depending on
percentage of tensile reinforcement and !cu·
Shear capacity of section should be greater than or equal to applied
shear. Ultimate limit state analysis results should be used for checking
shear capacity.
Step 12 Check punching shear stress in pile cap
..
..,
A
Punching shear
pctrineter around
loaded area '
Check V < O·Bffc:i s5N/mm2
Punching shea perimeter

to nearest pile
>3 Check V <Ve
No check necessary if pile
spacing is less than J +
SK 7/17 Perimeters for punching shear checks.
When the spacing of piles is greater than 3 times the diameter of a pile
then the punching shear plane for column should be considered. For
rectangular piles the plane can be considered at face of pile. The stress on
this punching shear plane should not exceed vc depending on the percentage
of tensile reinforcement in pile cap.
Check of punching shear stress is also required at perimeter at face of
column or pile. This shear stress should not exceed 0.8y !cu or 5 N/mm2•
Punching shear penrneter

around pile-v<0·8Jfu;s5N/mm2
Punching shear
perimeter
\ I
'_,,
1'5d
SK 7118 Further perimeters for punching shear checks in a pile cap.
The punching shear planes for piles will depend on location of pile with
respect to edge of pile cap.
Find the perimeter U at punching shear plane.
p
v=-:Sv
Ud c
where P = ultimate vertical column load or ultimate vertical pile reaction

Ve = design concrete shear stress obtained from Figs 11.2 to 11.5.
Percentage area of tensile reinforcement for computation of design concrete

shear stress will be average percentage across punching shear planes.
Step 13 Check area of reinforcementin pile

Effective length of pile, le = ~10
where 10 = unsupported length of pile (piles which are not subjected to
horizontal load may be assumed fully supported by ground
from ground level; piles subjected to horizontal load may be
assumed supported by ground at a depth of 1.5b below
ground level where b is width of pile or diameter of pile)
13 = 1.2 for piles with head fixed to pile cap

= 1.6 for piles with head free to rotate.
Rectangular piles
-":;>M
y y
' • A~f2
l_ +--
I
h -- .p:x
L__ ·___
Asc_f 2
y
b
.I SK 7 /19 Typical section through a
rectangular pile.
(A) If lei b 'S 10, then treat piles as a short column.

(i) Pile with no moment
N = 0.4fcubh + 0. 75Ascfy
Check N;::::: applied direct load on pile.
(ii) Pile subjected to uniaxial moment
Find e=MIN and then e/h.
Find Nlbh and select appropriate table from Tables 11.8 to 11.17 depending
on !cu and k = dlh.
From appropriate table find p which satisfies value of Nlbh for given elh.
Find Ase= pbh/100.
Put Asc/2 on each face of pile equidistant from axis of moment.
Note: The moment M in pile is due to horizontal load as obtained in Step 3

following Section 7.2.
(iii) Pile subjected to biaxial moment
Assuming diameter of reinforcement and finding cover from Step 9, find h'
and n:
Find Mxlh' and Mylb'.
If Mxlh' > Mylb', then
M~ = u, + f3Mv (~)
. b'
If Mylb' > Mxlh', then
M~
.
= Mv
.
+ f3Mx (b')
h'
Find su;».
The values of~ are given in the table below.
Table 7.5 Values of 13 for biaxial bending of pile.
0 O. l 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 ~0.6

1.00 0.88 0.77 0.65 0.53 0.42 0.30
Design as uniaxial bending with N and M~ or M_~ whichever is more promi-

nent. Find Ase in manner described in (ii) for pile subjected to uniaxial
moment.
(B) If Leib> 10, then treat pile as a slender column.
1 (/
ax= 2000 t )2 hK
a = --1 (/ )2 bK
..!.
y 2000 b
Select Ase·
Nuz - N
K = -s 1
Nuz - Nbal
Nuz = 0.45fcuAc + 0.87/yAsc

Nbal = 0.25 fcubh
Ac= bh - Ase
Maddx = Na;
Maddy= Nay
Combine these additional moments with moments obtained from analysis
as in Step 3 following Section 7 .2. Design pile subjected to biaxial bending
as described previously.
Circular piles
SK 7/20 Typical section through a

h
circular pile. Uscz minimum six bars
(A) If lelh s: 10, then treat pile as a short column.

(i) Pile with no moment
Assume size of reinforcement and at least six bars.
Ac = 0.25n:h2 - Ase
N = 0.4/cuAc + 0.75A,cfy
Check N :=::applied vertical load on pile.
(ii) Pile with moment
Find e=MIN and the el R, where 2R=h.
Find N/h2 and select appropriate table from Tables 11.18 to 11.27
corresponding to !cu and k = h.fh,
Find p from appropriate table which satisfies N/h2 for given value of e/R.
Find Ase = pn:R2/100.
Use at least six bars.
(B) If lelh > 10, then treat pile as a slender column.

I~
a = --K (assume K = 1 conservatively)
2000h
Madd =Na
Combine this additional moment with moment obtained by analysis
in Step 3 following Section 7 .2. Design pile with moment as described
in (ii) above.
Step 14 Check stresses in prestressed concrete piles
v
• • y
x + x
y
• •
x y x SK 7 /21 Typical section of a
pretensioned prestressed pile.
Stresses may be checked at the serviceability limit state only as per

BS8110: Part 1, Section 4.[IJ
Permissible maximum compressive fibre stress in concrete= 0.4/cu
Assume pile as Class 3 member with a limiting crack width of 0.1 mm.
Hypothetical flexural tensile stress in concrete = 4.1 N/mm2

for Grade 40
= 4.8N/mm2
for Grade 50 and above
Depth factors to modify tensile stress are shown in the following table.
Depth (mm) Factor
Up to 400 1.0
500 0.95
600 0.9
N = direct service load on pile

Mxx = bending moment as obtained from Step 3 about axis x-x
M_v_v = bending moment as obtained from Step 3 about axis y-y.
Assume the pile section is uncracked.
Find Ac = area of concrete
lxx = moment of inertia about x-x axis
l_v_v = moment of inertia about y-y axis
P = residual prestress after all losses.
Maximum compressive stress in concrete = ( ~)Ac + (MxY)

fxx
+ (M_vx)
lyy
Maximum tensile stress in concrete = ( PA+cN) _ (M/~)

~
M_vx)
( lyy
m = modular ratio
Is = strand stress prior to release
le = stress in concrete due to prestress alone.
(1) Loss due to elastic shortenmg. . = (lOOmlc)

--- %
Is
(2) Loss due to relaxation of steel - refer to strand manufacturer's
brochure.
(3) Loss due to creep of concrete - follow clause 4.8.5 of BS 8110: Part
i.1•1
(4) Loss due to shrinkage of concrete - follow clause 4.8.4 of BS8110:
Part i.111
Note: Prestressed piles designed as fixed to pile cap must extend into pile cap by
a minimum distance equal to transmission length given by the following

equation:
Kt<!>
t, =-(mm)
vi:
where !cu = concrete cube strength at 28 days
K1 = 600 for plain or indented wire
= 400 for crimped wire
= 240 for 7-wire standard or super strand
= 360 for 7-wire drawn strand
 = nominal diameter of tendon.
Step 15 Check shear capacity of RC pile
b
b'
v
h h' X-+-+---->r-+---~-+--M~xu_X
>+---+--+----Asy
k----t-+--Asx
SK 7/22 Typical section through a

rectangular pile subject to biaxial
v bending and shear.
Ultimate limit state shear forces in pile are Hpxu and Hp.vu· Corresponding
bending moments in pile are Mp.vu and Mpxu· The ultimate coexistent
direct load on pile is Nu·
Rectangular piles
No shear check is necessary if·
MpxufNu S 0.6h
and Mp.vu!Nu s 0.6b
and Hpyufbh' s 0.8\lfcu s 5N/mm2
and Hpxufhb' s 0.8\lfcu s 5 N/mm2
Shear check is necessary if:
MpxufNu > 0.6h and/or Mp.vu/Nu > 0.6b
Find Vx = Hp_vufbh' and Vy = Hpxufhb'
Find Px = lOOAsxlbh' and P.v = IOOAs.vlhb'
Find Vex and Vey corresponding to Px and P.v from Figs 11.2 to 11.5.
Vx Vy
Check -+-~ 1
Vex Vey
If this check fails, provide shear reinforcement in the form of links.
Nu
y
b
Ac= bh
Enhancement of design
concrete shear stress
Enhancement of design =0·6 NuHxublMyuAc
concrete stress= 0·6 ~l:l Hyuh/ MxuAc Hxub/Myu~ 1·0
Hyuh/ Mxu'!ii: 1·0
SK 7 /24 Shear stress enhancement due to
SK 7 /23 Shear stress enhancement due to presence of axial load.
presence of axial load.
Note: Vex and Vey may be enhanced by using the following formulae due to
presence of an axial load Nu:
Hpyuhl Mpxu and Hpxubl Mpyu should be less than or equal to 1.0.
Shear reinforcement
bSv(v - v~)
Asv = ---'----'-"'
0.87[yv
where Asv =total area of legs in direction of shear
b =width of section perpendicular to direction of shear
=
S; spacing of links
[yv :s 460N/mm2 for links.
Circular piles
Nu = ultimate vertical load with Hpu

Hpu = combined ultimate horizontal load
Mpu = moment in pile due to Hpu
Asvx z bxSv(Vx -Vex>

- 0·87Jyv
Asvy ~ by5v(Vy-V~y) SK 7 /25 Shear reinforcement in a

0·87Jyv rectangular pile.
~
Mui~\ Asv<are of link)
Sv
SK 7 /26 Shear reinforcement in a

circular pile.
No shear check is necessary if'

Mpul Nu -s 0.60h and Hpul0.75Ac :s 0.8y fcu :s 5 N/mm2
where Ac= 0.25:Jth2•
Shear check is necessary if'
MpufNu>0.60h
Shear stress, v = Hpul0.75Ac
assuming 50% of bars effectively in tension
where As= total area of steel in pile.
Find Ve corresponding top from Figs 11.2 to 11.5.

The shear stress ve may be enhanced by using the following formula due to
presence of an axial load Nu:
,_ 0.6NuHpuh< ,/ < 2
Ve - Ve+ - 0.8vfeu - SN/mm
AeMpu
H puhl M pu should be less than or equal to 1. 0.
If v > v~, then use shear reinforcement.
where Av = total area of link bars perpendicular to longitudinal bars, i.e.

the two legs of hoop reinforcement
[yv = characteristic yield strength of link reinforcement
S = spacing of links.
Find z/R from appropriate table from Tables 11.18 to 11.27 corresponding
to fem h.lh, p, NIR2 and e/R.
Check Hpu ~Vs+ Ve
The total shear resistance for inclined links =
Vs= [0.87 [yAsv (cos <X +sin ex cot f)) (z/ S)]
where Asv = total area of link bars i.e. the two legs of hoop reinforcement.
f3 may be taken as 45° when ex is angle of inclination of link.
Step 16 Check shear capacity of prestressed pile
h d
Spiral link
.reinforcement
Spiral
link
Aps to find Ve
SECTION I
SK 7 /27 Typical section and 1

r
elevation of a prestressed concrete
pile. ELEVATION
Veo = 0.67bh(f~ + 0.8/cp/r)!

0.55fpe) M0V
Ver= ( 1 - --- v.bd + -- ~ O.lbdyfeu
/pu M
Ve = Veo or Ver as the case may be (kN) - design ultimate shear
resistance
Veo = shear resistance of section uncracked (kN)
Ver = shear resistance of section cracked (kN)

[1 = maximum design principal stress at the centroidal axis= 0.24y!cu
fep = design compressive stress at centroidal axis of concrete section due
to prestress alone
[pe = design effective prestress in tendons after all losses :S 0.6fpu
[pu = characteristic ultimate strength of tendons
Ve = design concrete shear strength from Figs 11.2 to 11.5 where percent-
age of steel reinforcement should include tendons plus any ordinary
untensioned longitudinal steel reinforcement in tensile zone of
section
d = effective depth to centroid of reinforcing steel in tension zone
where reinforcing steel should include tendons and any untensioned
reinforcement
!cu = characteristic cube concrete strength at 28 days
M 0 = moment to produce zero stress at tension fibre with 0.8fcp on
section.
+
-1c 0
l.Jl:l1formly_ prestressed Uiiform Prestress Stress due to M0
pile section =O·SJcp = =
M0 Zfc 0·8Zfcp
SK 7 /'28 Stress diagram for a symmetrical rectangular prestressed pile due to M0•
If Hpu < 0.5Vc, no shear reinforcement is required.

If Hpu <:: 0.5Vc, then provide shear reinforcement as follows.
Shear reinforcement
If horizontal shear on pile, Hpu, is less than or equal to (Ve+ 0.4bd) then,
A,v 0.4b
s, 0.87[yv
If horizontal shear on pile, Hpu, is more than (Ve+ 0.4bd) then,
Asv = Hpu - Ve
s, 0.87[yvd
Note: For biaxial bending and shear, check requirement for shear reinforcement
for each direction of bending separately, but allow for contribution of
concrete shear resistance Ve in one direction of loading only for calculation
of shear reinforcement. (See Step 7 of Section 4.3.1.)
Step 17 Check minimum reinforcement in RC pile

For rectangular and circular piles, lOOAsclAc 2: 0.4.
Step 18 Check minimum prestress in prestressed pile

I
Find slenderness ratio of pile = n = b
where b = minimum width of pile
I = total length of prestressed pile at commencement of driving.
Minimum prestress after losses = 60n psi

or = 0.4nN!mm2
If diesel hammer is used,
minimum prestress in concrete= 5 N/mm2
Step 19 Maximum reinforcement in pile

lOOAscf Ac :'.S 6
Step 20 Containment of reinforcement in pile

Minimum dia. of links= 0.25 x largest bar 2: 6 mm
Maximum spacing of Jinks= 12 x smallest dia. of bar
Step 21 Links in prestressed piles

At top and bottom 38 length of pile, provide 0.6% of volume of pile in
volume of link.
Step 22 Minimum tension reinforcement in pile cap

As 2: 0.0013bh in both directions
Step 23 Curtailment of bars in pile cap

A minimum anchorage of 12 times diameter of bar should be provided at
ends by bending bar up vertically. Additionally check that full tension
anchorage bond length is provided from critical section for bending in a
pile cap where design for flexure and requirement for flexural steel in
tension is determined. In finding anchorage bond length beyond that
section, actual area of steel provided may be taken into account.
Step 24 Spacing of bars in pile cap

Clear spacing of bars should not exceed 3d or 750 mm.
h Pile
r -, r -,
L
L = TensionAnchorage SK 7 /29 Typicalsection through a

Bond Length pile cap.
Percentage of reinforcement, Maximum clear spacing

lOOA,lbd (%) of bars in pile cap (mm)
1 or over 160
0.75 210
0.5 320
0.3 530
Less than 0.3 3d or 750
Note: This will deem to satisfy a crack width limitation of 0.3 mm.
Step 25 Early thermal cracking

See Chapter 3.

See Chapter 3.
Step 27 Connections
See Chapter 10 for connection of pile to pile cap and column to pile cap.
7. 7 WORKED EXAMPLE
Example 7.1 Pile cap for an internal column of a building

Size of column = 800 mm x 800 mm
Spacing of column = 8 m x 8 m on plan
Unfactored column loads
Dead Imposed Wind
Vertical load, N (kN) 1610 1480

Horizontal shear, H,. (kN) 28 18 156
Horizontal shear, Hy (kN) 112
Moment, M,. (kNm) 448
Moment, My (kNm) 112 72 624
Geotechnical information (see SK 7130)

Stratum 1
Average thickness of layer= 1.5 m
Classification: very loose yellow brown to brownish grey sandy silt.
Average N = 3 (SPT)
c = 11.3 kN/m2
= 40
y = 26kN/m3
Stratum 2
Average thickness of layer = 9m
Classification: soft to medium bluish-grey clayey silt.
Average N = 5 (SPT)
c = 20.2kN/m2
= 50
y = 24kN/m3
Ysat = 27 kN/m3
Stratum 3
Average thickness of layer = 2 m
Classification: stiff to very stiff bluish-grey silty clay.
Average N = 14 (SPT)
c = 60kN/m2
= 60
Ysai = 26 kN/m3
Stratum 4
Classification: dense to very dense mottled brown sandy silt.
c = 13.8kN/m2
= 31°
Ysat = 27 kN/m3
3~8 Reinforced Concrete
:r:
......
0.
w
Dt/1
WW
<.!) >-
< <
"'
w _J
"'
>U..
<O
::E:---------------
=> VERY LOOSE YELLOW BROWN 0
0
!;;: "' SANDY SILT N=3
~--------------------+
0
SOFT TO MEDIUM BLUISH-GREY a
a
CLAYEY SILT N=S AVERAGE 01
0
~ STIFF TO VERY STIFF BLUISH-GREY 0
0
~ SILTY CLAY N=14 AVERAGE N
:;;---------------
_,
::E: a
=> JENSE TO VERY DENSE MOTTLED BROWN a
0
~ SANDY SILT N=24 AVERAGE r-;
.,,
.....
VERY STIFF TO HARD C>

SILTY CLAY N=31 AVERAGE C>
C>
~
SK 7/30 Average ground condition

soil strata.
Stratum 5
Classification: very stiff to hard silty clay.
c = 71.5 KN/m2
cp = go
Ysat = 28 kN/m3
Water table at 3.0 m below ground level.
Step 1 Select type of pile

Considering all the factors as described in Step 1 of Section 7.6 it ts
decided to use a non-displacement pile.
Choose 600mm diameter bored and cast-in-situ concrete pile.
Step 2 Determine vertical capacity of pile

First method of point resistance
Assume pile to go into Stratum 5 and stop at 8.0m within Stratum 5.

Lb = average length of pile = (1.5 + 9 + 2 + 7 + 8) m = 27.5m
0.62
Ap = cross-sectional area of pile = rr x 4 = 0.283 m2
B = 0.60m
N = statistical average of SPT in a zone of about 8B above to 3B below
pile point = 31
27.5
Pru = 0.283 x 38 x 31 x -
= 15280kN
0.6
:S; 380N(Ap) = 380 x 31.0 x 0.283 = 3334 kN
Second method of point resistance

Ppu = Ap(N~c + qN~)
Ar = 0.283m2
c = 71.5kN/m2
Yw = 10kN/m3
q = effective vertical stress at pile point
= 1.5 x 26 + 1.5 x 24 + 7 .5 x 27 + 2 x 26 + 7 x 27 + 8 x 27
- (27 .5 - 3) x 10
= 489.5kN/m2
0
STRATUM 0
~ =26KN/m'
1
-- -
Lil
0
0
Water' Table ~=24KN!m'
~
-
STRATUM 0
0 ~sat=27KN/m'
2 LD
r--,
0
STRATUM 0
0 ~sot=26KN/m'
3 N
0
0
Lil
"-
"'
STRATUM 0
0
4 0
r-,
~sot=27KN/m'
STRATUM 0
0
5 0 asat=27KN/m'
CD
SK 7131 The pile penetrating

different strata.
L = 27.5m B = 0.60m
LIB=46 cp=8°
From Fig. 7 .2,
N~ = 3 N~ = 15 and LclB = 3.5
L Le
->>-
B B
Ppu = 0.283 [(15 x 71.5) + (3 x 489.5)] = 719kN
a
0
a
(D
0
CDO
(D
....
(X)
(Ilg-~-
(T)(X)
-
:__ 600 = B
SK 7132 Condition at bottom of

pile.
Determination of skin resistance

sr; ="'I.As/,
Used non-displacement pile of 600 mm diameter.
First method of skin resistance

t; = NkN/m2
Stratum 1
As1 = perimeter x depth of stratum
= 3t x 0.60 x 1.5
= 2.83m2
fs1 = 3kN/m2
Ps;1 = 3 x 2.83 = 8.5 kN
Stratum 2
As2 = 3t X 0.60 X 9 = 17 m2
fs2 = 5kN/m2
P si2 = 5 x 17 = 85 kN
Stratum 3
As3 = lt X 0.60 X 2 = 3.8m2
fs3 = 14kN/m2
Ps;J = 14 x 3.8 = 53.2 kN
Stratum 4
As4 = re X 0.60 X 7 = 13.2m2
f,4 = 24 kN/m2
Psi4 = 13.2 x 24 = 316.8kN
Stratum 5
Ass = re X 0.60 x 8 = 15.1 m2
fss = 31 kN/m2
Psis = 15.1 x 31 x 468.1 kN

sr;» 931.6kN
Fourth method of skin resistance

[« = C\'.C + 0.5<JKs tan b
Ignore the second term because b is very small.
Stratum 1
(\'. = 0.75 c = 11.3 kN/m2
Psil = Ast X fs1

Psit = 0.75 x 11.3 x 2.83 = 24 kN
Ast = 2.83m2
Stratum 2
(\'. = 0.75 c = 20.2 kN/m2
P«: = 0.75 x 20.2 x 17 = 257.2kN
As2 = 17m2
Stratum 3
(\'. = 0.75 c = 60kN/m2
Psi3 = 0.75 x 60 x 3.8 = 171 kN

A,3 = 3.8m2
Stratum 4
A;;4 = 13.2m2
(\'. = 2.0 say with high D,
c = 13.8 kN/m2 = 31°
Ks= 2.0 from chart

b = 0.75<1> = 23.25°
tan S = 0.43
q = effective vertical stress at middle of layer

= 1.5 x 26 + 1.5 x 24 + 7.5 x 27 + 2 x 26 + 3.5 x 27 - (16 - 3) x 10
= 294kN/m2
Is = o:c + 0.5q Ks tan b

P,;4 = 13.2 [2 x 13.8) + (0.5 x 294 x 2 x 0.43)) = 2033 kN
The fourth method of skin resistance is giving much higher values than the
first method and may be ignored from the point of view of conservatism.
Pu= r: + r;
= 719 + 932
= 1651kN
1651
Allowable working load on pile = -- = 660 kN
2.5
Designed pile is 600 mm diameter bored and cast in-situ concrete pile with ·
an average length of 27 .5 m to carry a working load of 660 kN. This is a
conservative theoretical estimate of single pile vertical load capacity and
must be verified by actual pile tests on site.
Step 3 Determine horizontal capacity of single pile

See Section 7. 2.
Assume cohesive soil.
Method 1
E, = 650N where N = SPT No.
Es of Stratum 1 = 650 x 3 = 1950kN/m2
Es of Stratum 2 = 650 x 5 = 3250 kN/m2
Es of Stratum 3 = 650 X 14 = 9100kN/m2
Es of Stratum 4 = 650 x 24 = 15 600 kN/m2
E, of Stratum 5 = 650 x 31 = 20150 kN/m2
ksB = 1.3(EsB4)fl (~)

Erlr 1 - µ,
Et = 28 x 106 kN/m2 for pile concrete
fr = (~) D4 = (~) x 0.604 = 6.36 x 10-3 m4
k,1B = 1672kN/m2 ks1 = 2787 kN/m3

ks2B = 2909kN/m2 k,2 4848 kN/m3
=
ks3B = 8875 kN/m2 ks3 = 14 792 kN/m3
ks4B = 15914kN/m2 k,4 = 26 523 kN/m3
k,sB = 20999kN/m2 k-s = 34998kN/m3
Method 2
k5 = 240qu kN/m2
= 480ckN/m2
k,1 = 480 x 11.3 = 5424kN/m3
k,2 = 480 x 20.2 = 9696kN/m3
k,3 = 480 x 60 = 28800kN/m3
k,4 = 480 x 13.8 = 6624kN/m3
k,5 = 480 x 71.5 = 34320kN/m3
The values given by Method 1 are smaller or softer which will produce
larger deflection and bending moments in pile.
For the sake of conservatism use values given by Method 1.
S = node spacing for finite element analysis = 0.60 m
B = 0.60m
spring stiffness = SBk, kN/m
0
0
"'
2
3
4
5
6
7
6
9
10
11
I
u 12
-c
lJ.J
E 13
E
0
0
14
\D
15
"'
ll"l 16
z
~ 17
>---
u 16
lJ.J
ll"l
0
19
l"1
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
26
29
30
SK 7 /33 Finite element model of
31 pile.
Ignore top l.SB of pile for lateral support from soil.

The whole length of pile need not be modelled.
Stratum 1
Spring stiffness = 0.60 x 0.60 x 2787
= 1003kN/m
Stratum 2
Spring stiffness = 0.60 x 0.60 x 4848
= 1745kN/m
Stratum 3
Spring stiffness = 0.60 x 0.60 x 14 792
= 5325 kN/m
Stratum 4
Spring stiffness = 0.60 x 0.6 x 26523 = 9548kN/m
Assume full fixity of pile with pile cap.
Apply unit load at top of pile and find pile stiffness and bending moment
and shear in pile using a two-dimensional computer program.
A= 0.283m2 I = 6.36 x 10-3 m4
Results of computer run

Maximum moment = 2.48 kNm/kN
Pile top deflection = 0.12 mm/kN
Single pile horizontal stiffness = lOOO = 8333 kN/m
0.12
Step 4 Determine approximate number of piles and spacing

Maximum vertical load on pile cap = 1610 + 1480 = 3090kN = P
p 3090
Riv = Cv = 660
= 4. 7
Assume maximum allowable horizontal displacement of pile cap is 10 mm.

Maximum horizontal load = 28 + 18 + 156 = 202 kN = H
Maximum horizontal load on pile to limit deflection to 10 mm
= 8333 x 0.010
= 83 kN per pile
H 202
RiH = CH = 83 = 2.4
R, = greater of Riv and RiH = 4.7

l.lRi = 4.7 x 1.1 = 5.17
Use 6 no. piles.
2.48
1. 58
-0.56
10
-0.57
11
-0.57
12
-0.56
13
-0.52
11,
-0.48
15
-0.43
16
-0.37
17
-0.31
18
-0.25
19
-0. 19
20
-0. 14
21
-0. 11
22
-0.09
23
-0.05
24
-0.02 SK 7/'34 Bending moment (kNm)
25 due to 1 kN horizontal load at top
0 of pile.
Step 5 Determine size of pile cap

B = diameter of pile = 0.6 m
l.5B = 1.5 x 0.6 = 0.9 m
Allow 0.9 m from centre of pile to edge of pile cap.

Assume 0.9m depth of pile cap.
900 1800 1800 900
SK 7 /35 Layout of piles under pile

cap.
Spacing of piles > 38::::: 3 x 0.6 = 1.8 m
Size of pile cap assumed is 5.4 m x 3.6 m x 0.9 m.
Estimation of load on pile

LC1 = 1.0DL + I.OIL
N = 1610 + 1480 = 3090 kN
H, = 28 + 18 = 46 kN
n, = OkN
Mx = OkNm
My = 112 + 72 = 184kNm
LC3 = 1.0DL + I.OIL + l.OWL

N = 3090kN
Wind in x-x direction
Hx = 46 + 156 = 202 kN
Hy= OkN
M, = OkNm
My = 184 + 624 = 808kNm
Wind in y-y direction
H, = 46kN
H, = 112kN
M, = 448kNm
M; = 184kNm
LC4 = l.ODL + l.OWL

N = 1610kN
Wind in x- x direction
H, = 28 + 156 = 184 kN
H; = OkN
Mx = OkNm
My= 112 + 624 = 736kNm
H, = 28kN
H; = ll2kN
M, = 448kNm
My= 112kNm
Estimation of loads on piles for bending moment and shear calculations in pile
cap
LC5 = 1.4DL + 1.6/L
N = 1.4 x 1610 + 1480 x 1.6 = 4622kN
H, = 1.4 x 28 + 1.6 x 18 = 68 kN
H; = OkN
M, = OkNm
My= 1.4 x 112 + 1.6 x 72 = 272kNm
LC6 = 1.2DL + 1.2/L + l.2WL

N = 1.2 x 1610 + 1.2 x 1480 = 3708 kN
H; = 1.2 x (28 + 18 + 156) = 242.4 kN
Hy= OkN
M, = OkNm
My = l.2 x (112 + 72 + 624) = 969.6kNm
H, = 1.2 x (28 + 18) = 55.2 kN
H; = 1.2 x 112 = 134.4 kN
M, = 1.2 X 448 = 537.6 kNm

My = 1.2 x (112 + 72) = 220.8 kNm
LC7 = l.4DL + 1.4WL

N = 1.4 x 1610 = 2254 kN
H, = 1.4 (28 + 156) = 257.6kN
Hy= OkN
II T031985 0011425 6TT II
900 1800 1800 900
SK 7 /35 Layout of piles under pile

cap.
Spacing of piles ze 38;:;:: 3 x 0.6 = 1.8 m

Size of pile cap assumed is 5.4m x 3.6m x 0.9m.
Estimation of load on pile

LC1 = l.ODL + I.OIL
N = 1610 + 1480 = 3090kN
H, = 28 + 18 = 46kN
Hy= OkN
Mx = OkNm
My = 112 + 72 = 184kNm
LC3 = l.ODL + 1.0/L + 1.0WL

N = 3090kN
H; = 46 + 156 = 202kN
Hy= OkN
M; = OkNm
My = 184 + 624 = 808 kNm
H, = 46kN
Hy= 112kN
M; = 448kNm
My= 184kNm
LC4 = 1.0DL + 1.0WL

c = 71.5 kN/m2 at bottom of group

ij = effective stress at bottom of group = 489.5 kN/m2 (see Step 2)
N'
N! = = 3}
15 for = 8°
Group end-bearing capacity = 1.8 x 3.6 x (15 x 71.5 + 489.5 x 3)

= 16465kN
Ultimate group capacity = 7996 + 16465 = 24461 kN

24461
Allowable group capacity = -- = 9784 kN
2.5
Allowable group capacity based on single pile capacity = 6 x 660 =
3960kN
Design basis is single pile capacity.
Step 8 Carry out analysis of pile cap

Assume that pile cap is rigid. Assume 500mm backfill on top of pile cap.
Assume a surcharge of 5kN/m2 on backfill with no eccentricity.
It is always advisable to use the table as presented.
W = weight of pile cap
+ weight of backfill on pile cap
+ weight of surcharge on backfill
= 5.4m x 3.6m x 0.9m x 24kN/m3
+ 5.4 x 3.6 x 0.5 m x 20 kN/m3
+ 5.4 x 3.6 x 5 kN/m2
= 712kN
Maximum service load on pile without wind = 665 kN
Maximum service load on pile with wind = 771 kN
y
x x
x- -
T-1/--T--
, -- - --, - -- - r--- +---+--X
&-- $--EB--
SK 7 /37 Calculations of pile group
y stiffness.
0000000000
...,.00...,.\QNN\OV"lN_.
.,..;~.,..;....;~r-i~ci<"'i<"'i
NOONO<"l<"lOO!'--\QO-.
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00 00
- - \Q
N _.
<')
00~0~00~0~
V") V") '° !'--
0000000000
0000000000
°' °' °'

°' cie- ci ci ci°' ci ci°' ci°' ci ci
ci °' °'
0000000000
0000000000
0000000000
0000000000
...,. 00
OONONoo-io-0
-
- -
~ ("f"';
-
lr)
~
\Q00...,.00 ~s
$~g:g
;;; ~;;;~ Sj ~
...-400...-4f"'--..,.....NO-.NO-
- Sf~
+II
+
-t: e,
:.::"'
+ '<
... ~.c
~:.::"'
+ +
~'<II
~'<f....
0\0'<1"t"--M'<1"000\NN
o..tr--iMr--i.....:..tr--iviM
0V)O-t----N0V)00
....
0
~""
~r2~~~~gg8~
..... -
V)....,f"--NOOMV)Of"---
\Ot"'-\0-000NN--
'C>t"--f"--V)V)0\0\0\t"--t"--
E
o.
N
0
E II
N
00
~
""
'<1" 00 '<1" 'Cl N N 'Cl V) N ...., E ;;:)
vio\vi.....:r--'.Mr--'.oc--ic--i
~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ 2:
- - ....~
+
-.....fr
00
II ~
(/)
~~
00 00 'Cl M
I I~ ~ 00 00
V) 'Cl
V) V) 'Cl r-
-
N N
.....
00
-
'Cl
V) ~
N
E
Q,,
I
I cc:
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OI
NNNNNO\NN....,....,
0 0 0 N N ...., 'Cl 'Cl V) V)
OOOOOOMM'C>V)V)NN
MMMNNV)'<1"'<1"MM
~
's,
c:
0
-g"' II
j :t::
SURCHARGE ON BACKFILL
y
900 1600 1600 900
400 400
0
<y--
0
-(f- en
0
0
en
x- - -.----- x
4--~~ -4--
0
0
m
0
0
en
SK 7138 General arrangement of

pile cap and piles. y
Allowable service load on pile without wind = 660 kN OK

Allowable service load on pile with wind= 660 x 1.25 = 825 kN OK
Bending moment and shear force in pile cap
400 ' 1 1400
0
0
en
0
.........,,____ __ -- -
...
0
SK 7 /39 Critical sections for

calculation of bending moment in
pile cap.
Sections 1-1 and 2-2 are taken at the face of column.

Assume column size = 800 mm x 800 mm
Dead load of pile cap+ surcharge+ backfill= 0.9 x 24 + 0.5 x 20 + 5 =
36.6kN/m2
Applying load factors for different load cases:
1.4 x 36.6 = 51.2 kN/m2
1.2 x 36.6 = 43.9 kN/m2
= bending moment due to dead load of pile cap etc. on section 1-1
3.6 x 51.2 x 2.32 = 487.5 kNm
2
3.6 x 43.9 x 2.32 0
or = 418. kNm
2
M].2 = Bending moment due to dead load of pile cap etc. on section 2-2
5.4 x 51.2 x 1.42
= 271.0kNm
2
or 5.4 x 43.9 x 1.42 = 232.3 kNm

2
3 180
120 900
4 4
SK 7140 Critical sections for shear.

From soil test reports, the total S03 is 0. 75%. This means it is Class 3
exposure (see table in Step 9 of Section 7.6).
Minimum cover on blinding concrete = 50 mm
Minimum cover elsewhere = 90 mm
Assume 90 mm cover for pile cap everywhere.
Step 10 Calculate area of reinforcement in pile cap

M = bending moment in pile cap as found in Step 8.
M11 = 2264.9kNm from table in Step 8.
"I° 0 0 "I°~
....: ..t 0 r-: <')
;;)8;J:)~~
N N N _.,.....
'°
00
00
..Q ..Q
-o -o
oO 00
e-
NN
l(") l(")
N o. N
N °'
I I I I I
0 r- r:-- 0 c:
~~§~~
c:
-
N~~
I
<')
I
!")
I
--
c: c:
NN
I I
c:i..
<.:!
u
Cl)
:a.
.s
...
<.:!
Cl)
~
~c
<.:!
ti
c
Cl)
E
0
E <I)
ell
c ~0
:ac -e
<.:!
Cl) 0
~ ...J
For this load case, pile fixity moment= 19.0 kNm per pile.
Pile fixity moment on pile cap is opposite in sign to moment M11 and may
be ignored.
Assume 20 mm diameter reinforcement.
d, = 900 - 90 (cover) - 10 (half bar dia.) = 800mm b = 3.6m
!cu = 30N/mm2 for concrete in pile cap
K = ~ = 2264.9 x 106 = 0.033

fcubd2 30 X 3600 X 8002
z = d[ 0.5 + J( 0.25 - 0~9)]

= 0.96d :S 0.95d = 760mm
M11 _ 2264.9 x 106
A - - ------- = 7447mm 2
st - 0.87fyZ - 0.87 X 460 X 760
Assume Jy = 460 N/mm2 for HT reinforcement
Area of 20mm dia. bar = 314mm2 24 x 314 = 7536mm2
Use 24 no. 20mm diameter bars equally spaced (approximate spacing
150 mm) in the x- x direction.
M22 = 1134kNm from table in Step 8.
Ignore the effect of pile fixity moments.
Assume 12 mm diameter reinforcement.
dy = 900 - 90(cover - 20(bar dia.) - 6(half bar) = 784mm
K = M22 = 1134 x 106 = O.Oll

fcubd2 30 X 5400 X 7842
z = 0.95d by inspection
= 0.95 x 784 = 745 mm
M22 1134 x 106 2
Ast = 0.87/yz = 0.87 x 460 x 745 = 3803mm
Area of 12 mm dia. bar = 113 mm2 34 x 113 = 3842 mm2
Use 34 no. 12 mm diameter bars equally spaced (approximate spacing
155 mm) in the y-y direction.
(See also Step 22 for minimum reinforcement.)
All bars are high tensile reinforcement to be placed at bottom of pile cap.
There is no requirement for bars on top of pile cap.
SK 7 /42 Pile cap reinforcement. 24 - ¢20
Step 11 Check shear stress in pile cap

V33 = shear on critical section 3-3
= 1766. 9 kN (see table in Step 8)
av = 2700 - 400 (half column) - 1080 = 1220mm
l.5dx = 1.5 X 800 = 1200 mm

hence no enhancement of shear stress is allowed
v = _.!:'.:. = 1766.9 x 103 0 6lN/mm2

bd 3600 x 800 = .
lOOAs 100 x 7536
p = -- = = 0.26%
bd 3600 x 800
Ve = 0.425 N/mm2 < 0.61 N/mm2 from Fig. 11.3
400 1200 1100

av
SK 7143 Critical shear plane in pile

cap.
The cheapest alternative is to bring the outer piles in towards the centre of
pile cap by 20 mm in the x- x direction only. This has very little effect on
pile reactions.
av= 1200mm l.5dx = 1200mm
2d 2 x 800
1200 = 1.333
Increase grade of concrete from !cu= 30N/mm2 to !cu= 40N/mm2 in pile

cap.
Vet = 0.47N/mm2 from Figs 11.2 to 11.5
Vcz = Vc1(~) = 0.47 X 1.333
= 0.63 N/mm2 > 0.61 N/mm2 OK

V44 = shear on critical section 4-4
= 2511.4 kN (see table in Step 8).
av = 1800 - 1200 + 120 - 400 (half column) = 320 mm
1.5dy = 1.5 x 784 = 1176mm >av
2dy = 2 x 784
4·9
av 320 =
p = lOOAsc = 100 x 3482 = 0.08%
bd 5400 x 784
(See Step 22 for minimum percentage of reinforcement.)
Vc1 = 0.40N/mm2 for fcu = 40N/mm2
Vc2 = 0.40 X 4.9 = l.96N/mm2
v 2511 x 103
vc = bd = 5400 x 784
= 0.59N/mm2 < l.96N/mm2 OK
Step 12 Check punching shear stress in pile cap
1.5 dx ..
1200
1
0
oo
CD 01
- ---+ _!
l
1-- --i-1-j-- -
'f 'f
SK 7/44 Critical planes for
CR!TJCAL PLANE
punching shear of piles in pile cap. FOR PUNCHING SHEAR
U1 = perimeter of column = 2 (800 + 800) = 3200 mm

Since pile spacing is not greater than 3 times diameter of pile, then
punching shear stress at critical perimeter for column need not be checked.
U2 = perimeter on punching shear critical plane for pile load
= 2300 + 2256 = 4556 mm
Ultimate maximum column load, N = 4622 kN from table in Step 8.
Ultimate maximum pile load, Q = 983 kN
N 4622 x 103
Column punching shear stress = - = ( OO )
U1d 3200 x 0.5 x 8 + 784
= l.82N/mm2 < 0.8\Jfcu or
5N/mm2 OK
983 x 103
Punching shear stress at perimeter of pile = ------
rt x 600 x 800
= 0.65N/mm2 < 0.8\Jfcu OK
Q 983 x 103
Pile punching shear stress = -d
U2
= 4556 (
x 0 .5 800 + 784
)
= 0.27N/mm2
Minimum Ve for Grade 40N/mm2 concrete = 0.40N/mm2 OK
Step 13 Check area of rein/orcement in pile

Unsupported length of pile, /0, is assumed negligible.
Assume lclh < 10.
The pile is treated as a short column. From tables in Step 8,
Qmax = 983kN with M = 28.1 kNm

Qmin = 367kN with M = 106.5 kNm
Max. shear, Vmax = 42.93 kN

Assume minimum cover is 75 mm.
h
600
SK 7/45 Pile reinforcement.
Allowing for links and bar diameter, assume h« = 420mm.

h, 420
h= 600 = 0.70 = k
M 28.1
!cu = 30N/mm2 e = - =- = 0.029m
N 983
!!.... = 0.029 = 0.095

R 0.3
983 x 103 = 2.73N/mm2

600 x 600
From Table 11.19, it is observed that minimum reinforcement may be

used.
Use minimum reinforcement.
For the second load case,
Qmin 367 X 1D3 / 2
-- = = lN mm
h2 600 x 600
e
-=1
R
Again use minimum reinforcement.
Step 14 Check stresses in prestressed concrete piles

Not required.
Step 15 Check shear capacity of RC pile

No shear check is necessary if Mpu1Nus0.60h.
Mpu __ 106.5 x 106
----- = 290mm
Nu 367 x 103
0.60h = 0.60 x 600 = 360 mm
42.93 x 1D3
0.75Ac 0.75 x n; x 6002/4
= 0.20 N/mm2 < 0.8y' fcu OK
Step 16 Check shear capacity of prestressed pile

Not required.
Step 17 Check minimum reinforcement in RC pile

lC)()Asc
-- ~ 0.4
Ac
A =Ac x 0.4
SC 100
3t x 3oo2 x 0.4
= 100
= 1131mm2
Use 6 no. 16mm dia. HT bars (1206mm2).
Step 18 Check minimum prestress in prestressed pile

Not required.
Step 19 Maximum reinforcement in pile

Not required.
Step 20 Containment of reinforcement in pile

Minimum dia. of links = 0.25 x bar dia. = 4mm ;;::: 6mm
Maximum spacing of links = 12 x smallest dia. of bar = 12 x 16
192mm
Use 6 mm dia. links at 175 mm centres.
Step 21 Links in prestressed piles

Not required.
Step 21 Minimum tension reinforcement in pile cap

A, ;;::: 0.0013bh in both directions
Minimum reinforcement in the x-x direction = 0.0013 x 3600 x 900 =
4212mm2
Provided 7536mm2 (see Step 10).
Minimum reinforcement in the y-y direction = 0.0013 x 5400 x 900 =
6318mm2
Area of 16mm dia. bar = 201 mm2 32 x 201 = 6432 mm2
Area required = 3842 mm2 from Step 10
Use 32 no. 16mm dia. bars equally spaced (approximate spacing 170mm)
in the y-y direction.
SK 7/46 Pile cap reinforcement

revised to suit minimum
24 - !ZS20 32 - !ZS16 reinforcement.
Step 23 Curtailment of bars in pile cap

Minimum anchorage at ends of bars is 12 x dia. of bar.
12 x 20 = 240mm
12 x 16 = 192mm
Provide a minimum 250 mm bent up length of pile bottom reinforcement.
Check full anchorage bond length of the main tension bars.
/cu = 40N/mm2
Reinforcement used is Type 2 deformed bars.
From Table 3.29 of BS8110: Part 1: 1985,Pl
tension anchorage length = 32<j> = 32 x 20 = 640 mm
More than 640 mm length of bar is available beyond section 1-1 in Step 8.
Step 24 Spacing of bars in pile cap

. . f lOOA,
Maximum percentage of rem orcement = p = --·
bd
= 100 x 7536 = 0.26%

3600 x 800
Maximum allowed clear spacing for p less 0.3% is 3d or 750 mm, whichever
is less.
Spacing of bars adopted is 150mm.
Step 25 Early thermal cracking

If it is felt necessary to limit early thermal cracking of concrete in pile cap
then minimum reinforcement on sides and top of pile cap should be
provided based on method of calculation shown in Chapter 2.

Normally the calculations in Step 24 will deem to satisfy the crack width
limitations of BS8110: Part 1: 1985.111
If calculations are necessary to prove the limitations of crack width due
to flexure in pile cap then methods shown in Chapter 3 should be followed.
Step 27 Connection of pile to pile cap

From Step 17, 16mm HT Type 2 deformed bars are used.
From Table 3.29 of BS 8110,
full anchorage bond length = 32<j>; 32 x 16 = 512mm
The bars from the pile will project 600mm into pile cap. (See general
recommendations for design of connections in Chapter 10.)
7 .8 FIGURES FOR CHAPTER 7
1 ·0
""' '""'~
0·9
0·8 <,
E o1 r--.......
-.....
I'-... ....._
0·6
OS
01 02 03 04 OS
e
06
r-..
07 08 -- 0'9
....._
10
Fig. 7. I Determination of pile

s efficiency.
1000 ... 16
8
6
7 12
,f' 8
4
,_
,a '(;: 4
0
.o-100 ~
~
<: -
2
8
;j ~
.l/'l ~ / I
/ :y/ I
v
<:0- 6 ...
<:...., 4
/ v/ -:v
...
y
,/
V' I
,,"'
/
/
/
11 I ~'
~
v 20
/
t> -: v~i / 1
v /
/
I I )'
. . /i/ v J v
....
I I/ ...... . .~ v
i.: v
---- V1 IY ~~
2
vv v 2
1
li
0 10 20 30 40
1
Fig. 7 .2 Bearing capacity factors
for deep foundations. B,deg
Chapter 8
Design of Walls
8.0 NOTATION
au Deflection due to slenderness of wall

aej Distances from compression face to centroid of layers of concrete in
compression
atj Distances from compression face to centroid of layers of tensile
reinforcement
A Area bounded by median line of wall in closed cell
Ac Net area of concrete in a section of wall
Ac Centroid of compression in a wall section
Ah Area of steel in shear reinforcement placed horizontally in in-plane
direction
AT Centroid of tensile steel in a wall section
Av Area of steel in shear reinforcement placed vertically
Ase Area of steel in compression in a section of wall
A.; Total area of steel in tension in a wall section for in-plane bending
Aso Total area of steel in tension in a wall section for out-of-plane bending
Astj Layers of tensile steel reinforcement in wall for stress analysis
A~tj Layers of compressive steel reinforcement in wall for stress analysis
b Actual width of flange of a shear wall
b Unit width of wall for out-of-plane bending
be Effective width of flange of a shear wall
B Plan length of wall for the computation of moment of inertia
c Coefficient to determine torsional stiffness of a rectangular section
C Torsional stiffness of a rectangular section
d Effective depth from compression face to centroid of tensile steel
d, Effective depth of tensile steel in wall for in-plane bending
d0 Effective depth of tensile steel in wall for out-of-plane bending
e Eccentricity of load on wall section for in-plane bending
e3 Slenderness coefficient of slender braced plain wall
ex Resultant eccentricity of all loads at right angles to plane of wall
ex.l Resultant eccentricity of loads at top of wall
ex.2 Resultant eccentricity of loads at bottom of wall
E Modulus of elasticity
fe Stress in concrete compression
fv Characteristic yield strength of reinforcement
/51 Tensile stress in steel reinforcement
355
G Modulus of rigidity
h Thickness of wall
hf Thickness of flange of a shear wall section
hw Thickness of web of a shear wall section
H Height of wall
He Effective height of wall
H0 Clear height of wall
J Torsional stiffness of a closed cell structure
K Factor to determine additional moment due to slenderness
L Length of wall in in-plane direction
m Modular ratio E,I Ee
M Applied bending moment on a concrete section
M' Modified applied moment to account for axial load
M1 In-plane applied bending moment in a wall section
MoH Out-of-plane bending moment in wall about horizontal plane
Mov Out-of-plane bending moment in wall about vertical plane
Madd Additional bending moment in out-of-plane direction due to slenderness
n.; Total design ultimate axial load on a wall
N Axial load
Nov In-plane axial load due to out-of-plane loading on wall panel
p, Percentage of tensile steel for in-plane bending of wall
p0 Percentage of tensile steel for out-of-plane bending of wall
q Shear flow in components of a closed cell (kN/m)
Q1 In-plane shear flow due to torsion in a closed cell
R Restraint factor
s Median length of wall
Sh Spacing of horizontal shear reinforcement to resist in-plane shear
Sv Spacing of vertical shear reinforcement to resist in-plane shear
T Torsion (kNm)
v; Shear stress in concrete wall section due to V;
v ci Design concrete shear stress in wall section for in-plane bending
Vco Design concrete shear stress in wall section for out-of-plane bending
v0h Shear stress in concrete wall section due to VoH
v~; Modified design concrete shear stress for in-plane bending
v~0 Modified design concrete shear stress for out-of-plane bending
Vi Combined in-plane flexural shear and torsional shear
Vi In-plane shear force in a wall section
Vs; Shear resistance of shear reinforcement for in-plane shear
V,0 Shear resistance of shear reinforcement for out-of-plane shear
V~; Available concrete shear strength for in-plane bending after allowing
for VoH
V~ 0 Available concrete shear strength for out-of-plane bending after allowing
for Vi
VoH Out-of-plane shear about horizontal plane
V0v Out-of-plane shear about vertical plane
x Depth of neutral axis from compression face
X; Shear flow in the components of a closed cell (kN/m)
Design of Walls 357
Coefficient to determine effective height of wall

Factor for determination of deflection due to slenderness of wall
Rate of twist (radians per metre length of member)
Factor to determine effective width of flange of shear wall
8.1 ANALYSIS OF WALLS
8.1.1 Walls and properties of walls
8.1.1.1 Definitions
r
L
ELEVATION OF WALL
._I _ ___.13
I. L>4h J
SK 8/1 Plan and elevation of
concrete wall. PLAN OF WALL
Wall is a vertical load-bearing member whose length exceeds four times its
thickness.
Unbraced wall is designed to carry lateral loads (horizontal loads) in
addition to vertical loads.
Braced wall does not carry any lateral loads (horizontal loads). All hori-
zontal loads are carried by principal structural bracings or lateral supports.
Reinforced wall contains at least the minimum quantities of reinforcement.
Plain wall contains either no reinforcement or less than the minimum
quantity of reinforcement.
Stocky wall is where the effective height (He) divided by the thickness (h)
does not exceed 15 for a braced wall and 10 for an unbraced wall.
Slender wall is a wall other than a stocky wall.
8.1.1.2 Effectiveheights
8.1.1.2.1 Reinforced wail - monolithic construction
MONOL I THJC
CONSTRUCT I ON
SK 8/2 Wall monolithically

constructed with slab and
foundation.
He= ~Ho
where H0 = clear height of wall.
Values of ~ for braced walls.
End condition at top End condition at bottom
1 0.75 0.80
2 0.80 0.85
Values of ~ for unbraced walls.
End condition at top End condition at bottom
l 1.2 1.3
2 1.3 1.5
Design of Walls 359
Ho --+--+.-~hr END CONDITION
--+-----_b2 ENO C~OITION
ENO CONDITION
-------t-----'h3
CD
WALL F [ XEO TO
FOUNDATION
SK 8/3 Wall/slab construction WALLS MONOLITHIC WITH SLAB OR

showing end conditions. FOUNDATION
8.1.1.2.2 Reinforced wall - simply supported construction

He = 0.75H0 for braced wall where lateral support resists lateral move-
ment and rotation
He= H0 for braced walls where lateral supports resist lateral movement
He = l.5H0 for unbraced wall with a roof slab or a floor slab at top
He = 2.0H0 for unbraced wall with other forms of construction at top
SK 814 Slab simply supported on

wall.
8. I. I. 2.3 Reinfarced wall - cantilever construction

for moment connection at foundation
8.1.1.2.4 Braced plain wall

With translation and rotation restraint at any lateral support:
He= 0.75H0
With translation restraint only at any lateral support:
He= Ho
Cantilever construction:
SK 8/5 Cantilever wall.
for rotational and lateral restraint at foundation

Design of Walls 361
8.1.1.2.5 Unbraced plain wall

Supporting a roof or a floor slab:
He = l.5H0
For other walls with lateral restraints:
He= 2.0H0
For cantilever plain wall:
He= 3.0H0
8.1.1.3 Effectille width of flanges for in-plane bending

The effective width is width of wall perpendicular to direction of horizontal
loading which is considered as effective as compression flange, and also
vertical reinforcement provided in this width acts in tension as in tension
flange. These factors for effective width are based on the recommendations in
BS5400: Part 5_(3J
2bs
bs 2xACTUAL
ACTUAL WIDTH
WIDTH
SK 8/6 Effective width of flange on plan of wall SK 817 Effective width of flanges of a closed
arrangement. cell on plan.
1~
I
L-1-------=-b.______..,
1
ACTUAL
WIOTH
I
I
2b2
2x ACTUAL
WIDTH
SK 8/8 Effective width of flanges of a channel SK 819 Effective width of flanges of a channel
shaped shear wall on plan. shaped shear wall on plan.
L b3
ACTUAL WIDTH
b4
ACTUAL WIDTH
J SK 8/10 Effectivewidth of flanges
of an I-shaped shear wall on plan.
From diagrams of typical shear wall sections:

bei = 0.85 ti' bi
be2 = ti' b2
bc3 = 0.85 'ljJ b3
be4 = 0.85 'ljJ b4
bes = 0.85 'I' bs
be6 = 'I' b6
Effective breadth ratio 'ljJ for shear walls (see BS 5400: Part 5131).
b/H Uniformly distributed loading Point loading at top
Cantilever Continuous Cantilever Continuous

wall wall wall wall
0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0

0.05 0.82 0.77 0.91 0.84
0.10 0.68 0.58 0.80 0.67
0.20 0.52 0.41 0.67 0.49
0.40 0.35 0.24 0.49 0.30
0.60 0.27 0.15 0.38 0.19
0.80 0.21 0.12 0.30 0.14
1.00 0.18 0.11 0.24 0.12
b = actual width of flange

H = height of cantilever walls, or
= half height between monolithic horizontal restraints for continuous walls
Note: The flange width limitations by use of a factor 'ljJ are required to take into
account shear lag effects. For ultimate limit state analysis, effects of shear
lag in compression flange are sometimes ignored, but effective tension
reinforcement in flange for in-plane bending should be limited within
effective flange width as given by above expressions.
Design of Walls 363
/' H
===11
I I
I
SK 8/11 Cantilever shear wall.
SK 8/12 Continuous shear wall.
8.1.1.4 Moment of inertia and shear area

The moment of inertia and shear area to be used for the computation of
deflections of a cantilever shear wall structure and also for input to a
computer program with a view to finding the interaction with other walls
and frame structures could follow the typical suggestions given below.
Type 1 shear wall
r
81
.,
-
cl
82
h2
h., Hx
~ 13
SK 8/13 Type 1 shear wall. 14 s. J
for horizontal force Hn
Shear area = 0.8 (B1h1 + B3h3)
For horizontal force Hy,

1 3
Ix =
12h2B2
Shear area = 0.8B2h2
Type 2 shear wall
SK 8/14 Type 2 shear wall.
For horizontal force n..

1 3
t, = (2h1B1)
12
Shear area = 0.8 (2h1B1)
For horizontal force HY'
1 3
Ix = (2h2B2)
12
Shear area = 0.8 (2h2B2)
The above philosophy may be applied to any shape and size of shear wall
layout in a building. The stiffness of walls lying parallel to the direction of
loading may only be included in the computation.
Note: The flanges of the shear walls have been ignored, as in T-beams in building
frames, because the horizontal loads are generally of a reversible nature
Design of Walls 365
and concrete in alternate flanges goes into tension. Considering cracked

section moment of inertia including effective width of compression flanges
does not produce too dissimilar results.
The out-of-plane stiffness of walls may be ignored in the global 3-D
frame analysis.
8.1.1.5 Torsional stiffness
8.1.1.5.1 Open cell shear wall
-'-- -------.13
SK 8/15 Open cell shear wall. I. J
The torsional stiffness of individual wall elements should be added.
The torsional stiffness of the open cell as a whole is
C == c1hiB1 + c2h~B2 + c3h~B3
Values of coefficient c.
Blh 1 l.5 2 3 5 10
c 0.14 0.20 0.23 0.26 0.29 0.31
Note: In a global 3-D model each wall of the open cell shear wall may be modelled
separately as vertical stiffness elements. The property of each wall will
then include the individual torsional stiffness expressed as C == ch3 B.
8.1.1.5.2 Single closed cell shear wall

Torsional stiffness,
4A2 4A2
J = --- == ----
"i:.(B/h) 2Bi 2B2
-+-
h1 h2
I OF WALL ,, I OF WALL
..---c-------------,=3
SK 8/16 Single closed cell shear

wall.
A = B1B2 (area bounded by median line)

T = 2Aq
where T = torsion applied
q = shear flow (kN/m).
SK 8/17 Closed irregular cell

section subject to torsion.
The general formula for any single closed cell is given by:
4A2
1=-
f~
where A = area bounded by median line of wall thickness
h = thickness of wall
s = median length of wall.
Design of Walls '367
T
]=-
Ga
where T = torque applied = 2Aq
G = modulus of rigidity = E/2(1 + µ)
E = modulus of elasticity
0 = rate of twist in radians per metre length = (ql2AG) f (dslt)
q = shear flow (kN/m).
8.1.1.5.3 Multi-cell closed shear wall
-x
- x x
-
x4
f0 l
X1-2 X2- X3-4
I CD
x,
l l G) G) X4
SK 8/18 Closed multiple-cell

section subject to torsion.
'- x, - X2 x, - X4
General equation for unit twist of one cell:
0; = 1 ( X; . ds
2A-G J t -X;-1 . J . tds -X;+1 . J tds)
I l 1-l,.a: l,t+]
Pi-Li = f ds Pu+1 = J ds
ds
P; = I' t i-1,i t . +I
'·'
t
For compatibility, assume 0; = 8
-X;-1Pi-1.i + X;p; - X;+JP;,;+1 = 2A;G0

Assume XI = X/2G8
-XI-tPi-1,i + Xip, - XI+1P;,;+1 = A;
From this general equation:
Xlpi - X2P1.2 = A1
- XIP1.2 + X2P2 - X3P2.3 = A2
- x:z-2P11-2,11-I + x:.-1P11-l - x:.P11-l,n = A,,_I

- x:.-1P11-1.11 + x;,p,. = A,.
Solving for the unknowns in the above matrix gives values of x; to x;,.
II
T = 4G0 L A;XJ
I
When Tis known, 0 can be found.

T II
J =- = 4" AX
G0 f ''
Shear flow, X; = 2Gex; = (2;)x;
X;, ;+1 = X; - X;+1
8.1.2 Modelling for structural analysis
8.1.2 .1 Global analysis for in-plane fore es
Modelling as individual walls

Each individual wall can be modelled as a vertical beam element with
properties as described in Section 8.1.1.4 and 8.1.1.5.
BEAM ELEMENTS
1 EQUIVALENT BEAM ELEMENT
I. .I SK 8/20 A closed cell converted to one

equivalent beam element.
SK 8/19 Walls of a shear wall system converted
to equivalent beam elements.
Modelling as a combined unit

A set of walls can be combined to be represented by one beam element. In
this case the property of this beam element will be the summation of
properties for individual walls. The representative beam element may be
located at the CG of the wall configuration.
In the case of closed cell shear wall structure the equivalent torsional
stiffness will not be the sum of the individual torsional stiffnesses of the
walls. The equivalent torsional stiffness will be found as per Section
8.1.1.5.2. When a closed cell shear wall structure is modelled as individual
wall elements, then the torsional stiffness parameters for these individual
wall elements will be considered as negligible. A separate single beam
Design of Walls 369
BEAM TORSIONAL ELEMENT

I
SK 8/21 Cell converted to a

combination of flexural and
torsional elements. BEAM FLEXURAL ELEMENTS
element must be modelled to represent the torsional stiffness of the closed

cell system. This beam element will have no bending or shear stiffness but
only torsional stiffness. This element may be placed at the CG of the
closed cell structure. This separate torsional beam element will be con-
nected by rigid offsets with the individual wall bending elements.
The design of walls should be carried out on an individual wall basis.
The determination of individual wall moments and shears from the rep-
resentative single beam element will be carried out by using the relative
bending and shear stiffnesses of individual walls.
8.1.2.2 Local analysis for out-of-plane forces

Out-of-plane forces on the wall may be due to the following:
• Eccentric dead and live load.

• Wind pressure on wall panel.
• Earthquake wall mass excitation.
• Earth pressure on wall face.
• Water pressure on wall face.
• Thermal gradient across wall thickness.
Local analyses should be carried out using appropriate boundary conditions.

Published tables may be used to find out-of-plane bending moments and
shears. Combined bending moment triads using the Wood-Armer principle
should be used to find the reinforcement requirement.
For out-of-plane local analyses, follow the general guidelines in
Section 3.1.
For a complicated wall geometry, wall panels in the out-of-plane direction
may be modelled using hypothetical grillage elements using for solution a
grillage suite of a computer software.
-
8.2 STEP-BY-STEP DESIGN PROCEDURE FOR WALLS
Step 1 Find properties of wall system

Find moment of inertia and shear area (follow Section 8.1.1.4).
Step 2 Find torsional stiffness of wall system

Follow Section 8.1.1.5.
Step 3 Carry out modelling for analysis

Follow Sections 8.1.2.1 and 8.1.2.2.
Step 4 Carry out global analysis
SK 8/22 Description of in-plane

forces in a wall.
Find in-plane forces in walls. After analysis the following internal forces
should be available for each individual wall section in the system.
M1 = in-plane bending moments
Vi = in-plane shear force
Q1 = in-plane shear flow due to torsion
N = axial load
Step 5 Carry out local analysis

Find out-of-plane forces in walls (follow Section 8.1.2.2).
After analysis the following internal forces should be available for each
individual wall panel in the system.
Design of Walls 371
MoH/METRE
H Mov
+,-,11-rn 1 rr r Ll
VoH/METRE
SK 8/24 Out-of-plane internal forces in a wall

section.
MoH
SK 8/23 Elevation of a wall panel showing out-

of-plane moments.
Mott = out-of-plane bending moment about horizontal plane

Mov = out-of-plane bending moment about vertical plane
Vott = out-of-plane shear about horizontal plane
V0v = out-of-plane shear about vertical plane
Step 6 Carry out combination of loading

This should preferably be carried out in a tabular fashion for different load
cases. The load combinations should be generally as follows:
LC1 = l.4DL + l.6LL + l.4EP + 1.4WP
LC2 = 1.0DL + 1.4EP + l.4WP
LC3 = 1.4DL + 1.4WL + 1.4EP + l.4WP
LC4 = 1.0DL + 1.4WL + l.4EP + l.4WP
LC5 = l.2DL + l.2LL + 1.2WL + l.2EP + l.2WP
Note: Load combinations LC2 and LC4 should be considered only when dead
and live load have beneficial effects.
where D L = dead load

LL = live or superimposed load
WL = wind load or earthquake load
WP = water pressure
Step 7 Check slenderness of wall

Determine type of wall: braced, unbraced, plain or reinforced.
Find effective height (follow Section 8.1.1.2.1)
He= ~Ho
Check slenderness ratio Helh.
For braced reinforced wall with< 1 % reinforcement, limit of He! h :S 40.
For braced reinforced wall with2: 1 % reinforcement, limit of Helh s 45.

For unbraced reinforced wall and plain wall, limit of Hclh s 30.
If Helh s 15 (braced) or 10 (unbraced), then design as a stocky wall.
Otherwise, design as slender wall.
Step 8 Find effective width of flanges for reinforced wall

Step 9 Find additional out-of-plane moments about horizontal plane
(1) Moments due to minimum eccentricity of h/20 or 20mm of direct

loads from beams and slabs simply supported on wall.
(2) Moments due to slenderness of wall.
For Hcfh > 15 (braced) or >10 (unbraced):
Note: Wall braced or unbraced in the transverse direction only to be considered

for additional moments.
Deflection due to slenderness of wall, au = B K h
Assume K = 1 for conservatism.
f)
1 (Hc)
= 2000h 2
Mi+ Model
h
BRACED WALL Mi·Ma~UL L_J

Mi+ Madd
BOTH ENDS OF WALL FREE TO ROTATE
BUT RESTRAINED JN POSITION
Mi = Initial wall moment BRACED WALL UNBRACED WALL
SK 8/25 Wall additional moment. SK 8/26 Wall additional moments.
Additional moment due to slenderness, Madd =Na;

where N = direct ultimate load on wall.
Combine this additional moment, Madd• with any other out-of-plane

moments obtained from analysis using Figure 3.20 or Figure 3.21 of
BS8110: Part 1: 1985.Pl
Design of Walls 373
Note: These additional moments should be doubled if the wall has only one
central layer of reinforcement.
/
___... I _--1 .. Mi,
--'-'----Madd 11
Mi+ Madel
j.. Mi + Madd
jJ.Mi2+Madd/2 I I CANTILEVER WALL

r(;M;ld
SK 8/28 Wall additional
BRACED WALL UNBRACED WALL moments.
BOTH ENDS OF WALL RESTRAINED TO ROTATE

M; = Initial Moments in the wall from analysis.
SK 8/27 Wall additional moments.
These out-of-plane bending moments and shears are about a horizontal

plane.
Step 10 Design stocky braced reinforced wall with approximately symmetrical

arrangement of slabs
Spans of slab on either side of wall within :±: 15% and slab subjected to
uniform load.
n.; :s 0.35/cuAc + 0.67Ascfy
where nw = total design ultimate axial load on wall.

Determine cover to reinforcement as per Tables 11.6 and 11.7.
Step 12 Design of reinforced wall - rigorous method

Using the effective flange widths found in Step 8, find by elastic analysis
the stresses in the concrete and steel due to in-plane bending moment and
axial load only.
(1) Assume initially 0.40% area of steel in wall distributed uniformly in

two layers on two faces.
(2) Assume a value of x for depth of neutral axis from compression face.
(3) Divide compression zone into layers of concrete with depths dc1, da.
dcJ, etc. and find centres of these layers from compression face ac1,
acl• ac3• etc.
(4) Conveniently group bars in tension zone and find area of groups Asti.
be
-. As,K t ~-
OC2
1 -1---E+)-- - - -I
~ ~ A'st2 dc2
x
rn
0C3 -
A'st3 dC3
Oc•
m
-
A'st•
-
-
de•
Ot1
Ast 1
ITT
- Ot2
Ast2
rn
rn 0t3
Ast3
>---- at.
As t ,
~
>---- Ots
Asts
~ o«
As t s ® I
I. be .I SK 8/29 A typical example of
analysis of a shear wall.
A,12, A,13, etc. and also distances of these groups of bars from com-
pression face, i.e. a1i, a12, a13, etc.
(5) Find the following:
LA,ca1(a1 - x)
AT=-----~
LAsi(a1 - x)
S1 = Ac1 + (m - l)A~11
where Ac1 area of concrete in the layer 1 of concrete in com-
=
pression zone
A~11 = area of compressive reinforcement in layer 1 of con-
crete in compression zone
m = modular ratio = EJ Ee.
m:1:A ,1at + LSac

x = -------
mLA st+ :1:S
M in-plane bending moment
e = -=
N axial compression
le = Nx( e + AT - x)
(AT - Ac) L (x - ac)S
I« = (
(d - x)
)
[!e- L(x - ac)S - N
J
:1: a1 - x A,1 x
Design of Walls 375
(6) Finally check:
d
x=----
l + fst
mf;
If x is different from the assumed value then repeat the exercise with
a new assumed x until convergence is reached.
(7) Find final stresses /e and f,1 after convergence. If I« is greater than
0.87/y. then increase area of steel by proportion !st/0.87/y· If le is
greater than 0.45/eu• then increase thickness of wall.
(8) Find revised /e and /51 with increased reinforcement. There will be no
need to carry out the iteration to find x with increased reinforcement.
LAYER 1 - AVERAGE STRESS
x
LAYER 2 - AVERAGE
STRESS Fez
N A
Neutral Axis
SK 8/30 Elastic stress analysis of a

shear wall. STRESS DIAGRAM
(9) Draw stress diagram for in-plane bending moment and direct axial
load. Divide wall into unit lengths. Over each unit length convert the
average compressive stress in compression zone into a direct load by
multiplying with the area of the unit length of wall. This compression
force acts in combination with the out-of-plane bending moment in
that length of wall. Design reinforcement for out-of-plane bending
additional to that already provided in that unit length using Tables
11.8 to 11.17 - design tables for rectangular columns.
(10) In the tension zone of the wall subject to in-plane bending moment
and axial load only, assume the concrete as unstressed. Find reinforce-
ment required for out-of-plane bending moment as in an RC beam
following Step 10 of Section 2.3. Add this reinforcement to reinforce-
ment already provided for in-plane bending moment.
If reinforcement provided for in-plane bending is not fully stressed
to the ultimate limit of 0.87/Y' then the residual capacity of this
reinforcement may be used to withstand out-of-plane bending moment.
Average tensile strain in the tensile flange may be found and
converted to an average tensile force in the flange for computation of
reduced shear stress for out-of-plane bending. Conservatively ignore
concrete shear resistance in tension flange.
1-----1
I I
I I
I I
I I
SK 8/31 Out-of-plane bending of a
panel of a wall.
Note: Each panel of wall should be checked for global loads in both orthogonal
directions separately if these loads are not acting simultaneously. The
worst reinforcement from either of the two orthogonal loads will be used.
The out-of-plane bending moments for combination with in-plane bending
moments are about the horizontal plane.
Step 13 Design of reinforced wall - simple method
1 -~--~
L/2
L/2
SK 8/32 Analysis of a shear wall

against in-plane bending.
Flanged wall
M' = M + N
L 2hr)
( 2-
where M = in-plane bending moment
N = axial load.
M'
K = --2:s 0.156
fcubd
Design of Walls 377
z = d[ 0.5 + J( 0.25 - 0~9)] :5 0.95d
d - z
x=--
0.45
As = (o.~~YJ - (o.~ 1)
This reinforcement will be provided in effective width of flange in two
layers as shown. The web of the flanged wall will have the minimum
reinforcement unless dictated by out-of-plane bending moments or
reinforcement requirement as part of tension flange for other direction of
orthogonal load.
If x > ht, then follow Step 11 of Section 2.3.
The out-of-plane bending about a horizontal plane on either the wall
flange or the wall web may be due to the following:
(1) Out-of-plane framing action with supported slab.
(2) Slenderness of wall.
(3) Eccentric loads from beam or slab or any other structure on wall.
(4) Coacting horizontal loads on wall panel due to wind, earthquake,
water pressure or earth pressure.
(5) Thermal gradient across wall thickness.
The reinforcement for the out-of-plane bending moment about a horizontal

plane will be calculated as follows.
In the compression zone of concrete wall due to in-plane bending
moment, assume that the concrete has already reached the ultimate stage
COMRESSION ZONE
DUE TO M1
--(\Mr_
NA
SK 8/33 Analysis of a shear wall STRESS
against in-plane and out-of-plane TENSION ZONE DIAGRAM
bending. DUE TO M1
and cannot take any more load. Hence, the bending moment will be
resisted by equal amounts of compressive and tensile steel with a lever arm
equal to the distance between the two layers of steel.
In the tension zone of concrete wall due to in-plane bending moment,
assume that the concrete is unstressed and use the beam theory to find
reinforcement due to out-of-plane bending moment.
The reinforcement required due to out-of-plane bending moment will be
added to the reinforcement found for in-plane bending.
Step 14 Design of reinforced wall - short and squat cantilever - deep-beam approach
L Ast~ ARM FOR Mo"
Ast
I.
"5::00
I._--"--
d .. I l. csL-2H)/40
/ PLAN
C5L-2H)/20
SK 8/34 Design of a shear wall by
ELEVATION deep-beam method.
This approach may be used for walls with total height less than or equal to
their length. For in-plane bending consider the wall as a deep-beam and
follow the deep-beam theory of stress distribution.
For horizontal loading to resist in-plane bending moment
6H H
z=- when - :S 0.5
5 L
2(H + L) H
when 0.5 < L :S 1
5
Tension reinforcement to be distributed over a length of wall equal to
SL - 2H
20
d = L _ (5L ;O 2H)
L 5L - 2H)
M' = M + N ( 2- 40
As= (o.~~YJ - (o.~f)

Note: The flexural strain in concrete is very small in a short and squat cantilever
wall and for all practical purposes may be ignored when designing for the
Design of Walls 379
transverse out-of-plane bending moment. Use the normal beam theory to

find reinforcement for the transverse out-of-plane bending moment.
Add this additional reinforcement for transverse out-of-plane bending
moment to reinforcement already found for in-plane bending moment.
The out-of-plane bending moment in this context is about the horizontal
plane.
The flanges of the wall, if present, either in tension or compression may be
ignored if this deep-beam approach is used. The shear strains in a wall
with the aspect ratios of a deep beam may be high and a conservative
approach taking the shear-lag effect would be to ignore the flanges.
Step 15 Check shear
I 1· hw
_____ A _
N
Asi L
ht/2
SK 8/35 Design for in-plane shear.

---=E
be .. I h112
In-plane bending
lOOA,i
Pi=--
: hwdi
where p; = percentage of tensile reinforcement in in-plane direction
Asi = reinforcement available to resist in-plane bending
d, = effective depth as shown.
Vi
Vi = -'- :S 0.8\/fcu :S SN/mm2
hwdi
where vi = shear stress due to in-plane bending and torsional shear flow
in wall
Vi = combined in-plane shear
= flexural shear + torsional shear
= Vi + Q1 (see Step 4).
vci = design concrete in-plane shear stress depending on p, and /cu (see
Figs 11.2 to 11.5)
Aso
1b
_l
(Unit length
of wall)
SK 8/36 Design for out-of-plane
shear.
Out-of-plane bending
100A50
p 0 = ---,;;;---
0
where A, = reinforcement available to resist out-of-plane bending

0
b = unit length horizontally

d., = effective depth in transverse out-of-plane direction
p.; = percentage of tensile reinforcement in out-of-plane direction.
vco = design concrete out-of-plane shear stress depending on p0 and /cu
(see Figs 11.2 to 11.5)
VoH = out-of-plane shear about a horizontal plane over a unit width b.
No shear reinforcement is necessary if the following equation is satisfied:
Note: In Step 12 and Step 13 the wall is designed as flanged beams for in-plane
loading. For out-of-plane shear in the flanges which acts together with the
in-plane loading, the check should be carried out separately for compression
and tension flange. For compression flange the enhancement of design
shear stress due to axial load may be allowed based on average compressive
stress. For tension flange the concrete may be conservatively ignored and
the shear force will be totally carried by shear reinforcement. Alternatively,
average tensile strain in concrete may be found and the shear stress
reduction formula may be used.
Step 16 Calculate shear reinforcement
Note: Increase or decrease of design concrete shear stress due to presence of

axial load may be allowed following the formula on page 160.
Design of Walls 381
SK 8/37 In-plane shear

reinforcement in walls.
, -
. /// / r/
./
~'
Plan Elevation Side Elevation
Case 1: V0h < Vc0
V~j = (1 - - Voh) Vci

Voo
where v~i = available concrete shear strength in in-plane direction for use
with shear reinforcement.
Provide shear reinforcement in in-plane direction for a shear force equal to

(Vi - v~i) and check:
(Vi - v~i) ::s \!,i
where V,i = shear resistance of horizontal bars in wall for in-plane shear
sh = spacing of horizontal bar in wall
Ah = area of horizontal shear reinforcement
/y = characteristic yield strength of reinforcement.
Note: Provide equal amount of vertical shear reinforcement with horizontal

shear reinforcement.
Av= Ah
s. Sh
where Av = area of vertical shear reinforcement
S; = spacing of vertical shear reinforcement.
In this Case 1, no shear reinforcement is required for out-of-plane flexure.
Provide the shear reinforcement for in-plane shear in addition to other
bars required for in-plane and out-of-plane bending moments.
Case 2: Voh > Vco

where available concrete shear stress strength in in-plane direction

v~; =
for use with shear reinforcement
v~ = available concrete shear stress strength in out-of-plane
0
direction for use with shear reinforcement.

V~; = V~j hd;
V~0 = V~0 bd.,
Provide shear reinforcement m in-plane direction, as in Case 1, which
satisfies
SK 8/38 Out-of-plane shear

reinforcement in walls.
I b I Unit width
// /
v /
Side Elevation
As
JfEt'' c t't :11
Plan
Elevation
For shear reinforcement in out-of-plane horizontal direction, use links

through thickness of wall.
For out-of-plane horizontal directional shear, resistance from links, V,0,
for a unit length b is given by
where A, = area of links over a unit width b

S = vertical spacing of links.
Check VOH - V~0 ::S V.0
Note: If considerable ductility is required of a shear wall, as in seismic design,

the whole shear force should be carried by reinforcement and the shear
capacity of concrete may be ignored if the shear capacity of concrete is
exceeded.
Step 17 Check-out-of-plane bending about vertical plane

After local analysis of wall panel the bending moments, direct loads and
shears about the vertical plane in the panel are obtained.
Design of Walls 383
,--------~ Mov
Mov I Nov Nov
Mov cb_ Nov Nov_G:, Mov
Mov cb_ N Nov_d) Mov

I OV ~
Mov ~ ~o_y __ ~~..J
Mov
Elevation of Wall Panel
~.f1£<+~-o_v~~~-v~-+
SK 8/39 Internal forces in wall
N
vd-T TNov
panel due to out-of-plane loading. Plan of Wall Panel
Design horizontal reinforcement for flexure of wall panel about a vertical

plane. The procedure is the same as in Step 4 of Section 3.3.
Check shear stress and reinforcement for shear as in Step 6 of Section 3.3.
Step 18 Design of plain (not adequately reinforced) walls
(A) Stocky braced plain wall
SK 8/40 Eccentric loading on wall

in out-of-plane direction.
Check nw :5 0.3 (h - 2ex)fcu

where n.; = maximum ultimate axial load per unit length on wall
ex = resultant eccentricity of all loads at right angles to plane of
wall (minimum value of ex is h/20).
(B) Slender braced plain wall

Check nw :s 0.3 (h - 2ex)fcu
and n.; :::; 0.3 (h - l.2ex - 2ea)!cu
H~
e =--
a 2500h
where He = effective height (as per Section 8.1.1.2).

(C) Unbraced plain wall
Check n.; :S: 0.3 (h - 2e,, 1)/cu

and nw::; 0.3 [h - 2 (ex.2 + ea)]!cu
where ex.i = resultant eccentricity of loads at top of wall
ex.2 = resultant eccentricity of loads at bottom of wall.
Step 19 Shear check of plain walls

Check V :s: 0.25nw
where V = in-plane ultimate shear force per unit length.
Check v = -
v :s: 0.45 N/mm2
hb
where v = shear stress
b = unit length (mm).
Note: A plain wall subjected to in-plane shear should satisfy at least one of the
above checks.
Step 20 Check minimum reinforcement

Minimum compression (vertical) reinforcement in reinforced wall= 0.4%
tI; = 460N/mm2) of gross cross section
Minimum horizontal tension reinforcement to withstand out-of-plane
loads= 0.13% (/y = 460 N/mm2) of gross cross-section on each face
Minimum anti-crack reinforcement= 0.25% (fy = 460N/mm2) of gross
cross-section
Step 21 Check maximum reinforcement

Maximum vertical reinforcement in wall= 4% of gross cross-section
Step 22 Check containment of wall reinforcement

For vertical compression reinforcement in walls up to 2% of gross cross-
sectional area, use the following minimum horizontal bars:
0.25% of gross concrete area
Horizontal bar diameter should be greater than or equal to * size of
vertical bars but not less than 6 mm diameter.
For vertical compression reinforcement in walls greater than 2% of gross
cross-sectional area, use links through the thickness of wall.
Dia. of links 2: *dia. of vertical bars or 6mm, whichever is greater
Spacing of links 2: 2h in horizontal and vertical direction
Spacing of links in vertical direction should not be more than 16 times
vertical bar diameter.
Design of Walls 385
._I 1-1.......
1 - -1 - s 200
<!>
- r-.-
• , __ j
,-
vI
,_
-
,.,~ I ,-~¢
s 2h
Elevation of Wall
<ll-tt-
1~c:i i c: ~
r j j
:1r=:Ji
Diameter~ 114(1)
SK 8/41 Detailing rules for walls. Plan of Wall
Any vertical compression bar not enclosed by link should be within 200 mm of
a restrained bar.

Step 24 Clear spacing of bars in tension

Step 25 Connections
See Chapter 10.
8.3 WORKED EXAMPLE
Example 8.1 Reinforced concrete cell

Design the walls of a reinforced concrete cell which forms part of the
horizontal stability system of a building.
Step 1 Find properties of wall system

Stiffness in y-direction
Divide the wall cell system into six beam elements located at the centroid
of each wall.
Equivalent beam elements l, 2, 3 and 4 contribute to stiffness in
y-direction.
8500 4400
I
= =
~
®I
- -
II
~ .___
I
G)
r ~
x
®I 1®
I
;
1
-----
I
©
II
I I
I
8
U)
~.
~.
I I I
600 8000 1 14~ i 10000 sooli
400 400
SK 8/42 Location of flexural vertical beam elements.
Equivalent beam elements 1 and 4 (ignoring flanges)

1
1
x
= -12 x 600 x 112003 = 70.25m4
Shear area = 0.8 x 600 x 11200 = 5 .38 m2

1
Ix = 12
X 400 X 112oo3 = 46.84 m"
Shear area = 0.8 x 400 x 11200 = 3.58 m2
Note: The moments of inertia and shear area of equivalent beam elements 1, 2,
3, and 4 about the y-axis will be ignored in the analysis.
Stiffness in x-direction
Equivalent beam elements 5 and 6 contribute to stiffness in x-direction.
1 .
Iv
.
= -12 X 600 X 2400a3 = 691.2 m"
Shear area = 0.8 x 600 x 24000 = 11.52 m2
Note: The moments of inertia and shear area of equivalent beam elements 5 and
6 about the x-axis will be ignored in the analysis.
Step 2 Find torsional stiffness of wall system

Equivalent torsional rigidity element of the closed cell structure may be
located at the centroid of the cell.
Design of Walls 387
11800
. Wall No.5---, I
y
I
i
12200 .,
I- ,~Torsional
element
beam
I-wan No1
x ---
! J~ · i.- Wall No.3
- I x
I Wall No.2-1
I I
WallNo.4- ·
. Wall No6-, .
SK 8/43 Location of torsional IV

8500 4400 10500
vertical beam element.
By taking moments of areas about the left-hand edge of the cell,

0.6 x 10 x 0.3 + 0.4 x 10 x 8.8 + 0.4 x 10 x 13.2 + 0.6 x 10 x 23.7
+ 2 x 0.6 x 24 x 12
x = -------------------------
6 + 4 + 4 + 6 + 2 x 14.4
= 11.8m
Areas of cells on centreline are as follows:
Ai 10.6 x 8.5 = 90.lm2
=
A2 =
10.6 x 4.4 = 46.6m2
A3 = 10.6 x 10.5 = 111.3m2
Pi = L (length ~f each arm of cell 1)

thickness of arm
= (2 x 8.5) + (10.6) + (10.6)

0.6 0.6 0.4
= 72.5
Similarly,
= (2 x 4.4) + (2 x 10.6)
p2 0.6 0.4
= 67.7
p3 = (2 x 10.5) + (10.6) + (10.6)

0.6 0.6 0.4
= 79.2
10.6
Pu = 0.4 = 26.5
10.6
P 23. = -0.4 = 26.5
Substituting n = 3 in the general equations in Section 8.1.1.5.3.

XIP1 - X2Pu + 0 =Ai

- XIP1.2 + X2p2 - X3P2.3 = A2
0 - X!l.P2.3 + X)p3 = A 3
or 72.5X( - 26.5X2 + 0 = 90.1
-26.5Xj + 67.7X2 - 26.5X3 = 46.6
0 - 26.5X2 + 79.2X3 = 111.3
Solving these equations:

x; = 2.llm2 X2 = 2.38m2 x3 = 2.2m2
11=3
J = 4 L (A;X[)
I
= 4(A 1XI + A2X2 + A3X))

= 4(90.1 x 2.11 + 46.6 x 2.38 + 111.3 x 2.2)
= 2183.5m4
It is always useful to check at this stage the torsional rigidity of the outer
cell, ignoring the internal dividing walls. This gives confidence in the
numerical accuracy of the analysis.
For single outer cell:
4A2
J=--
L.(B!h)
4 x (23.4 x 10.6)2
(2 x 23.4/0.6) + (2 x 10.6/0.6)
= 2171 m4
This value is very close to the multiple cell rigidity.
Note: The torsional beam element to be used in the analysis will have negligible
moments of inertia and shear area.
X1
x,.2 X2.3 X3
CELL CEL,L CELL
CD 0 @
x,
SK 8/44 Torsional shear flow
x, diagram.
X1 = (2;)x; 2.18 = x 10-3TkN/m
X2 = (2J)x2 = 2.18 x 10-3TkN/m

Design of Walls 389
Step 3 Carry out modellingfor analysis

Follow recommendations in Section 8.1.2.1 and 8.1.2.2.
Step 4 Carry out global analysis

The results of the analysis for different loadings are as follows:
Global torsion
= +50000 kNm (clockwise) for horizontal load in y-direction
= +40000 kNm (clockwise) for horizontal load in x-dircction
Wall no. Load N Mi Vi Local shear flow

case (kN) (kNm) (kN) (kN/m)
DL 3180
LL 1325
WL(y) +20000 +1700 +97
DL 980
2 LL 615
WL(y) +13350 +1200 -12
DL 980
3 LL 615
WL(y) + 13 350 +1200 +8
DL 3180
4 LL 1325
WL(y) +20000 +1700 -101
DL 7200
5 LL 3125
WL(x) +35000 +3000 +87
DL 7200
6 LL 3125
WL(x) +35000 + 3000 -87
10600
--------
r--- - - ---- ----------,
: 8 i
.
jl l·1
: :I 0
lA cl 8
~
11
1/I·
I
SK 8/45 Elevation - Wall 1.

Step 5 Carry out local analysis

Find out-of-plane internal forces in wall panels (follow Section 8.1.2.2).
After analysis the following internal forces are reported:
Wall no. Line Load MoH VoH Mov Vov

case (kNm/m) (kN/m) (kNm/m) (kN/m)
DL
A LL
WL 28 26
DL 20 3
B LL 10 l
WL 32 30
DL
c LL
WL 28 26
DL 10 3
D LL 5 1
WL 32 30
B F K I
I I
I
I I
CIE GI j
0
8 IA I LI
~ I
I II
I
I
I I
I
I
I D H M I
l ,, ·o ., n ./ ., u . //
__,I SK 8/46 Elevation - Wall 5.
Wall 1 only will be designed as an example.

Wall 5 panels are shown in sketch to illustrate the location of lines where
results should be available for out-of-plane bending.
Note: The example shown uses only one value of bending moment and shear per
line of interest. In practice, more values along the line will have to be
considered.
Step 6 Carry out combination of loading

Most computer programs used for the analysis will automatically carry out
the combination according to principles described in Step 6 of Section 8.2.
Reproduced below is the result of one combination of Wall 1.
Load case LC3 = l.4DL + 1.4WL
Design of Walls 391
Wall I subject to WL (y-direction)

In-plane forces (see Step 4 in Section 8.2):
N = 4452kN
M1 = 28000kNm
Vi= 2380kN
Q1 = 1440kN (97 x 10.6 x 1.4)
Out-of-plane forces (see Step 5 in Section 8.2):
At line D (WL in y-direction),
MoH = 14kNm/m (dead load x 1.4)
VoH = 42kN/m (DL x 1.4)
On flanges (part of Wall 5 and 6),
MoH = 39 kNm/m (WL in y-direction)
VoH = 36kN/m (WL in y-direction)
Step 7 Check slenderness of wall

Follow Section 8.1.1.2.1.
Type of wall= unbraced, reinforced in the in-plane direction
600
SK 8/47 Section through Wall 1.
/cu = 30 N/mm2 [y = 460N/mm2

He= p Ho
H0 = clear height = 12.0m
Monolithic construction at top and bottom of wall.
Assume thickness of slab at top is 400mm.
End conditions are 1 at bottom and 2 at top.
.'. p = 1.3
He = 1.3 X 12000 = 15600mm
He 15600
-
h
= --
600
= 26 > 10 < 30 (limit for unbraced reinforced wall)
Design as slender wall.

~n Reinforced Concrete
. Step 8 Find effective width of flanges
600
SK 8/48 Plan of Wall 1 showing

effective flange widths.

Assume the shear wall behaves as a cantilever.
8500
b = - = 4250 H = 12000
2
b
- = 0.35
H
'I' = 0.53 for loading at top of wall
be = 'ljJ b = 0.53 X 4250 = 2250mm
Step 9 Find additional out-of-plane moments

Wall is assumed braced in the out-of-plane direction.
au = B Kh, He = ~ H0 = 0.8 X 12000 = 9600
Assume K = 1 for conservatism.
1 (He)2 256 0·128

B = 2000 h = 2000 =
au = 0.128h = 76.8 mm
Madd = Nau (out-of-plane)
= 4452 x 0.0768
= 342kNm
342
= - = 32.3 kNm/m
10.6
Step 10 Design stocky braced reinforced wall

Not applicable.
Design of Walls 393
16-2
16-2
SK 8/49 Moments due to
slenderness. Out-of-Plane Madd

Condition of exposure = mild
Minimum cement content = 275 kg/m3
Step 12 Design of reinforced wall - rigorous method
gl
8
(D
• -Asfi,]1
\:::! 0
H § •n----- Ast~ S
N
0
(D
8 Ast~-M
s::::!
N- 2
N
U')
~ • Ast1 8
~ s
0
N
~
. Asti
0
~o
CX) ~
3l 0
~
0 52
N
~ • Ast3
0
N Ast4
~ -1-
0
N
!e • Asts
§ •
SK 8/50 Elastic stress analysis of
Wall t. 2550 .I
(1) Assume 0.40% reinforcement in wall.

600 x 1000 x 0.40
Reinforcement per metre length = = 2400mm2/m
100
Use 1200mm2 on each face per metre length.
(2) Assume a value of x for depth of neutral axis from compression face.
x = 3000 mm assumed.
(3) Divide compression zone into convenient layers of concrete.
(4) Divide tension zone into convenient layers of steel.
(5) Find the following in completing the table:
S = Ac + (m - l}A~1
C1 = (x - ac)S
C2 = (x - ac)acS
C3 = (a, - x)Ast
C4 = (at - x)a1Ast
Number Ac A~, s ac Asi a1 c, C2 c, C4

(x 106) (x 106) (x 109) (x1012) ( x 106) (x 1010)
1 1.53 6120 1.62 300 3648 3760 4.374 1.312 2.772 1.042
2 0.72 2880 0.76 1200 3648 5280 1.368 1.642 8.317 4.392
3 0.72 2880 0.76 2400 3648 6800 0.456 1.094 13.862 9.426
4 3648 8320 19.407 16.147
5 3648 9840 24.952 24.553
6 6120 10900 48.348 52.699
Totals 2.97 11880 3.14 24360 6.198 4.048 117.658 108.259
rc2 4.048 x 1012

Ac= rC1 = 6.198 x 109 = 653mm
AT= -
rc4 = 9201mm
zc,
m1:Astllt + rSac
x = = 1735mm
mrA,1 +rs
M 28000 x 1a3
e = - = = 6289 mm
N 4452
Nx(e +AT - x)
f. =~~-'----~____:;_~--'-~
c (AT - Ac) r (x - ac)S
4452 x 103 x 3000 x (6289 + 9201 - 1735)
(9201 - 653) x 6.198 x 109
= 3.467 N/mm2
Design of Walls 395
fst =[}:(a~= ;)AJ[ (~) L (x - ac)S - NJ

3~)
= (11100 -
117.658 x 10
x [(3.467) x 6.198 x 109
3000
- 4452 x 1()3]
= 186.6N/mm2
d
(6) Check x = = 2419mm
1 + _fu_
mf;
Second approximation for x is halfway between first approximation and
the check result.
Assume x = 2700 mm
After carrying out the same tabular exercise as before it is found that:
fc = 3.66N/mm2
I« = 182.4N/mm2
Check x = 2570 mm.
No further iteration is necessary.
Check reinforcement in compression flange due to out-of-plane bending
Average compressive stress in flange = ~(3.7 + 2.8) = 3.25N/mm2
fc:3.7 N/mm2
N ~L_ ~--1-:-_::_-_::: Z·BN/mm2
SK 8/51 Elastic analysis - stress I

diagram. fs=183 N/mm2
Average compressive stress in reinforcement in flange = 3.25 x 15

form = 15
= 48.75 N/mm2
Over a unit length of wall,
compressive force, N :;:: 3.25 x 600 = 1950 kN
Out-of-plane bending moment due to DL + WL(y) + additional moment
due to slenderness
32.3
=39+- (see Step 9)
2
= 55.2kNm/m
'·:W:: : : : : : : : J J·~ SK 8/52 Section through wall for

out-of-plane analysis.
Material strengths chosen:

/cu = 30N/mm2 /y = 460N/mm2
d 565 M
k = - = - = 0.95 e = - = 0.028 m
h 600 N
See Table 11.8.
e
- = 0.047
h
For p = 0.4, -
N from chart ts. 13.53 > 3.25N/mm 2
bh
:. Nominal steel is required as per chart.
Check reinforcement in tension flange for out-of-plane bending

Maximum tensile stress in bar due to in-plane bending moment=
183N/mm2
Maximum allowable ultimate tensile stress in bars = 0.87 /y
= 0.87 x 460
= 400N/mm2
Available tensile force in bars per metre length of wall per face of wall
= (400 - 183) x 1200 (area on each face)
= 260.4kN/m
Maximum out-of-plane bending moment= 55.2 kNm/m
Design of Walls 397
M
K=--
fcubd2
55.2 x 106
30 x 1000 x 5652
= 5.76 x 10-3
z == d[ 0.5 + J( 0.25 - 0~9) J :S 0.95d
= 0.95d == 537mm
M 55.2 x 103
Required tensile force in bars = - = == 102.8 kN/m
z 537
This is less than 260.4 kN/m available. Hence, no additional reinforcement
is required in tension flange.
Step 13 Design of reinforced wall - simple method

Not required. The design principle is exactly similar to beam design and
has not been illustrated.
Step 14 Design of short and squat cantilever wall - deep beam approach
Not required, because HIL > 1.
Step 15 Check shear
12'50 I
,...----
0
0
600
~
"
SK 8/53 Shear check of Wall 1.
Asi == available tension reinforcement below neutral axis in web ignoring

flange
== (11.2 - 2.6) x 2400
= 20640m2
di == 11200 - 300 == 10900mm (approx.)

ioo», 100 x 20640
Pi == -h d. ==
W J
600 X 10 900 = 0.32%
fcu = 30N/mm2
From Figs 11.2 to 11.5,
Ve; = 0.47N/mm2
V; = combined in-plane shear
= V1 + Q1 = 2380 + 1440 = 3820kN
v.
v; = --' = 0.58N/mm2
hwdi
Aso = available tension reinforcement for out-of-plane bending
= 1200mm2/m (each face)
d0 = effective depth in out-of-plane direction = 565 mm
= lOOAso = 100 x 1200 = 0.2l %

Po bd; 1000 X 565
From Figs 11.2 to 11.5,
Vco = 0.4 N/mm2
Vott = out-of-plane shear coacting with V;
= 4.2kN/mm on the web
VoH 2
Voh = -- = 0.007 N/mm
bd.,
-V; + -V0h = (0.58)

- + (0.007)
-- = 1.25 > 1
Vci Vco 0.47 0.4
Shear reinforcement is necessary for in-plane shear.
Note: Increase of design concrete shear stress due to presence of axial load has
been ignored in these calculations but may be allowed as per formula on
page 160.
Step 16 Calculate shear reinforcement
Case 1: Voh < Vc0
v!I = (
1 - -Voh) vCl·
Yeo
= 0.007) x 0.47
( 1 - --0.4
= 0.46N/mm2
Vi= vihwdi = 3008.4kN
Vi - Vi= 3820 - 3008.4 = 811.6kN
Shear reinforcement is required to resist 811.6 kN.
Design of Walls 399
Ah= V,;
sh o.87/yd;
811.6 x 103
0.87 x 460 x 10900
= 0.19
If Sh = 300, then Ah= 300 x 0.19 = 57 mm2 which is 29 mm2 of horizontal
bar on each face at 300mm centres, or, 97 mm2 per metre on each face.
Av
- = Ah
- = 0.19 for fy = 460N/mm2
Sv Sh
Vertical shear reinforcement additional to vertical bars provided for bend-
ing is required if available vertical bars have no residual capacity.
In the web 2400mm2/m vertical bars are available at a maximum average
stress level of, say, 160N/mm2 (see Step 12). Hence residual capacity
available in vertical bars in web= 0.87 x 460 - 160 = 240 N/mm2
Modified Avf S; to take into account the residual capacity
460
= 0.19 x 0.87 x -
240
= 0.32
Av for shear required per metre length of wall = 320mm2 (modified)

Available vertical bars = 2400 mm2 Im in web
Hence no additional vertical bars are necessary to resist shear in web.
No shear reinforcement is required in out-of-plane direction.
Step 17 Check out-of-plane bending about vertical plane
SK 8/54 Out-of-plane bending

about vertical plane.
Mov = 1.4 x 28 (see Step 5)

= 39.2kNm/m
Vov = 1.4 x 26
= 36.4kN/m
M 39.2 x 106
K = -- = = 4.3 x 10-3
fcubd2 30 X 1000 X 55a2
z = d[ o.5 + J( 0.25 -
0~)
J s o.95d
= 0,95d = 522mm
M 39.2 x la6
As = --- = = 187.6mm2
. 0.87fyZ 0.87 X 460 X 522
Add to this reinforcement the horizontal reinforcement required in Step 16

for in-plane shear.
Total horizontal reinforcement required on each face (assuming the load
WL is reversible in direction)
= 187.6 + 97 = 284.6mm2/m
v = Vov = 36.4 X 1a3 = 0.07N/mm2

OV bd 1000 x 550
Shear stress is negligible.
Step 18 Design of plain walls

Not required.
Step 19 Shear check of plain walls

Not required.
Step 20 Check minimum reinforcement

Minimum compression vertical reinforcement in wall = 0.4%
(fy = 460N/mm2)
This has been provided.
Minimum horizontal tension reinforcement on each face
= 0.13% (/y = 460N/mm2)
600
= 0.13 x 1000 x -
100
= 780mm2/m on each face
This amount is greater than horizontal reinforcement found in Step 17.
This reinforcement will be adopted.
Minimum anti-crack reinforcement is 0.25% in both directions on each
face. This has been provided.
Step 21 Check maximum reinforcement

Not required.
Step 22 Check containment of wall reinforcement

Vertical reinforcement is less than 2% of gross concrete area.
Design of Walls 401
Hence requirement is to provide horizontal reinforcement equal to 0.2%

of gross cross-sectional area. This is provided.
Vertical bar diameter = 20mm
Horizontal bar diameter = lOmm > 41 (20mm)
Crack width limitation = 0.3 mm

(see Step 14 of Section 3.3).
Assume R = 0.8 at base.
T1 = 32°C
Er = 0.8T1a:R
= 0.8 x 32 x 12 x 10-6 x 0.8 = 2.46 x 10-4
Check horizontal bars for vertical cracks
Ocr=65-7
.~100
==:]100
SK 8/55 Crack width for
horizontal bars lOmm @ 100 c/c.
Assume lOmm diameter bars at lOOmm centres (785mm2/m).

acr = 65.7mm (1.414 X 50 - 5 = 65.7)
take x = h/2
3acr Er
Wmax = -------
2(acr - Cmin)
1 + --'------'-
h - x
3 x 65.7 x 2.46 x 10-4
2(65.7 - 45)
1 + 300
= 0.04 mm < 0.3 mm OK
Check vertical bars for horizontal cracks
Assume 20mm diameter bars at 250mm centres vertically (1256mm2/m
each face).
_Q _ _ljl_---=:I20
-~=_j25
I 125 I 125 I
SK 8/57 Sketch to find llcr·
SK 8/56 Crack width for vertical
bars 20mm @ 250 c/c.
acr = 120mm
3 x 120 x 2.46 x 10-4
2(120 - 25)
1
+ 300
= 0.05 mm < 0.3 mm OK
Step 24 Clear spacings of bars in tension

Reinforcement provided is 20 mm diameter at 250 mm centres both faces
vertically and 10 mm diameter at 100mm centres both faces horizontally.
These spacings satisfy the requirements according to Step 13 of Section
3.3.
Step 25 Connections
Follow Chapter 10.
Chapter 9
Design of Flat Slabs
9.0 NOTATION
A Area of column or area of effective column head

Ast Area of steel in tension
be Effective width of slab for transfer of moment to edge column
Cx Size of a rectangular column in .r-direction
Cy Size of a rectangular column in y-direction
dh Depth of column head
/y Characteristic yield strength of reinforcement
t: Characteristic cube strength of concrete at 28 days
he Effective diameter of column or effective column head
Gk Characteristic dead load
le Dimension of column in direction of /h
lh Effective dimension of column head
lx Shorter span framing onto columns
t, Longer span framing onto columns
lho Actual dimension of column head
th.max Maximum dimension of column head taking 45° dispersion
11 Centre-to-centre of column in direction of span being considered
12 Centre-to-centre of column perpendicular to direction of span being
considered
M' Design limit moment at he/2
M, Moment transferred to column by frame analysis
Mt.max Limiting moment between flat slab and edge column
n Total ultimate load per unit area on flat slab
Qk Characteristic live load
Vi Calculated shear from analysis
Vett Effective shear at column/slab interface
wk Characteristic wind loading
x Length of side of a perimeter parallel to axis of bending
9.1 DEFINITIONS
Flat slab is a reinforced concrete slab supported by columns with, or

without, drops. The columns may be with, or without, column heads.
Drop is a local thickening of the slab in the region of the column.
403
WITHOUT DROP AND WITH DROP AND WITHOUT DROP AND

NO COLUMN HEAD NO COLUMN HEAD WITH COLUMN HEAD
SK 9/l Flat slab - section. SK 9/2 Flat slab - section. SK 9/3 Flat slab - section.
Column head is a local enlargement of the column at the junction with the
slab.
9.2 ANALYSIS OF FLAT SLABS
I I
-1---r--
----l--~---
I I
---t--t--
______ _._ _
I.. L~ .. I Ly > Lx
SK 9/4 Typical plan of flat slab.
Flat slabs are usually supported by a rectangular arrangement of columns.

The analysis may be carried out by an equivalent frame method or by the
use of a finite element computer code. When using the equivalent frame
method the ratio of the longer to the shorter span should not exceed 2.
The analysis for uniformly distributed vertical load may be carried out by
using Tables 9.1 to 9.6.
The properties of the flat slab for analysis are similar to those already
discussed for solid slabs in Chapter 3.
9.2.1 Effective dimension of column head
/h = effective dimension of head

/ho = actual dimension of head
/h,max = le + 2( dh - 40)
le = dimension of column in direction of /h
dh = depth of head
lh = is taken as the lesser of /ho or th.max
----~~---~- - -- ---~--·······----
Design of Flat Slabs 405
l
SK 9/5 Flat slab - definitions.
Note: This means that the maximum dimension is limited by a 45° dispersion of
column up to 40 mm below the slab.
9.2.2 Effective diameter of a column head

I
he= (4A/Jt)2s0.25lx
he = effective diameter of column or column head
A = area of column or area of effective column head as defined by lh
lx = shortest span framing onto column
he should not be taken greater than one-quarter of shortest span of slab
framing into column.
9.2.3 Drops
Drops will be effective in the analysis if the smaller dimension of the drop
is at least one-third of the smallest span of surrounding panels.
For the checking of punching shear, this limitation does not apply.
9.2.4 Load combinations for analysis
LC1 = 1.4Gk + 1.6Qk on all spans

LC2 = 1.4Gk + 1.6Qk on alternate spans and other spans loaded with
1.0Gk
where Gk = characteristic dead load
Qk = characteristic live load.
9.2.S Effective width of slab for analysis
For vertical loading assume full width of panel between columns for frame
analysis.
For horizontal loading as a frame assume stiffness of half width of panel.
SK 9/6 Plan of flat slab showing

panel widths for analysis.
The analysis should be carried out using a computer program or a moment

distribution method. The analysis may also be carried out for uniformly
distributed vertical loads using Tables 9.1 to 9.6.
The analysis may be carried out using Table 3.13 of BS8110: Part 1:
1985[1] provided the lateral stability is not dependent on the slab-column
connection and loading on the flat slab for the design is based on a single
load case, i.e. LCi. the ratio of Qk/Gk does not exceed 1.25, Qk does not
exceed 5 kN I nr', and there are at least three rows of panels.
9.3 DESIGN OF FLAT SLABS
The design may be based on the negative moment at hc/2 from the
centreline of the column. But this negative moment will have to be modified if
the sum of the positive design moment and the average negative design
moment is less th;in the following expression:
M' = (n~2)(,1 _ 2;cr
SPAN A I SPAN B SPAN C
I. L1 .I SK 9/7 Negative moment

limitation for flat slabs - section.
SK 9/8 Typical plan of flat slab -

negative moment limitation.
where /1 = centre-to-centre of column in direction of span being

considered
/2 = centre-to-centre of column perpendicular to direction of span
being considered
n = total ultimate load on slab (kN/m2).
To give an example:
For Span A
0.5 (M1 + M2) + M1 ~ M'

For Span B
0.5(M3 + M4) + M1 ~ M'

Increase negative moments Mi. M2, M3, etc. until these conditions are
satisfied.
9.3.1 Division of panels
Lx/4 Lx/4
v....)'
<,
_,
v
)(
-'-~141jt1•
l-+- - --+-t
)(
COLUMN
t-t- OF COL STRIP
x
~I l--t--,
I I MIDDLE
t-+-~-~l_J
....)
STRIP
v
<,
x
....l v
' x
-1 .I _ _J-t
--41- - -•-h-oF
_J
COL COLUMN
STRIP
....) COL COL Ly > Lx

Lx/2 -Lx/ Lx/2
SK 919 Flat slab - division of COLUMN MIDDLE COLUMN
strips. STRIP STRIP STRIP
MIDDLE
Lx STRIP
COLUMN
STRIP
I. ~· MIDDLE
COLUM
.L ~
STRIP COLU N
Drop
STRIP STRIP
PLAN OF SLAB WITH DROP SK 9/10 Flat slab - division of

IGNORE DROP IF DROP WIDTH< Lx/3 strips.
Panels are divided into column strips and middle strips as shown.
For slab without drop the column strip is lxl4 wide on either side of the
centreline of column, where Ix is the shorter span.
For slab with drop the column strip is the size of the drop. Ignore drop if
the size of the drop is less than /)3.
9.3.2 Division of moments between columns and middle strips
The moments obtained from analysis of frames should be divided as

follows (these percentages are for slabs without drops):
Column strip Middle strip
Negative 75% 25%

Positive 55% 45%
Note: Where column drops are used and column strips are determined from the
width of the drop, it may so happen that the middle strip is bigger than the
middle strip in a slab without drop. In that case the moments in the middle
strip will be proportionately increased and those in the column strip
decreased to keep the total positive and negative moment unchanged.
9.3.3 Design of flat slab panels
The design is similar to the design of slabs and the worked examples are in
Chapter 3.
COLUMN STRIP
1/6 Ast 1/6 Ast
SK 9/11 Detailing of
reinforcement in fiat slabs. Column
Internal panels and edge panels

Two-thirds of the negative support reinforcement in the column strip
should be placed in half the width of the column strip centred over the
column.
9.3.4 Moment connection to edge column
I I ~,
I. b,:c.-c~.I I
f"}
be= Cx•Y
COLUMN STRIP1
SK 9/12 Effective width of slab for

moment connection to edge
column.
See sketches above to find effective width of slab be for transfer of

moment between fiat slab and edge column. This moment should be
limited to
Mt.max = 0.15bed2/cu
where d = effective depth of top reinforcement in column strip.
The moment Mi.max should not be less than half the design moment from
an equivalent frame analysis or 70% of the design moment from a grillage
or finite element analysis. The structural arrangement may be changed if
Mt.max does not satisfy the above condition.
M1
MOMENT FROM
ANALYSIS
I
I
EDGE COLN INTERN~OLUMN

REDISTRIBUTED
d) MOMENT TO
ACCOUNT FOR SK 9/13 Insufficient moment
. Mt, max. transfer capacity at edge column.
Where the design moment is larger than Mt.mm redistribution of

moment may be carried out to reduce the design moment to Mt.max·
Otherwise, to transfer moments in excess of Mt.max to edge column, the
edge of the slab should be reinforced by an edge beam or an edge strip.
The edge beam will be designed to carry the additional moment by torsion
to the column.
9.3.5 Shear in flat slabs
Punching shear around columns should be checked according to Step 7 of

Section 3.3. The shear to be considered for the punching shear calculation
is increased from the calculated column shear by an amount dependent on
the moment transferred to the column by frame action.
For internal column connections,
Mt
rp
t-1,Sd 1--t-
l I~
x
I I
I I
---+---t,-+-
1
I
I \_ I
I PUNCHING SHEAR
PERIMETER
SK 9/14 Moment diagram at an internal column SK 9/15 Definition of dimension x.

of a fiat slab.
where Vt = calculated shear from analysis

M1 = moment transferred to column by frame analysis
x = length of side of perimeter considered parallel to axis of
bending.
Alternatively,
Yett = 1.15 Vt for simplicity
For corner column connections,
For edge column connections,

for bending about axis parallel to free edge
for bending about axis perpendicular to free
edge
Alternatively,
Yett= 1.4Vt
The moment M1 may be reduced by 30% where the equivalent frame
analysis is used and both load cases LC1 and LC2 have been considered.
The shear reinforcement will be calculated according to Step 7 of Section 3.3.
9.4 STEP-BY-STEP DESIGN PROCEDURE FOR FLAT SLABS
Step 1 Carry out analysis as in Section 9.2.
Step 2 Find moment connection to edge column as per Section 9.3.4 and redis-
tribute moments if necessary.
Step 3 Draw bending moment diagrams and calculate moments at hcl2 following
Section 9.3.
Step 4 Check limitation of negative design moments following Section 9.3.
Step 5 Carry out division of panels as in Section 9.3.1.
Step 6 Divide moments between column strips and middle strips as per Section
9.3.2.
Step 7 Determine cover to reinforcement (see Step 3 of Section 3.3).
Step 8 Carry out design for flexure as per Step 4 of Section 3.3.
Step 9 Distribute reinforcement as per Section 9.3.3.
Step 10 Check punching shear stress

Step 11 Check span/effective depth ratio

Follow Step 11 of Section 3.3 for slabs with drops. For slabs without drops
follow the same step but multiply Leid from Table 11.3 by 0.9.



Step 15 Calculate minimum reinforcement

Follow Step 9 and Step 15 of Section 3.3.
Step 16 Calculateflexural crack width

Step 17 Design of connections

Follow Chapter 11.
9.5 WORKED EXAMPLE
Example 9.1 Fial slab constructionfor a sports hall
400 " 800 deep 400 x 400 columns

edge beam
t-""
T--~--.,...
'-
-1---=--.-
...J L...
I 0
I
,I
I 8
I
r1 "'
i __ ,
.,._r ...J----.-.L ,.. ., r-
-1- -- :- -I
Staircase and
Lift Block
6000 6000 6000 6000 6000
SK 9/16 Plan on first floor.
400 • 600 deep 400 • 400 columns
+ - ..:.
f edg ~ beam
I I
1
+-++-+_____..: :
I 0
I I 0
--l
--:>---+ '=F +-
·: ·
t-·::~·;;;;-""-;;.:-:;;,1---:--
i: r g
I- - -- - - -- I --' '
<,
"-staircase and
6000 6000 6000 6000 6000 Lift Block
SK 9/17 Plan on roof.

r200 ·-
,_
I
~
~
Ii
~ ,
1200
.
r400
' r 12000 1-
,_
8
"'~
SK 9/18 Section through building.
Two-storey building plan size: 15m x 30m

Column grid: Sm x 6m
Column size: 400 x 400
Height of building = 10 m overall
Topography factor, S1 = 1.0
Ground roughness factor, S2 = 0.95
Statistical factor for wind, S3 = 1.0
Basic wind speed = 42 mis= V
Design wind speed = S 1 S2S3 V = 40 ml s
q =kV;= 1 kN/m2
Cpe = +O. 7 and -0.3
Cp; = -0.3 (four faces equally permeable)
The above wind pressure coefficients are obtained from CP3: Chapter V
Wind loads.1141
Live load on roof= 1.5 kN/m2
Live load on floor= 5 kN/m2
Floor slab has 2000 x 2000 drop at columns
Thickness of roof and floor slab = 200 mm
Thickness at drop of floor slab = 400 mm
Continuous perimeter edge beam 400 wide x 800 deep
Centre-to-centre height of floor= 4.5 m
Step 1 Carry out analysis

Only one frame in the short direction of the building will be analysed.
Column head has not been used.
Effective diameter of column, he = ( 4A)!

-;- ~ 0.25lx
A = 400 x 400 = 160 000 mm2

I
.. he -- (4 x 160000)'
Jt
= 451 mm < 0.25lx

Ix= 5000mm
0.25lx = 1250 mm
Drop of 2000 mm in floor slab is greater than lxl3 = 1667 mm.

Drop will be effective in the distribution of moment.
Loading
Frames in short direction are 6 m apart.
Roof slab
Gk = characteristic dead load = 0.2 x 25 = 5 kN/m2

Qk = 1.5 kN/m2
LC1 = 1.4Gk + 1.6Qk = 9.4kN/m2 = 56.4kN/m
LC2 = 9.4 kN/m2 and 5 kN/m2 on alternate spans
or LC2 = 56.4kN/m and 30kN/m on alternate spans
Floor slab
Gk = 5 kN/m2 at slab without drop

= 10kN/m2 at slab with drop (area 2m x 2m)
= 30kN/m or 30 + 5 x 2 = 40kN/m
Qk = 5kN/m2
= 30kN/m
LC1 = 1.4Gk + l.6Qk
LC2 = alternate spans loaded with LC1 and dead load only
Columns
Horizontal load on columns is due to wind load at the rate of 1 kN/m2

which is equivalent to 6kN/m on the column. The wind loading analysis
will be carried out separately and combined later with the vertical loading
because the stiffness of the slab to resist horizontal loading is half of that
to resist vertical loading.
Load cases with wind load Wk are as follows:
LC3 = l.4Gk + 1.4Wk
LC4 = 1.2Gk + 1.2Qk + 1.2Wk
Frame analysis using a computer software
E = Young's modulus= 28 x 106 kN/m2
12 joints 14 members
Joints 1, 4, 7 and 10 rigidly fixed.
Column size 400 x 400
Slab size 6000 x 200 (deep)
Load cases:
B 1 - dead load
B2 to B7 - live loads on members 9 to 14 respectively
B8 - wind load
SOQO 5000 5000
J ® J ® J © :J
Member 0
Numbers 0
U")
6 B ~
o 5 ® 8 @ 11
Joint
3 © 7 0
U")
~
NlMllbers °"'- 7 10
SK 9/19 Frame diagram for
analysis.
SK 9/20 Dead load on frame (B1).
BS B7
·1 · 1
SK 9/21 Basic live loads B2 to B8•
Combinations:
C1 = 1.4B1 + l.6(B2 + 83 + 84 + Bs + 86 + 81)
C2 = 1.481 + 1.6(82 + 84 + 8s + B1)
C3 = 1.481 + 1.6(83 + 86)
C4 = 1.481 + 1.6(82 + 83 + 84)
Output from analysis

Envelope of load cases (vertical loads)
Elastic analysis - no redistribution
Floor slab Member 9
Joint Maximum BM Shear Combination
2 130.80 228.5 C2
5 215.5 258.2 C4
Midspan 131.2 C2
Floor slab Member 10
5 199.9 239.0 C4
8 199.9 239.0 C4
Midspan 112.5 C3
Roof slab Member 12
3 67.8 130.0 C2
6 129.0 153.5 C1
Midspan 82.0 C2
Roof slab Member 13
6 121.3 141.0 C1
9 121.3 141.0 C1
Midspan 60.4 C3
... -
-,
I' ,
/
/1\ I
I
'
'
___ ,
...... ___ ,, , 12 -I7
', . _ ... _ , '
I 3 ' '' ,, , / 6 ' 9 ' ',,
I
I I
\
\
I ® ® ® I
I
I /1 , '' ,
I
,,,,
I I \ I
,1
1\ I \ I
I ''\
I
,.. '~ ' \ I \
I
I
I
2 ' ' ... __
' . ,, /
,
I
5
'
I
-,
'
, __ ,, ,, / 8• -,
''
' ... _ ....... ,
,' ,
!I
1
I
I
I I
I
I
© ® ® I
I
I
SK 9/22 Combination C1 - I I
I 4 7
bending moment diagram. 10:
'
Envelope of load cases (vertical+ horizontal loads) (The analysis of hori-

zontal load is carried out with half stiffness of slab)
Elastic analysis - no redistribution
Combinations:
Cs = 1.4B1 + 1.48g
C6 = 1.2B1 + 1.2(82 + 83 + 84 + n, + B6 + B1) + 1.28s
Floor slab Member 9

2 121.9 185.9 c6
5 191.4 215.2 c6
Midspan 95.8 c6
Floor slab Member 10
5 176.0 198.6 c6
8 176.0 198.6 c6
Midspan 71.4 c6
Roof slab Member 12
3 57.0 108 c6
6 112.2 128.9 c6
Midspan 67.1 c6
Roof slab Member 13
6 108.1 119.8 c6
9 108.1 119.8 c6
Midspan 45.4 c6
Carry out redistribution of moment:
Maximum bending rrioment at joint 5 = 215.5 kNm
Assume 20% redistribution.
Set plastic moment capacity at joint 5 = 0.8 x 215.5 = 172.4 kNm
Similarly
maximum bending moment at joint 6 = 129 kNm
Assume 20% redistribution.
215·5kNm
t.t>r'Mnt Envelope 258·1kN
SK 9/23 Shear and moment envelope for member 9.

199·9kNm 199-9kNm
239·0kN
SK 9124 Shear and moment envelope for member 10.
Set plastic moment capacity at joint 6 = 0.8 x 129 = 103.2 kNm

The following steps of reanalysis of frame are carried out:
Step 1: For one combination at a time increase live load on span until
plastic moment is reached at a joint in a member. Plastic moment capacity
of members on first floor is 172.4kNm and member on roof is 103.2kNm.
Step 2: Release joint where plastic moment is reached and increase loading
until plastic moment capacity is reached at another joint.
Step 3: Progressively release joints and increase live load until full comp-
lement of live load is on structure.
Step 4: Find cumulative effect of all incremental live load on structure.
The following tables become useful if a non-linear finite element computer

package is not available.
Frame types:
F1 = no member end releases

F2 = member in F1 nos 12 and 14 ends released at joints 6 and 9
F3 = member in F2 nos 9 and 11 ends released at joints 5 and 8
F4 = member in 6 no. 13 ends released at joints 6 and 9
F5 = member in F4 no. 10 ends released at joints 5 and 8
3
6 9
12 3 12
® @ ®
2 5 8
11 2 11
© @) ®
4 7 10 10
SK 9125 Frame type F1• SK 9/26 Frame type F2•

Plastic Hinges
3
@ ' ®
12
2 s 11
© @)
i. 7 10
SK 9/27 Frame type F3. SK 9/28 Frame type r:
BS 6 B6 9 87 12 0·3kN/m
3
SK 9/29 Frame type F5. SK 9/30 Unit live load on frame.
Combination C7 = 1.4 x dead load or l.4B 1
The method is illustrated for combinations C] and CZ only.
C] = 1.6( B). + B3 + B4 + B5 + B6 + B7)

C2 = 1.6(B2 + B4 + B5 + B7)
Bl., Bj, B4 = 1 kN/m
B5, B6, B7 = 0.3 kN/m
Combination Frame Member end bending moments (kNm)

type
Member 9 Member IO Member 12 Member 13
Joint 2 Joint 5 Joint 5 Joint 8 Joint 3 Joint 6 Joint 6 Joint 9
C7 F1 62.7 102.5 95.5 95.5 44.7 97.5 91.6 91.6

c; F1 2.0 3.7 3.4 3.4 0.7 1.1 1.0 1.0
c; F2 2.1 3.6 3.5 3.5 0.9 0 0.5 0.5
c; F3 3.1 0 2.4 2.4 1.1 0 0.8 0.8
c; F4 3.1 0 2.2 2.2 1.1 0 0 0
c; Fs 3.1 0 0 0 1.1 0 0 0
CZ F1 2.3 2.7 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.2 0.2
CZ F2 2.3 2.6 0.8 0.8 0.9 0 -0.2 -0.2
CZ F3 3.1 0 0 0 1.0 0 0 0
c2 F4 3.1 0 0 0 1.0 0 0 0
CZ Fs 3.1 0 0 0 1.0 0 0 0
Cj = 1 unit of live load combination in combination C1 i.e. Ci = 1 kN/m

of 82, 83 and 84 and 9/30kN/m of 85, 86 and 87•
Full compliment of 82, 83 and 84 is 30kN/m and of 85, B6 and 87 is
9kN/m.
Plastic moment at joint 5 is fixed at 172 kNm
Plastic moment at joint 6 is fixed at 103.2 kNm
Dead load moment at joint 6 = 97.5 kNm
Each unit of combination C1 produces 1.1 kNm at joint 6 for frame type
F1• Therefore
units of live load in combination C1 required to form first plastic hinges at
joint 6 and joint 9 in members 12 and 14
103.2 - 97.5
----- = 5 units, say
1.1
Frame type F2 has joints released at joints 6 and 9 for members 12 and 14.
After 5 units of combination C 1 the bending moments at joints are as
follows:
Frame type F 1
Member 9 Joint 2 62.7 + 5 x 2.0 = 72.7kNm
Joint 5 102.5 + 5 x 3.7 = 121.0kNm
Member 10 Joint 5 95.5 + 5 x 3.4 = 112.5 kNm
Joint 6 97.5 + 5 x 1.1 = 103kNm *plastic
Units of live load in combination C1 to form second plastic hinges at joints
5 and 8 in members 9 and 11
172 - 121
---- = 14 units of combination C 1
3.6
Total number of units of C1 to cause plastic hinges at joints 5 and 8 in
members 9 and 11 is 19.
After 19 units of combination C., the bending moments at joints are as
follows:
Frame type F2
Joint 5 121 + 14 x 3.6 = 171.4kNm "plastic
Joint 6 plastic = 103 kNm *plastic
Member 13 Joint 6 96.6 + 14 x 0.5 = 103.6 kNm *plastic
Joint 5 of member 9 and joint 6 of member 13 have gone plastic simul-
taneously at 19 units of combination C1• Therefore frame type F3 is not
considered.
After 24 units of combination Cb the bending moments at joints are as

follows:
Frame type F4
Joint 5 plastic = 171.4 kNm *plastic
Member 10 Joint 5 161.5 + 5 x 2.2 = 172.5 kNm *plastic
Joint 6 plastic = 103 kNm *plastic
Member 13 Joint 6 plastic = 103.6 kNm *plastic
Frame type Fs
After 30 units of combination Ch the bending moments at joints are as
follows:
Joint 5 = 171.4kNm
Member 10 Joint 5 = 172.5kNm
Joint 6 = 103.0kNm
Member 13 Joint 6 = 103.6kNm
Formula for calculating midspan bending moment and shear
C7 + 5 units of c; (F1) + 14 units of c; (F2) + 5 units of c; (F4) + 6 units
of C) (Fs)
Member 9 - combination C1 (20% redistribution)
Midspan moment = 56.3 + 2.2 x 5 + 2.2 x 14 + 5 x 3.5 + 6 x 3.5 =
136.6kNm
End shear, joint 2 = 111.1 + 3.7 x 5 + 3.7 x 14 + 4.6 x 5 + 4.6 x
6 = 232.0kN
End shear, joint 5 = 126.9 + 4.3 x 5 + 4.3 x 14 + 3.4 x 5 + 3.4 x 6 =
246.0kN
Similarly
Member JO - combination C1 (20% redistribution)
Midspan moment = 115.7 kNm
End shear = 239 kN
Midspan moment = 90.9kNm
End shear 3 = 134.9kN
End shear 6 = 147.1 kN
Midspan moment = 72. 7 kNm
End shear 6 = 141 kN
~ ('1("'l <'! <'! <'!
-
i8 .-4 .....
cci:s -c
c.. cl) r- V) ~ r- "! "!
~·- e0 o\ 0
M
0
~ e
-
N
c -c
ci:s
c, cl)
~ e
·-
~ e0
000000
00 ~...,;...,; ...,;...,;...,;
-
0
000000
-
~...,;...,; ...,;...,; ...,;
c -c
ci:s
c, cl) I"-"'."!'°~~
~ e <;; NNV"l
?-: e
·- 0
°' M M V V "<:!'
-
~ v...,; ,..;,..;,..;
-; t-: r- -o '° -o
N M M...,f- ...,f--.,i-
c -c
ci:s
c,
~ e
cl)
'° N N '"""! "! "!

r<)
V)
N N
M M
~ e
·- 0
c
.Q
'CU
c
:.0
e0
u
103·6 kNm 103·6kNm
72·9kNm 72·9kNm
136·2kNm
SK 9/31 Bending moment diagram

combination C1 (20%
redistribution).
Note: Only one combination C1 has been fully analysed to demonstrate the
procedure for redistribution of moments in a frame structure. In practice
all combinations of loads should be similarly processed to get an envelope
of moments and shears. For all combinations of loads the plastic hinges
will form at the same moment, i.e. 172 kNm at first floor level and 103.2 kNm
at roof level.
Step 2 Check moment connection to edge column
Edgrz of slab
E
E
8
CD
II
SK 9/32 Effective width of slab for

moment transfer.
Mt. max = 0.15bcd2/cu
be = Cx + C_v = 400 + 400 = 800 mm
d = 175 mm assumed
/cu = 40N/mm2
Mt. max = 0.15 X 800 X 1752 X 40
= 147 kNm > 136.2 kNm (member 9, joint 2)
The column slab connection at the edge can transfer the applied moment
and no further redistribution is necessary. It is conservatively assumed in
this analysis that the depth of the slab at the column is 200 mm, ignoring
the drop. The moment M1• max is greater than the design moment obtained
from an equivalent frame analysis.
Step 3 Find bending moments at hc/2 and at edge of drop
JOINT@
172·0kNm
MEMBER 10
SK 9/33 Bending moments at
critical points - combination C1 400 x 400 Column
(20% redistribution).

Joint 5:
Bending moment = 172 kNm
Shear = 246 kN
Dead load: 1.4 x 40 = 56kN/m near support
Live load: 1.6 x 30 = 48 kN/m near support
hcl2 = 0.225 m
(56 + 48) x 0.2252
Bending moment at hc/2 = 172 - 246 x 0.225 + -'-----'-2----
= 119.3 kNm (top tension)
Edge of drop = 1000mm from centreline of column
. (56+48)x12
Bendmg moment at edge of drop = 172 - 246 x 1 + -'------2~--
= -22kNm (bottom tension)

Joint 2, similarly:
. (56 + 48) x 0.2252
Bendmg moment at hc/2 = 136.2 - 232 x 0.225 + -'----"--2---
= 86.6 kNm (top tension)

Bending moment at edge of drop = -43.8 kNm (bottom tension)
Member JO - combination C1 (20% redistribution)
Joint 5:
Bending moment at hcf2 = 121.4 kNm (top tension)
Bending moment at edge of drop = -14.5 kNm (bottom tension)
Joint 3:
Bending moment at hcl2
(1.4 x 30 + 1.6 x 9) x 0.2252
= 72.9 - 134.9 x 0.225 +
2
= 44.0kNm
Joint 6:
Bending moment at hc/2 = 71.3 kNm (top tension)
Joint 6:
Bending moment at hcf2 = 73.3 kNm (top tension)
Step 4 Check limitation of negative design moment
'
•
JOINT 2
136·6kNm
SK 9/34 Member 9 - combination C1 (20% redistribution): limitation of negative

design moment.
JOINT 5
where n = loading per unit area on slab.

Average n on span on first floor = 1.4 x 5 + 1.6 x 5 = 15 kN /m2
11 = 5.0m 12 = 6.0m he= 0.225m
M' = (15 ~ 6.o) (5.0 _ 2 x ~.225) 2
= 264.6kNm (floor slab)

Average n on span on roof = 1.4 x 5 + 1.6 x 1.5 = 9.4 kN/m2

M' = (9.4 ~ 6.o) (5.0 _ 2 x ~.225)2
= 165.8kNm (roof slab)
Check negative moment limitation

Member 9
Joint 2 at hc/2 = M2 = 86.6 kNm (see Step 3)
Joint 5 at hJ2 = M5 = 119.3 kNm
Midspan moment = 136.6kNm (see Step 1)
Average of M2 and M5 plus midspan moment
= 0.5 (86.6 + 119.3) + 136.6
= 239.6kNm < M' = 264.6kNm
The negative moments will have to be increased by (264.6 - 239.6) =

25.0kNm
Revised negative moments:
Joint 2: 86.6 + 25.0 = lll.6kNm
Joint 5: 119.3 + 25.0 = 144.3 kNm
Member 10
Joint 5 at hcl2 = M5 = 121.4kNm
Midspan moment= 115.7kNm
Average of negative and positive = 121.4 + 115. 7 = 237.1 kNm < M' =
264.6kNm
27.5kNm
Joint 5: 121.4 + 27.5 = 148.9kNm
Member 12
Joint 3 at hc/2 = M3 = 44.0kNm
Joint 6 at hc/2 = M6 = 71.3 kNm
Midspan moment= 90.9kNm
Average ofnegative and positive= 0.5 ( 44.0 + 71.3) + 90.9 = 148.55 kNm <
M' = 165.8 kNm
17.2kNm
Joint 3: 44.0 + 17.2 = 61.2kNm
Joint 6: 71.3 + 17.2 = 88.5 kNm
Member 13
Joint 6 at hc/2 = M6 = 73.3 kNm
Midspan moment = 72.7 kNm
Average of negative and positive 73.3 + 72.7 146kNm < M'

165.8kNm
The negative moments will have to be increased by (165.8 - 146)
19.8kNm
Joint 6: 73.3 + 19.8 = 93.1 kNm
Step 5 Carry out division of panels
2000 Colunn Strip
4000 Middle Strip
-.-·-r-~-.-· -r+
~+---------H+-L--.---~ - ,-
2000 Column Strip
1 I I t
_,__ _ _..L. - _,__ - __L_ ..J__ _ _..L._
0 . •
Middle Strip
8
(D
I I I l t t
_....J.._ - ~ - -L...- - ___J__ ~ - ___..L_
5000 5000 5000
SK 9/35 Plan of floor slab - division of strips.
First floor slab

Size of drop = 2000 mm
Ix 5000
- = -- = 1667 mm < 2000mm
3 3
Column strip = 2000 mm
With drop middle strip = 5000 - 2000 = 3000mm (y-y)
and = 6000 - 2000 = 4000mm (x-x)
Middle strip in a slab without drop = 6000 - lxl2 = 6000 - 2500
3500mm
4000
Proportion of middle strip with drop and without drop = = 1.14
3500
Roof slab
5000 5000 5000
-.--__ t-· t _25-+oo

·-_--·-H+- Column Strip
3500 Middle Strip
.. --·1=·. •$·-' ·
·---
- I.
·---
- -
. ---+t---+
2500 Column Strip
3500 Middle Strip

--·+--.J_. _
---t+!--- - r --+- -~f- 2500 Column Strip
SK 9/36 Plan of roof slab - division of strips.
.
Column stnp = Ix-2 = 5000
-- =
2
2500 mm
Middle strip = 6000 - 2500 = 3500mm (x-x)

= 5000 - 2500 = 2500mm (y-y)
Step 6 Divide moments between column strip and middle strip

For slabs without drops,
Negative moments - 75% column strip
25% middle strip
Positive moments - 55% column strip
45% middle strip
Floor slab: design moments

Member 9: negative moments
Joint 2: lll.6kNm (see Step 4)
Joint 5: 144.3 kNm (see Step 4)
Middle strip moments
Joint 2: 111.6 x 0.25 x 1.14 (see Step 4) = 31.8kNm (top tension)
Edge of drop = 43.8 x 0.25 x 1.14 = 12.5 kNm (top tension)
Joint 5: 144.3 x 0.25 x 1.14 = 41.1 kNm (top tension)
Edge of drop = 22.0 x 0_25 x 1.14 = 6.3 kNm (top tension)
Column strip moments
Joint 2: 111.6 - 31.8 = 79.8kNm (top tension)

Edge of drop: 43.8 - 12.5 = 31.3 kNm (top tension)
Joint 5: 144.3 - 41.1 = 103.2kNm (top tension)
Edge of drop: 22 - 6.3 = 15.7kNm (top tension)
Member 9: positive moments
Design midspan moment = 136.6kNm (bottom tension)
Midspan: 136.6 x 0.45 x 1.14 = 70.lkNm (bottom tension)
Midspan: 136.6 - 70.1 = 66.5 kNm (bottom tension)
Member 10: negative moments
Joint 5: 148.9 kNm (see Step 4)
Joint 5: 148.9 x 0.25 x 1.14 = 42.4 kNm (top tension)
Edge of drop: 14.5 x 0.25 x 1.14 = 4.1 kNm (top tension)
Joint 5: 148.9 - 42.4 = 106.3 kNm (top tension)
Edge of drop: 14.5 - 4.1 = 10.4kNm (top tension)
Member 10: positive moments
Design midspan moment = 115. 7 kNm (bottom tension)
Midspan: 115.7 x 0.45 x 1.14 = 59.4kNm (bottom tension)
Midspan: 115.7 - 59.4 = 56.3 kNm (bottom tension)
Note: Similarly calculate moments in column strips and middle strips in roof slab.

Step 8 Design for flexure

The increased slab thickness at drops may be considered for the determi-
nation of reinforcement provided all reinforcement is properly anchored.
Check reinforcement also at edge of drop.
Note: In this example the reinforcement is found for the flat slab spanning in the
short direction only. Exactly the same method of analysis and design
should be used to find the reinforcement in the long direction.
Step 9 Detailing of reinforcement

Two-thirds of the negative support reinforcement in the column strip
should be placed in half the width of the column strip centred over the
column.
Step 10 Calculate punching shear and shear stress
Punching shear at floor slab

Check joint 5.
21S·SkNm
199·9 kNm
MEMBER 9
MEMBER 10
SK 9/37 Moment transfer to BENDING MOMENT DIAGRAM .
column for punching shear ELASTIC ANALYSIS - NO REDISTRIBUTION
calculation. LOADING CONDITION (4
SK 9/38 Punching shear perimeters - plan of floor slab.

Use results of elastic analysis of frame before redistribution.

Maximum column moment at
joint 5 = 215.5 - 199.9 = 15.6 kNm
M1 = 15.6kNm
A 30% reduction is allowed if frame analysis is carried out.
M1 = 0.7 x 15.6 = 10.9 kNm
V1 = 258.2 + 239.0 = 497.2kN
Punching shear perimeter at l.5d from face of column.
d = 400 - 30 = 370 mm
l.5d = 1.5 x 370 = 555 mm
x = 400 + 2 x 555 = 1510mm = l.510m
l.5M1) ( 1.5 x 10.9 )
+ -----
Vcff =Vt ( 1 + --V1x
= 497.2 1
497.2 x 1.510
= 508kN
Maximum shear stress at column perimeter ( U 0 = 4 x 400)

Vett 508 x 103
=- = = 0.86N/m2 < 5N/m2 OK
4 x 400 x 370
Vett
Shear stress, v = Ud
u = 4 x 1510 = 6040
508 x 103
v = x = 0.23 N/mm2 < Ve for minimum percentage of
6040 370
reinforcement
No shear reinforcement is required in slab with drop.
For slab outside drop consider that loaded area is perimeter of drop.
Ven = 508 kN - (load on the area of drop)
= 508 - 4 x 22
= 420kN
Perimeter of slab at l.5d (d = 170mm)
= 4 x (2000 + 3 x 170) = 10040mm
420 x 103
Shear stress, v = 10040
x
170
= 0.25 N/mm2 < Ve for minimum percentage of
reinforcement
No shear reinforcement is required at internal columns of floor slab.
Similarly check for an external column and a comer column.
Rules for calculation of perimeters of external and comer columns
x c, 1-Sd
I
,_
1·5d 1·5d
Cy
1-Sd
~: Cy
1·5d
Cx 1·5d x s. 1·5d
P = 2Cx + Cy + Sci P = 2( x + Cx) +Cy+ 6d

EDGE COLUMN ON EDGE COLUMN INSIDE
EDGE OF SLAB SLAB
x c, 1-Sd
1·5d
c,.
~~
1·5d
x > 1·5d
·-
P= lesser of:-
2(x+c.> +Cy+6d CORNER COLUMN ON
OR 2(C.+ Cy)+ 12d ON EDGE OF SLAB
EDGE COLUMN INSIDE
SLAB
x c 1·5d x c, 1·5d
.--
x and y s 1·5d 1·5d

Cy
J~~
P= Cx+Cy+x+y+3cl
x and Y. > 1·5d
CORNER COLUMN INSIDE P"' lesser of :-
ill8. c.-
Cy+ x+y+Jd
d = Averf!llll. effective
depth of slab OR 2(C,,+ c,»
12d
CORNER COLUMN INSIDE
SW
SK 9/39 Punching shear perimeters for fiat slab.
The illustrations show the different column configurations with respect to a

free edge and the corresponding perimeters for the calculation of punching
shear stresses.
When the column face is more than l.5d away from a free edge of slab,
then there are two alternative perimeters possible as illustrated. Take the
least of these two alternatives for the calculation of punching shear stress.
Punching shear al roof slab

Check joint 3 - edge column.
V1 = 130kN
The frame action considered is in the x- x direction as explained in Section
9.3.5.
Yett = 1.25Vi = 1.25 x 130 = 162.5 kN
d = 170 mm assumed
l.5d = 1.5 x 170 = 255 mm
Shear stress at column perimeter ( U0 = 3 x 400 = 1200)
Yett 162.5 x 103
=- = = 0.8 N/mm2 < 5 N/mm2 OK
U0d 1200 x 170
Yett
Shear stress at l.5d = v = Ud
u = [2 x (400 + 255)] + (400 + 510)

= 2220
162.5 x 103
v = 2220 x 170
= 0.43N/mm2
Assume minimum percentage of tensile reinforcement in slab.
Ve= 0.48N/mm2 for Grade 40 concrete and an effective depth of 170mm.
No shear reinforcement is necessary.
Note: The punching shear check should also be carried out for the flat slab
spanning in the long direction and the worst result should be used.
Step 11 Check span/effective depth ratio

Follow Step 11 of Section 3.3



Step 15 Calculate minimum reinforcement

Follow Step 9 and Step 15 of Section 3.3.
Step 16 Calculate flexural crack width

Step 17 Design of connections

Follow Chapter 11
9.6 TABLES AND GRAPHS FOR CHAPTER 9
How to use Tables 9.1 to 9.6
Intermediate floor. Tt~ical section
First floor . Tt~ical section

column
fixed
3 I OC=2·671
f
•
h - column
2L I OC=4·0 I
hinged\._
First floor. Tmical section

Ix Ix Ix
T T '
ly
-
5
·3
'()-
01
05
03
~·
~ ~ ...
+
:
ly
ly
I
::
0·3 05 0·7 , ~ 13 1·S
Plan showing points for which coefficients are in tables 9·1to9·6

SK 9/40 Sketches to be used in conjunction with Tables 9.1-9.6.
r--1 .--- -"""1

1·5ly- I
I KF
1·3ly-l
C2 I
1-0ly-,
I
........1--...--+--'---
0·7Ly - : _ __,_.....__.,___
I
O·Sly - L•_,-+---+.._..,.......,.___-+--T--+-+--_._..,.___
I KF
o .J ty- r......--1_.....--"",____._,__~......___._.._'-4
I ~---'
I - 1
O·Oly- ____ J
L----
C, 1 I I I I I I SK 9/41 Zones of stiffness
o-oi, 0·3Ly O·Sly 0·7Ly l·Oly 1·3Ly 1·5ly correction factors to be applied to
cl points of interest.
Points to note:
(1) The flat slab system should have at least 3 spans in the ix direction and
3 spans in the fy direction.
(2) The coefficients are valid for equal spans in the ix and ly direction.
They may be used up to a maximum variation of 20% in the span
lengths.
(3) The tables can be used only for uniformly distributed loads with all
spans loaded simultaneously with the maximum load.
(4) To account for the possible increase in moment due to variation of live
loads in different panels of the flat slab, no redistribution of moments
should be carried out.
(5) For horizontal loading a separate frame analysis should be carried out
and the appropriate moments will be combined with the vertical load
moments. In general, flat slab construction should be fully braced and
the horizontal load should be carried entirely by a shear-wall system.
(6) The coefficients are applicable to a comer panel, an edge panel with a
free edge in the lx direction, an edge panel with a free edge in the l.v
direction and an internal panel.
(7) The moment triad (Mn My and Mxy) obtained by this method of
analysis should be combined using the Wood-Armer method as
described in Section 1.12.
Sign convention for bending Bending moment Bending moment
moments ( + ve in directions about y-axis about x-axis Torsional moment
shown) =Mx =Mv =Mw.y
Note: A positive moment denotes hogging. This sign convention is opposite to the Wood-Armer
convention. Reverse the signs of the moments before carrying out Wood-Armer combination as per
Section 1.12.
Step-by-step analysis procedure

Step /: Determine value of <X (see SK 9140 and find lxlly)·
Step 2: Assume d is the thickness of slab and h is the dimension of a side of
a square column.
Step 3: From available L, as shown in SK9/40, determine S = <Xd3L/h4•
Step 4: Select a point of interest from SK 9/40 or SK 9/41 where the
moments have to be found. Corresponding to the zone of influence, find
appropriate stiffness connection factor K depending on S from Graphs 9.1
to 9.18.
Step 5: Find moment coefficients from Tables 9.1 to 9.3 corresponding to
lxll_v and the location of the point of interest.
Step 6: Find the ultimate uniformly distributed load on the flat slab =
nkN/m2•
Step 7: Find moment triads:
Mx = nCxKxl~ kNm/m
M; = nCvKvl~kNmlm
Mx:v = nCx/<v1;
kNm/m
Step 8: Carry out Wood-Armer combination.
Step 9: Find column reactions corresponding to lxlly (see SK 9/41 for
column locations).
Step 10: The moments obtained using these coefficients are in kNm/m.
Find the effective width be as in Section 9.3.4. Multiply the moment
obtained by analysis at edge and corner columns with the effective width
be to find the slab-to-column connection moment. This transfer moment
should be less than Mi.max as defined in Section 9.3.4.
Reaction at column C1 = nC1lxl.v
Reaction at column C2 = nC2lxf_v, etc.
Note: If in the zone of KA (as shown in SK 9/41) the point of interest is located,
then to find M, use stiffness correction factor KAx corresponding to Sand
lxlly as in Graph 19.1. Similarly if the point of interest lies in the zone of
KF then to find Mx use KFx as in Graph 9.16.
The benefits of using these tables and graphs are that the analysis can be
done very quickly and the necessity of carrying out the two analyses for
the two orthogonal directions may be avoided. These tables can also be
used for the analyses of raft foundation where the loading n may be
assumed to be uniformly distributed over an inverted flat slab. The total
loads from a structure will be assumed uniformly distributed at the under-
side of the raft.
Step IJ: Calculate total column moments using Table 9.7 and divide the
total moment between the columns at the junction depending on their
relative stiffness. The stiffer the column, the more moment it will carry.
The stiffness of a column may be calculated as Ill where J is the moment of
inertia and l is the effective height.
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00 o~8 8MMN0r- °'-o
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Pl.AN OF FLAT SLAB SECTION THROUGH SLAB
SK 9/42 Column number identification.
Table 9.7 Bending moment coefficient for design of columns in flat slab construction.
t.n, 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2 Moment

coefficients
Column
no.
1 0.01175 0.01345 0.015 26 0.01717 0.01916 0.02123 Ccy

1 -o.ou 75 -0.01792 -O.OZ594 -0.03603 -0.04836 -0.06307 c,
2 -0.00244 -0.00233 -0.00224 -0.00218 -0.00216 -0.00218 Ccy
2 -0.02280 -0.03271 -0.04525 -0.06073 -0.07939 -0.10147 Ccz
3 0.02280 0.02765 0.03301 -0.03885 0.04513 0.05184 Ccy
3 0.00244 0.00441 0.00706 0.01040 0.01445 0.01919 Ccz
4 -0.00376 -0.00393 -0.00418 -0.00454 -0.00506 -0.00571 c;
4 0.00376 0.00659 0.01028 0.01484 0.02031 0.02667 Ccz
Column total moment = Cc x R x 1; x l]
where l] =load per unit area on slab.

See Graphs 9.19-9.26 for factors Ry and R,.
Note: Divide total moment in column to top and bottom column in proportion to
their stiffness.
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Chapter 10
Design of Connections
10.0 NOTATION
a Distance between two rows of bars resisting bending moment

Ast Area of steel in tension
C Embedment of pile into pile cap
D Diameter or width of pile
[b Ultimate anchorage bond stress
/y Characteristic yield strength of reinforcement
f bu Design ultimate bond stress
F5 Ultimate force in a bar or a group of bars
F1 Tie force (kN)
H Design ultimate horizontal load on pile
Kt Coefficient to determine transmission length of prestressing tendons
I Anchorage bond length
Lr Greatest distance between vertical load-bearing elements in direction
of a tie
I, Floor to ceiling height (m)
It Transmission length of prestressing tendons
M Applied bending moment on concrete section of pile
n Number of reinforcement bars in each row
n0 Number of stories in a building
0 Perimeter of a bar of reinforcement in tension
r Internal radius of a bend in a bar
Ve Design concrete shear stress
V Shear force in concrete section
~ Coefficient to determine design ultimate bond stress

cj> Diameter of bar
<l>e Diameter of one bar or equivalent diameter of a group of bars
10.l INTRODUCTION
To make a complete building or structure, the elements described and

designed in the previous chapters will have to be connected together and
also tied together to give horizontal stability. This chapter describes the
principles of design of these connections and the ties.
459
There are basically two types of connections: rigid and free. The rigid
connections will have full moment and other internal force transfer capa-
bility. The connections classed as free do not offer resistance to rotation to
members at the connection. These connections should be capable of trans-
ferring shear and axial loads.
10.2 CONTENTS: TYPE OF CONNECTIONS
The following connections have been described in this chapter:
(1) Requirement of building ties as per Codes of Practice.

(2) Pile-to-foundation/pile cap connection.
(3) Column-to-foundation connection.
(4) Wall-to-foundation connection.
(5) Column-to-column connection.
(6) Wall-to-wall connection.
(7) Column-to-beam connection.
(8) Wall-to-beam connection.
(9) Wall-to-slab connection.
(10) Column-to-wall connection.
(11) Slab-to-beam connection.
The theory of anchorage and bond length requirements is described initially.
10.3 ANCHORAGE AND BOND
Local bond stress is dependent on shear, i.e. the rate of change of bending
moment at any section.
v
Local bond stress =-
ZLO
where V = shear at section

z = lever arm of bending moment
1:0 = summation of perimeter of bars in tension.
The local bond stress at ultimate state need not be checked provided there
is adequate anchorage of the bars in tension on both sides of a section.
The ultimate anchorage bond stress is assumed constant over the anchorage
length of a bar.
where fb = ultimate anchorage bond stress

F5 = ultimate force in bar or group of bars bundled together
<Pe = diameter of one bar or equivalent diameter of a bar, the area
of which equals the total area of the bundle of bars
I = anchorage bond length.
Design of Connections 461
• • ;A,. A •"' ....

' . Jb.· ...
"
- Fs
• ·6 6 ••
• Q 66:
.. 4 ••
.. •
... "
SK 10/1 Development of bond
stress in concrete. I. L .I
The design ultimate bond stress depends on the characteristic strength of
the concrete and is given by the following formula:
Values of j3.
In tension In compression
Plain bars 0.28 0.35

Type 1: deformed 0.40 0.50
Type 2: deformed 0.50 0.63
Fabric 0.65 0.81
A partial safety factor Ym = 1.4 is included.

The fabric reinforcement should be according to clause 3.12.8.5 of BS 8110:
Part 1: 1985.Pl
10.3.1 Basic rules of anchorage and laps
Anchorage of links
The link is to pass round another bar of equal or greater dimension
through an angle of 90° and continue for a minimum length of 8 x diameter,
or through an angle of 180° and continue for a minimum length of
4 x diameter.
Anchorage of column starter bars

Column starter bars in compression need not be checked for anchorage.
They should be taken down to the level of the bottom layer of reinforcement
in the foundation.
Column starter bars in tension should be checked for anchorage.
89l
J
SK 10/2 A 90" bend. SK 10/3 A 180° bend.
Laps and joints
~
----
~2
n n
in
-
(I)
-
Li l
LAP LENGTH •1
••
.u 1.
5.; 200 IF
9l1 AND 9), > 20
AND C < 1 . 51151 OR, 1·5fi2
SK 10/4 Detailing rules at lap of

column bars. SK 10/S Lapping of bars.
Laps and joints should be staggered. Welded joints should not be used for
cyclic loading. Minimum lap length is 15 times bar size or 300mm. Links
to be used at laps of bars in beams and columns at a maximum spacing of
200 mm where both bars at a lap exceed 20 mm diameter and the cover is
less than 1.5 times the diameter of the smaller bar.
10.3.2 Design of tension laps
__ __,,,,._._¢_= D l AMETER
c,
C1 AND C2<2;
SK 1016 Case 1 - anchorage length. SK 1017 Case 2 - anchorage length.
c,
D: <75 OR 6+
SK 1018 Case 3 - anchorage length.
C1 AND C2 <2+
AND/OR D < 75 OR s+
SK 1019 Case 4 - anchorage length.
Lap length =tension anchorage length normally

= 1.4 x tension anchorage length for Cases 1, 2 and 3
= 2 x tension anchorage length for Case 4
Case I
Bars lapped are at the top of a section and cover is less than 2 times the
size of lapped bars.
Case 2
Bars lapped are at a corner of a section and cover to either face is less than
2 times the size of lapped bar.
Case 3
The distance between adjacent laps is less than 75 mm or 6 times bar
diameter, whichever is the greater.
Case 4
Corner bars at the top of a section with less than 2 times diameter of bar
cover to either face.
Lapped bars at the top of a section with distance between them less than
75 mm or 6 times bar diameter.
10.3.3 Design of compression laps
Lap length= 1.25 x compression anchorage length of smaller bar at lap
Effective anchorage length of a hook or a bend

T.P.
Br' 24¢
T. p.
SK 10/10 Effective anchorage

bond lengths.
18(!' hook
Effective anchorage length = 8r( :s24<1>) + l - 4<j>
or = actual length of bar from tangent point
whichever is larger
9(J' bend
Effective anchorage length = 4r( :S 12Q>) + I - 4<1>
or = actual length of bar from tangent point
whichever is larger
10.3.4 Curtailment and anchorage of bars
Minimum anchorage length = d or 12<P

In tension zone of a flexural member, take a bar to:
• a full tension anchorage length beyond a point where it is not required,

or
• a point where the shear capacity of the section is twice the shear force at
the point, or
• a point where the available bars continuing beyond provide a moment
of resistance twice the bending moment at the point.
The curtailment of bars should be staggered.
Anchorage of bars at a simply supported end
(1) An effective anchorage length of 12<P beyond centreline of support.

Hook or bend should not begin before centreline. Effective anchorage
lengths of a hook or a bend may be considered.
SUPPORT
SK 10/11 Required effective

anchorage at simply supported end ~: EFFECTIVE ANCHCRAGE
LENGTH ~ 12,
where centreline of support is less
than or equal to d/2 away from
face of support.
-
d
~
d/2
anchorage at simply supportedend
where centreline of support is
L =EFFECTIVE ANCHORAGE LENGTH more than d/2 away from face of
.. 12- support.
(2) An effective anchorage length of 12<1> beyond d/2 from face of support.
Hook or bend should not begin before d/2 from face of support.
Effective anchorage lengths of a hook or a bend may be considered.
L ;i. W/3 AND 30

anchorageat end of slab where
W/2 W/2 shear stress is less than 0.5 Ve.
(3) For slabs, if shear stress at face of support is less than half vc, then
project a straight length of bar beyond centreline of support equal to
one third of support width or 30mm, whichever is greater.
Anchorage bond lengths in multiples of bar sizes for Type 2 deformed bars
(/y = 460N/mm2).
Grades of concrete - !cu (N/mm2)

C25 C30 C35 C40 C45 C50
Tension anchorage and lap 40 37 34 32 30 28

Compression anchorage 32 29 27 26 24 22
Compression lap 40 37 34 32 30 28
Anchorage bond lengths in multiples of bar sizes for plain grade 250N/mm2
bars
Grades of concrete - !cu (N/mm2)

C25 C30 C35 C40 C45 CSO
Tension anchorage and lap 39 36 33 31 29 27

Compression anchorage 32 29 27 25 23 22
Compression lap 39 36 33 31 29 27
Note: The tension anchorage bond lengths will be multiplied by either 1.4 or 2.0,
depending on the location of the bar as described in Section 10.3.2.
10.4 BUILDING TIES
The following ties will be considered:
• Peripheral ties.
• Internal ties.
• Horizontal column and wall ties.
• Vertical ties.
Ties are continuous fully anchored and properly lapped welded or mechan-
ically connected tension reinforcement.
The reinforcement required to act as continuous ties is additional to
other designed reinforcement. Available excess design reinforcement if
properly tied and continuous and capable of carrying the prescribed tie
forces may be considered.
10.4.1 Peripheral ties
A continuous tie should be provided at each floor level and roof level
within 1.2 m of edge of building or within perimeter wall. This tie should
be capable of resisting a tensile force equal to FtkN.
Ft= 20 + 4n0 or 60 whichever is less

where n0 = number of storeys in the structure.
F.
Required area of steel for peripheral tie = Ast = __ t-
0.87/y
This means that the maximum area of steel for peripheral tie at each floor
and roof level is given by:
60 x 1a3
---- = 150mm2
0.87 x 460
or two 10 mm dia. bars (fy = 460 N/mm2) fully lapped and anchored.
Ft
... ,_
>-
a: :c
....Vl ...:c
C) !;;!
,-
>-
ur :c
....
a: (!)
0
I-
en ':!:!
J ::J
SK 10/14 Typical frame elevation showing tie
forces.
SK 10/15 Typical floor plan showing ties

required.
10.4.2 Internal ties
These ties are at floor and roof levels in two orthogonal directions and
anchored to peripheral ties or columns or perimeter walls.
The spacings of these ties will not be greater than 1.5/., where lr is greatest
INTERNAL TIES Cx-DIRECTION)

p ERIPHERAL TIE INTERNAL TIES ClJ-DIREC T ION)
j I I I
I- ¢COL
I I I
I I I
~ :::
U1
I I I 3
-
~ --r I
-
T- ~-1
I I
·-
_,,:;
¢ COL
';]
U1
I I I
Sx I
- -
Sxl
-
5)4
,_ ¢COL
_,5
I I I
';]
U1
- ¢COL
COL
.1. -,
Sx' 1 .5 Lx SK 10/16 Typical floor plan
Sy' 1 .5 Ly showing ties required.
distance between centres of vertical load-bearing elements in direction of

tie.
The ties should be capable of resisting a tensile force equal to the greater
of:
or
where (gk + qk} is the sum of the average characteristic dead and imposed
floor loads (kN/m2).
10.4.3 Horizontal column and wall ties
PERIPHERAL TIE
INTERNAL TIE
ANCHORED TO
SK 10/17 Anchorage of ties. PERIPHERAL TIE
If peripheral tie is located in wall, then internal ties should be anchored to

peripheral tie. No other wall tie is required.
Each external column should be tied back horizontally at each floor or
roof level. The tie force will be the greater of (a) or (b) below.
CONTINUOUS
PERIPHERAL TIE
-
i'Y
nu
-
c
-----I
CONTINUOUS
PERIPHERAL TIE
I o r
--- ------
/ I
(
v
h> I I
' -, I
I
I I
.i---HORIZONTAL
U-BAR
TIE
I
U-BAR
EXTERNAL COLUMNS
HORIZONTAfh TIE
BACK TO LOOR I
I I
I
- -ty I I
SK 10/18 External column - elevation showing SK 10/19 Corner column - plan view showing
tie back. tie back.
(a) 2F1 or (/5/2.5) F1 if less, where L. =floor-to-ceiling height (m)

(b) 3% of total design ultimate axial load carried by column
If peripheral tie is not located in wall, then every metre of wall should be
tied back at each floor or roof level. The tie force will be either (a) or (b),
as above.
The corner column will have horizontal ties at each floor level or roof level
in each of two directions, capable of developing a tie force equal to either
(a) or (b), as above.
10.4.4 Vertical ties
Each column and each wall should be tied continuously from the lowest to
the highest level. The tie force in tension will be the maximum design
ultimate dead and live load imposed on column or wall from any one
storey.
10.5 CONNECTIONS
The most commonly occurring structural connections are illustrated in this

section with guidance on the preferred detailing methods.
10.5.1 Pile-to-pile cap/foundation raft/ground beam
10.5.1.1 Bored and cast in-situ concrete pile
z
UJ
"",_ 0
0 LL UJ
Cl: WI-
CD __J UJ
Cl:
UJ a: u
? I-OZ
_, a: I- au
UJ
U:::::>Z
rv rv rv "I rv rv zo::>
" -
0
(_)
-
«»
~ ... SK 10/20 Pile-to-foundation

BORED IN·SITU PILE
CASE 1 connection.
Case 1
Mainly vertical loads.
Small horizontal load.
No bending moment in pile at connection.
No tension loads in pile.
Pile embedment C into pile cap, or raft, or ground beam, up to bottom

layer of reinforcement.
Check bearing stress on concrete (pile and pile cap) due to horizontal load.
Bearing stress = ::c -s 0.6fcu
where H = design ultimate horizontal load on pile

D = diameter or width of pile
C = embedment of pile into pile cap.
Check anchorage of pile reinforcement.
I = compression anchorage length
BENT BAAS INTRODUCED

IN GREEN CONCRETE
(_)
IJ1
zUJ 0..
>-<
_J
_J
5
LL
BORED IN·SITU PILE
CASE 28
B(J£0 IN-SITU PILE SK 10/22 Pile-to-foundation connection.
CASE 2A
SK 10/21 Pile-to-foundation connection.
ONCIUE BAOKEN OUT

CR LEFT lMCONCRETEO
SURFACE OF PILE
ROUGHENED
SK 10/23 Pile-to-foundation BORED IN-SITU PILE

connection. CASE 2C
Case 2
Vertical compression load.
Vertical tension load.
Piles in swelling clay.
Bending moment in pile at connection.
Horizontal load on pile.
Check bearing stress on concrete as in Case I.
Check anchorage of pile reinforcement.
I1 = compression anchorage length
/2 = tension anchorage length (the effective anchorage length of the bend
may be considered)
If bearing stress is higher than allowed, then embedment may be increased
by adopting solution in Case 2C.
10.5.1.2 Precast reinforced concrete pile
Case 1 (same condition as in Section 10.5.1.1, Case 1)
z
....
rr " ~· ""ii!
0
? I ........
....a:
,..,
I ,.., I ....
u
z
rv rv rv rv 0
- ,_
u
'
PBECAST REINFORCED CONCRETE PILE SK 10/24 Pile-to-foundation
CASE 1 AND CASE 2A connection.
Reinforcement to be exposed by breaking out a length equal to I above

pile cut off.
l = compression anchorage length
Check bearing stress, as in Section 10.5.1.1, Case 1.

Reinforcement to be exposed by breaking out a length equal to l above
pile cut off.
l = tension anchorage length
SK 10/25 Pile-to-foundation PRECAST RE!NFQRCED CONCRETE PILE

connection. CASE 28

If bearing stress is higher than allowed then embedment C may be increased
by adopting solution in Case 2B.
10.5.1.3 Precast prestressed concrete pile
.---,
I I
I I
SK 10/26 Pile-to-foundation PRECAST PBES'fRESSED PILE

connection. CASE 1

I = transmission length of prestressing tendons
K1<!>
= V/cu
TOP HAT REINFORCEMENT

TOREAR~S!ST
TON PILE
IF A VERT~CAL
WAL
PUNCH N SHEAR by2Es ~OR
DEPTH 'd' IS £xcEEDED
ELEVATION
DIAGONAL BARS TO
REPLACE THE
CONTINUITY OF
BOTTOH MAT.
REINFORCEMENT
PRECAST PRESTRESSEDPILE SK 10/27 Pile-to-foundation

CASE- 2 connection.
where <j> = nominal diameter of tendon

K1 = 600 for plain or indented wire
= 400 for crimped wire with wave height not less than 0.15 mm
= 240 for 7-wire strand or super-strand
= 360 for 7-wire drawn strand.
The top-hat reinforcement detailing at pile connection may be adopted for
large vertical load and significant bending moment in pile.
10.5.1.4 Steel Hspile or steel tubular pile
Case 1 (same conditions as in Section 10.5.1.1, Case 1)

Check bearing stress, as in Section 10.5.1.1 Case 1, using width of flange
or depth of section, whichever is smaller.
Check bearing stress on concrete on top of mild steel plate using maximum
ultimate vertical load on pile.
HILO STEEL PLATE
(J
SITE FILLET WELD
STEEL H-PILE OR
SK 10/28 Connection of steel pile CIRCULAR STEEL TUBE
to foundation. CASE 1
Case 2 (same conditions as in Section 10.5.1.1, Case 2)

Check bearing stress, as in Section 10.5.1.1 Case 1, using width of flange
or depth of section, whichever is smaller.
Check bearing stress on concrete on top of mild steel plate using maximum
ultimate vertical load on pile.
SITE FILLET WELD
STEEL H-PILE OR
SK 10/29 Moment connection of CIRCULAR STEEL TUBE
steel pile to foundation. CASE 2
L = tension anchorage length of the type of bar used (the effective

anchorage length of a hook or a bend may be used)
I
<j> = diameter of bar = i.21(~)

afyn
2
M = maximum ultimate bending moment in pile at connection

a = distance between bars perpendicular to axis of rotation or moment,
or distance between two rows.
n = number of bars in each row
Note: During the driving operation it is difficult to control the orientation of the
flanges of H-piles to match the axis of bending moment. In practice, the
anchoring bars should be used in such a fashion that the bending moment
capacity of these anchor bars are equal in both the orthogonal directions.
The mild steel plate should be checked for strength to transfer the anchoring
tension of the bars to the web of the H-pile .
.MILD STEEL PLATE

WELDED TO PILE
SK 10/30 Plan of circular pile

ANCHOR BARS WELDED showing location of anchor bars for
TO MILD STEEL PLATE moment connection as in Case 2.
For a circular steel pile using 6 no. anchor bar on a circle of diameter D
which is diameter of circular pile, diameter of each anchor bar is given by:
I
= 0.92(~)
Dfy
2
10.5.2 Column-to-foundation/pile cap/raft
Case 1: Column bars always in compression
Z::i:::
"
o,__
- (!)
mz
lilw
~....J
n, c,
::E<
8.....1 KICKER
I
- •
I I
t-
I
I
./
.,, n• _______________ rv
l
I SK 10/31 Connection of column to
CASE 1 foundation - no tension in bars.
No check necessary for anchorage bond length.

The column bars should be taken down to bottom reinforcement mat of
foundation.
Case 2: Significant tension in column bars due to foundation fixity bending

moment and/ or direct axial tension load
"
~
:r:
z>-
0 (!)
_z
Ulw
z-'
Wo._
I-<
_J
~ ,...._ - -
I r
SK 10/32 Connection of column to

J ~ -t-r
/
.,., n•
,~3
I
foundation - significant tension in
bars. CASE 2
I= tension anchorage length (effective anchorage length of a bend may be

used)
10.S.3 Wall-to-foundation/pile cap/raft
Case 1 (same condition as in Section 10.5.2, Case 1)

Use same principle as in 10.5.2, Case 1.
Case 2 (same condition as in Section 10.5.2, Case 2)

Use same principle as in Section 10.5.2, Case 2.
10.S.4 Column-to-column connection
Case 1: Column bars always in compression

I = compression lap length
A
. ..... ~-~2
.~' ~10
1
-
lfl
lfl
_,
lfl
tn
lfl
KICKER
~ ~-
>
.. r--+,
m "
S :S200 IF
,, ANO c>2>20
SK 10/33 Column-to-column
ANO C < 1·5+1OR1·5 ~2 connection.
The links at the lap will be at a maximum spacing of 200 mm if bars lapped
are greater than 20 mm in diameter and cover is less than 1.5 times bar
diameter.
Case 2: Significant tension in column bars due to bending moment or axial

tension
I = tension anchorage length if cover is at least 2 times diameter of lapped
bars
I = 1.4 x tension anchorage length for corner bars where cover to either
face is less than 2 times diameter of lapped bars
I = 1.4 x tension anchorage length if adjacent laps are less than 75 mm or
6 times bar diameter away
10.S.S Wall~to~wallconnection
U-BARl
A A • A A A
v
( "
o, r»
v v v v v
(
'/ <: b ~ "' U-BAR

,, b
'c b
( b
'\ <: b
. SK 10/35 Type 1 - plan of wall at intersection .
SK 10/34 Type 1 - plan of wall at corner.
L
·1
A A A A A
v '\
I•
o, /)
v v v v v
le
v < b~
"' VERT I CAL U-BARS
LAPPED WITH HORIZONTAL .
I< b BARS IN THE LAYER UNDER
le b l
( b
• ~ ~ b
SK 10/36 Type 2 - plan of wall at corner. SK 10/37 Type 3 - plan of wall at corner.
Type 1 and Type 2 connections are efficient for significant reversible

bending moment at connection. If horizontal bars are designed to carry
significant tension at junction, then lap length is given by:
I = tension anchorage lap length
Type 3 connection may be used where nominal horizontal reinforcement is

required to prevent cracking and to contain vertical reinforcement. The
lap length is given by:
l = 15 times bar diameter or 300 mm, whichever is greater
Note: If the loading causes the corner of the wall to open up then Type 2
connection becomes most efficient. Moreover, with Type 2 detailing the
horizontal bars could be of different diameters at the inside and the
outside faces.
10.5.6 Column-to-beam connection

10.5.6.1 External columns
Case 1: Beam assumed simply supported
so ·1 I' ·1
...._ "-----~
U-BAR WITH 50%

OF AAEA AT MIDSPAN SK 10/38 Connection of beam to
COLUMN BARS OMITTED FOR CLARITY column - Case 1.
l = tension lap length

See Section 10.3.2 for design of tension lap length.
Case 2: Beam assumed fixed to column

/1 = length required by design calculations ;;=: 0.15 span ;;=: tension lap
length
r= radius of bend (special radius may be necessary)
Check bearing stress inside bend (see Step 22 of Section 2.3).
12 = tension lap length (see Section 10.3.2)
/3 = tension anchorage length (to be checked if available within depth)
L,
"
/
'
r¥
(/
J
J~ j <
o, ,..,
\,_
/I
N
so L,
SK 10/39 Connection of beam to -:_U-BAR AREA DETERMINED

column - Case 2. BY DES[GN CALCULAT[ONS
Case 3: Beam assumed fixed to column (no reversal of moment)
' 50 2
'" ·1 I"
~,
I
I ·1
/ I
,__ (/ 'V
<
\. I o, ,..,
r-,
~
I
so L.
I
I'll
SK 10/40 Connection of beam to

column - Case 3.
t OF COLUMN
If /3 in Case 2 is less than tension anchorage length, use detail in Case 3.

11 = tension anchorage length
r = radius of bend
12 = length required by design calculations ;;::: 0.15 span ;;::: tension lap
length
13 = 12 x bar diameter of effective anchorage
Case 4: Beam assumed fixed to column (ductile connection for reversible

moment)
50 L
L,
SK 10/41 Ductile column/beam

connection - Case 4.
Where bending moments at connection are very large and reversible, e.g.
at knee of a portal frame, use detail in Case 4.
12 = designed length ;:::: 0.15 span ;:::: tension lap length
May be provided with a hook at end to get full effective anchorage length.
r = radius of bend
As = same area of steel as beam design bottom steel at column
10.5.6.2 Internal columns

Connection uses straight splice bars at intersection.
Splice bars for secondary beam may be placed inside splice bars of main
beam.
/1 = tension lap length (see Section 10.3.2)
/2 = designed length ~ tension anchorage length
[., so
SPLICE BARS FOR

..iSECONOARY BEAMS
-,,,,.;::: 'I
v
I
v
r-: v
" A ~ A
<,
~ LMAIN BE AM
L, SPLICE BARS
SK 10/42 Internal column - FOR MA IN BEAM
beams from both orthogonal
directions.
10.5.7 Wall-to-beam connection
The same principles apply as in Section 10.5.6.
10.5.8 Wall-to-slab connection
.
I) c
L,
b c
b .)
vu-BAR
I
v v v v v v
- n 0.. n n n/> n
"
I) c
L2
SK 10/43 Connection of slab to p 50
wall. (Slab assumed simply
supported.)
10.5.8.1 Slab simply supported on wall

11 = 4 x thickness of slab or 600mm or 0.1 x span, whichever is the
greatest
U-bars are same diameter as bottom bars.
/2 = tension lap or 500 mm, whichever is greater
10.5.8.2 Slab restrained by wall-moment connection

Case 1: Small diameter bars
0.3 SPAN
As
U-BAR WITH
ALTERNATE LDNG
50 LEGS
SK 10/44 Connection of slab to

wall - Case 1 (Slab rigidly
CF WALL connected to wall.)
/1 =the greatest of designed length, tension anchorage length, 4 x thickness

of slab, 600mm, or 0.1 x span
12 = tension lap length
/3= tension anchorage length allowing for bends

Check bearing stress inside bend.
Case 2: Large diameter bars
p c
0.3 SPAN
L1
b c
- ~ /As /As/2
I
, ( ,, ,,
Cl. o, x
0 c
L.
0 50 SK 10/45 Connection of slab to
wall - Case 2 (Slab rigidly
- .... ;-
connected to wall.)
/1 = same as in Case 1
/2 = tension lap length
13 =
tension anchorage length allowing for a bend
Check bearing stress inside bend.
Note: Case 2 detail is used when tension anchorage length cannot be accommo-
dated within bend of U-bar in Case 1.
10.5.9 Column-to-wall connection
Case 1: No significant tension in column bars
-- r'V- .-~
L,
r- ,_
KICKER
,-
'
,_
~ '
SK 10/46 Wall-to-column ~ '

connection.
"
/1 = compression lap length
/2 = compression anchorage length
Case 2: Significant tension in column bars

11 = tension lap length (see Section 10.3.2 for design of lap length)
/2 = tension anchorage length
10.5.10 Slab-to-beam connection
The same principles apply as in Section 10.5.8.1.

Chapter 11
General Figures, Tables and Charts
487
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ti II j:::;
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i...:;
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::J 1N3/Jl::l:l30J
General Figures, Tables and Charts 489
f'T"lN- 00)CDr"-f.DU1--:-rrlN OOlaJr--lDLn~CT1N-

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Table 11.2 Sectional properties.

TVPE OF SECTION AREA MOMENT OF INERTIA TORSIONAL CONSTANT
8 A•rt 0114 I =TT 04164 lz="04132
A=~lof-ol J I= ff (0:-o;] lz =ft (D~ -o; l
x l! h A=0-828h2 10: lyy=D0547h4 lz: nh4132

~ .
~
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~
0577h
· ·tB
~11
A=0866hz lu = lyy= 0-0601 h4 lz: nh4/32
( Approximalt:ly)
IV
~RB~
.f.::?:b
lxx=n bh1
lz =0-5Cb3h
A=bh
h1z lyy=;\ hb1 C:Cocffici&nt in tabla 2·2
~{w~· ~2 bn
A=bh•(6-b)hf
X•
[ bh2 ·< e -blh1
2[bh·(6-blhJI
11
lxx=a bh1·i\<6-b>tlr
• bhc\i- x)1
.(6-b)hf
lyy=ft(h-hj)bJ
(x-hj/2)2
1f htB1
(---hj)<!:b
Iz = o s cerip o set/(
C =Coefficient in table 2 ·2
h-htl
,~
L1:'
v
__x
::::Jh1
A= bh, 2hj (B·b)
lxx=
lyy=l
ij bh3 •i<B-b)t?f
• 2<6-blhf <h12-h1
"1 e1.n<h-2h'
m2
)bl
( l,-2hf)
C = Cocffici&nt
l
<': b
12.cetl1.0-SCb1(h-2hj)
in table 2 • 2
lz= ~
1 .. =n eHlfibh3 t
I~
.. ;-- -;-1 ~ At= Arca of closed cell on (. ot wall.
•
AzBH·bh lyy= n He3-d hb3
61 :Length of each side of closed cell on (..
l ~ _ ·-- j H12
1 =Thickness of aach 5'da of closed cell on it..
y
e
~ I A: 2Bhf • (H·2~)b,, 1 .. =n i>wH3 ·1<B-i>w>tl1 B>hf
- , I 1"1
H x,..
-- 4--~· X• [B2h!'(H·2hJ)bi;2]
A lyy=t e3tif•n(H·2hf)t:J.,
(H-2hj) > bw
lz :CBh3f • C(H·2hf)t>!,
-~=h
e b
e=
tfhj(H·hj)2
41.,
.26hf(X-612)2
·(H-2hfHX-bwl2l2 c :Coefficient in table 2-2
Shur "centre
Table 11.3 Basic span/effective depth ratios for rectangular and flanged
beams.
Support conditions Rectangular section Flanged beam with

bwfb :S0.3
Cantilever 7 5.6
Simply supported 20 16.0
Continuous 26 20.8
Chart 11.4 Modification factor for compression reinforcement.
,_---
®
14
/
~ --- -----
-:
0
v
O·S 1·5 2 2·5 3 lS 4 s

100 As/( bd I
Cc = Modi tication fader for Compression Reinforcement
Chart 11.5 Modification factor for tension reinforcement.
2
1 8 fs=
1-6 ---100
1"4
- --150
1-2
--- --- 200
@1 250
0·8
- ---- 300
0·6
350
04
O·Z
0
0 2 3 4 5 6 N/mm2
11/(bdZ)
Ct =Modification factor for Tension Reinforcement

Table 11.6 Nominal cover (mm) to all reinforcement including links to meet
durability requirements.
Condition of exposure Lowest grades of concrete (N/mm2)
30 35 40 45 50
Mild: protected against 25 20 20 20 20

aggressive environment
Moderate: sheltered from rain 35 30 25 20
and freezing, subject to
condensation, or, continuously
under water
Severe: subject to alternate 40 30 25
wetting and drying and freezing
Very severe: subject to sea water 50 40 30
spray, deicing salts, etc.
Extreme: exposed to abrasive 60 50
action by machinery or vehicles
or water-carrying solids with
pH:s4.5
Table 11.7 Nominal cover (mm) to all reinforcement including links to meet
specified periods of fire resistance.
Fire Beams Slabs Columns

resistance
(hours) Simply Continuous Simply Continuous
supported supported
0.5 20 20 20 20 20
1.0 20 20 20 20 20
1.5 20 20 25 20 20
2.0 40 30 35 25 25
3.0 60 40 45 35 25
4.0 70 50 55 45 25
Note: cover in excess of 40 mm may require additional measure to reduce risk

of spalling
Table 11.8 Rectangular columns - fcu=30N/mm2, k=0.95.
-
1f I~~!~~!~~ ~!HHH
ddddd
~ii~I
CS<:iC:Sdd
!ilii;i~~
CSCSdCSd
;;ua·
ddddd
~ '~lil~!!!
Q<:iddd
~rHHI~ ~(H!~~
es es es es cs cs cs cs cs cs
i
1ma=;~
~~~~~ ;~~i~ ~~~~~ ~!~!~!~5~9 !~~'~ !!~~!~~~SS
1 I I~§!§!es fi!es ~!!! ~
es es es
i!H~~~~ ifiOC:SCSc:Sc:i
rii I~ ll UiSi~i
cs cs er cs cs C:SdC::SdCS
!il~~i~
ddddd
lil!il!HU !i!Ul!U \HH~E
es es es es es ddC:SCSCS CSOddC:S
i
1;~~~~~~~~'~~;;~~~Sis
!:i!~~=55!~ 5'!!~ ~!:3!!~!~~!
111 !~!~!!!~~£! ddddd
!H !Urii i!i!Ul!l!
es es es cses CSC:SdCSd
~unn ~~uu !l!U!Ul
ddddd dC5c;:jc:Jid dC:SCSCSd
~~t2~~
cidC:SdC:S
~!::~~
C:SdddC:S
i
i~~~~i~~~~~ ~B~~~ !~~S! ~~5~! !i~!!5 !!~!~ !~~~~!~~!S
ti~~~!~~~~§ ~~Uli CS<S<:idO

iUiHi~
ci«::Scidd
ill~~~!il
ddddd
l!l!H;IH:l
Odddd
~1U!~
CSCSCSC:Sd
~~~a!
Odddd
:::~~~~
ddddd
i
--- !!!~3
i~~~~~ ... ... . 5!~!~ !~!~!
.... ........ 3~5~5
................. ~~Iii~~~~~~~ ---'P'-...~~!~Iii
l!lilll;:iil;! cc
ti~!~~~~~~~~~~~! :g~~~a ~Uili!!ilUJ~!U

c:s cs Ci
§~ a ~ ::
c::iOCSC:SC:S
~~~§~
es es es es es
~
dOc:Sdd dddCSd c:) Ci
""
i
i~~~~~~~~!~55!~~!~5!~ !~~!::i ~S!~~ ~~~!5 5~~!§ 5
111!!Hi~
,..:....:<:)c::id
~S!~Sii!i iH~l3UI !U!i!!U
es es cs es es cSd<:Sdd
~~~~~ ~~~~$?
es es es es es dd<::icSCS Ci cs cs es 0
~
q
""
t
i~~~~; !~~~!55~5' !!~~! !~!~! '!~~! s
i ~Hilei
~ddcScS
El&i~~~ ~!Hi~i ~H~~E
cs es es er es dC:SdC:Sd es es es es es
§
i ""
i~al5! S!!;;~ ~~!~~ !~,35 ~
i !~~~~~~!!!!!!SS!!!!~ !~~!! !5!!! ~!!!~~!!!!!!!!I
Table 11.8 (contd) - fcu = 30N/mm2, k = 0.90.
-
if I~!!!~~~~§~!§!!!~~~~~~!~~!~~!~~~~~~!!~~~
i
1~~2~a ~~~~~ ~~aa~ ~~~~~ ~!5~~ ~3~5! !~~!u ~~!!! !s,~!
ii I~!!~!~!~~!§~~!~~~~!!~§~!~!~!~!~~~~~!~
i
iii~~=~~~~~~~~~~~;~~!
~!~5! !~~!~~=!~! !!!~~ ~3~!!
~~S~! ~~~~! ~!!!~

ii~~~~~~~~!!!!!~ ~~~~~ ~~~~~ ~!~~!
i
1=~~~~ ~~~~;~~I;! ~s~s~ 5=!~! !!~~! !~!!! ~~~!~!~~!~
ii~~~!~~~~~ ~!~~s !!~~~ !!!~~~~~~~ ~~~~~ ~~!!~ ~~~~~

t
i=~~~~ ~~~~~ ;5!~~ ~!E93
!~9!~ !!~~! !~~~!S!i!~~
!!5!!
ii IH!U
...:c:sc:;;c:S
1i!~UHl~UHi~CSCiddCI
cs cs es cs cs dC:Sddd
~~iHi ~U!!ij~
C:S<:iddd
f:l!Hl§lll~~UH~
dCSCSCSCS CSdc::iOd
!'.HH~S~
dd<:SOCS
!~~Hi~
CSdC:Sdd
i
1~~~~a ~~~5s9~~!! !!~!s ~!~~! !!~~~ s~~~~
?!~!! s!s~~
tl!i~ii~~
~Cid<:iCS
il~D!~ ~i~~!i!l Ui~!!!~~~!~~ ~HlH!~
C:SCSC:SC:Sc:i es es es es es CS<:ic::Sc:iCS c:idddd d<:SC:S<:SO
!~~~~ tHHHH:! ~HHHHi
cs es es es es dCSQidd OC:SCSdc:i
q
i.
i~~~~; ~!~~! 5~!!5 !~~~! ~!9!! ~~?~!
~55!! !!~!! ~~~9~
i~~~!§~!~!~ ~~~~~ !~!~~ ~~~~~ !~~~~

i
ig~~!! !!i!9~ ~~!!!! 5!!'~ !!SS!!!!~!
t !~~~~~~!!!!!!SS!!!!!~'~!''~'!!~!!!!~~!!!!!!!~
Table 11.9 Rectangular columns - !cu= 30 N/mm2, k = 0.85.
~
ii~~~~ IH!~IU
d dc:i<::i cs
II ic:s !lld llid ~d UHl!U
Ci ddddd
ii;§'j ill~~ !.ll ~~~; !:iUd!~
c:s es cs Ci ddddd
Ci ddCScSC:S
i.H~~~
0 d
~lU~~
c:> d c:s dOddd
i
1a~~~~ ='!i:ffl;!
R - t: ;! ~ ~~§~~ l!li!!!:Slll 52~!! ~55~! 9!S~~ !S!!~
$!$!$!.&at
--- -
lilli!l1;;!
ii~!!~ ~H:llilli
dCSdCSCS
:u~~i:l
es es es cs cs
ill 3i E\ !l! !l!§~~~
illdC:SCSCSCS !~iii~~ l?i Iii 1; ii lil ll!d dIii dUl~
cs cs cs cs cs es es es d 0 ddddd dCi
~~fdU
Ci es es d
Qi
i 1~~15!&1
IC s:I I!! ;i:; ~;;~~ ~~~;; 55!!~ ~~!~S ~!5~~ S!~~! ~~~!! ~~~5~
11 I ~...,: !d ~cs ;; ~1:n.~~~
Ci Odc:idd
!ll~1Hlill Bi~:l'iUl :7:!H~l
es es es es es ddCSCSd
~~~~Hl i;iHHO
cs Ci cs cs cs Cidde)d ddddd
!U~~~ UHH!~
c:s cs a cs cs d C:Sd cs es
i
1~n=~~ ;~~~~ ~~!~~ !~~~~
......... !!!~5 35!~! !S~Hi~!!5!! i:i
pp
q! I!!!
cl
ii§!!! ~~!Hifll
CiC:SCidCi
~!UcHl! !U~fii~ ~Ul~ill l:i~!Hl!i: !H!O!~'-!l!HHU
es es es es es cs cs cs er cs <:S cs c:i 0 ei cs c::S 0 <:S cs ddddd
~HH!~~
cs es es es es dCid<::id
i.
I~~~~~ ~~~~~ ~!~~~ ~~Ii!~!
... """ ~5~!! ~~~S! ~ ! ~ ~ ll! pp p !!5~~~ ~~!~!
UiU!~ ~~i~~ il!!Ua~ ~ ~ ~ ~lil !!! ~ ~ i ~ !U!ll.i!U ~!Hl!i.!~ l'U~ !Hl l'.:i~Uli:i
cs ca cs cs cs <:S cs d 0 c::S cs cS es d d d es c:)d d c:s c:s c:s c:sc:s c:s c:s c:)d 0 dC:SddCi
'i'"'<:i<><><> es es es es es
i
.1~=~a~ 2~!99 !~55! 9~95~ ~~~~~ ~~!!5 !~'~5 ~!!!! 9!!~5
ii~~~~~ ~~§Iii!:!
OCSdC:Sd
~ ~ llH!! f.; ~lHHU
C:SCiCSdC:S
irn~~~ ~HdH!~ i8~~~ ~~~~!!\U!!!~
cs cs d es d cs cs er cs cs Ci c:s cs cs cs C:SC:SCiC:Sd d 0 cs cs cs dC:SCSCiCi
"'t
1~a~~= Ii:~
• Ill~~
,._Ct. !5!!! ~=s~~ !~99~ ~~!:!~ii !~~!! :z:;;.
dc:idcio
ill~
~~~~~
... -- T"' d
ii~~~~~ ~~~!HI
<:i d 0
~~iHHl~~H!~
cs cs er cs cs es c:s
Ci Ci
~ ~ !HH'.! 6~~~~
cs c:s <::id 0 0 0 C:Sd 0 c:s c:s
Ci
a~~~~
cs cs
cScs cs
!~~!! ~~~~~
c:s d d C:Sd ddddd
i
1~~;~9~~!!~ !;~~~5 !3,~! !9a~~ !!333 ~~5~~ ~~~~; ~ ~-~ § 9
i !~~~~ ~~!!! !!!SS !!!!! ~~~!! !5!!! ~~!!! ~!!!! !!~!~

-
i I ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ !~ !~ ~ ~ ~ § § ! !! ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ! !!! ~ ~ ~ !!~ ! ~ ~ ~~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~
i
I~~=~~ I~~~~~~~~~ !~!5155~S~!!~595 9~~~~~~~~!~~!!5
ii~~~!~!~~~~!~!!!~~~~~~!!!~~~~~!~~!~!~~~
i
II==~~ ~~~~a ~~~5~S~!!~ 9~!3! !5!!! ~!~!~ ~!~~~:1!~5!
t~!~~~ ~§!~~ suss ~~!~~ !!~~~ !~~~~ ~~~~! ~~~~~ ~~~~~

i
1~~~i~ ~a~~i i5~ss ~~~!! 559;~ ~~~~~ ~~~!! sssss ~!~!!
i §~§;~~
~dddd
!!l!U!U! ~f§Udl <::SCSddd
es es es es es ddOdCS
i;~i~~ &!H!~~ !!!~S:l!l~ i!Hii'!il;~ ~!Bi!U !liU!!i!~
cs cs cs es cs cs es cs es es es es es es es ddddd Qdddd
i
1~~~~i a~~!~ 9~~~9:~=s~ ~~s!~ ~s~~~ ssass sssss !~~!!
i ~!!~~ ~~~~~ ~~~~! ~!~~~ nsss ~!~~~ ~~~~~ suu ~~~!!
i
ill~~~ ~555~!9955 95~!! ~!~~~~!~!~ ''!!! ~!555 ~~!~~
q
i ~~~:H~
....:0000
~~~i;~
es es es es es
~UHl~ ~urn~ ~~~1Hl iHHl~~
es es es es es es es es es es dc:Sooo oocsoo
lHHHUli !HUHll!! ~~H!~
cs cs cs es cs es eses es es es es es es es
t
i~~a~!!!5~~ !5!!~ !~~~! 99~5~S!!!! ~5!!! ~~!3! 5~~~~
i ~lB!d~~
,..:c:iddd
!H!~U; ~~lUH! ~\!!!!!~~ !!<Hrn~ ddddO
es es es es es cs es cs cs es es es es es es dddc::>d
~!~!! ~!H!H! \HH?~~ ~~ae~
es es es es es ddddd CSCSC:SCSC:S
i
I~~;~!!~~~~~!~~~ ~~95! 555!! !:ii!~~ ~~a~~~~~~~ ~~~!9
i !~~~~~~!!! !!!~5 !!!!! sssss sssss ~!!!!~!!!!!!~!I
Table 11.10 Rectangular columns - !cu= 35N/mm2, k =0.95.
~
i I I ii!!-o-,..: 0 ~ lH!lUE: : ~~~~ii ~~Ul~ ~!U~~ ~a~~~ ~0 ~0 ~d 0~ 0Rl !Hl!Hl!:l -- --
i8ll!~:!::
i.:
,..: c:s cs d c::i 0 0 0 0 0 0 00000 00000
Ci cscsooc:s 0 c::s 0 0 Ci es 0 ,..
0 0 0
i ~..
1=~~~~ a~i~~ lq~il:ilil
t:~l!;f;f ~~~~~
fl\!""':
~ $! oi td ~~~!~ 5~53~ ~!~~! 1111! :I!~\:!
N .. ,... .... ,...
I SI ~~!al!! !H!lU ii !Hl~U! iHiU!~ ~~~~ti! :; re ~ ~ ~cs !:;cs ~c:S ~c:s ~c:s H~EU!
.t ii ~,..: ii
c:s 0 cs cs c:s 0 c:s es C:S<:S c:s <::S cs es c:s 0 ooooc:s OOC)OCS
<:)
~csc:scscscs C:SC)C:SCSCS
i~~~~~N~53~5
,... .. ,... ... ~;~~~ ~~~~~ !!3~~ ::i:~s~ !5!~~ ~~~!~ ~9~~!
i I I
I I
a Si ~
,..: cs c:)
!iHi!H~
0 es 0 c:s 0
Uii!HI
0 es 0 0 0
~ll!ll!iH
oc:soc:so
iiiSi~~~
ocsc:scscs
~ 1Ui!:l i; ~~!H~
csocsocs cscscsocs
H~~~H ~ :: § ~ ~
cs 0 0 0 0 0 0 cs cs Ci
i
1~~a~~ =~=~; ;;~~~ 31:::; ~::!I
5! ;! a; oi .s ~~~!! :a..iw1o1••
I'! I :ui
~~~~s ~3~~~ !5~~5
i l ~,..: l§...: aec:s

Ci
1;i Iii
c:s 0
i!!~0 ~0 ~~~!Ii
Ci c:scsoocs
!ll ~ii ~HHl ~6§!~~
csocscso
~~~tarJ
er cs er cs cs cscsoc:so
~~~~~ !HH~ :': ~ \H\H
C\I 0
0 0 0 0 cs cs 0 es cs 0
- -c:S 0
- -0
i j~:i!~l:llii BH!l ~Iii~ S!&!~t!;li! I:!

i:l a e e ~~~~~ ;:$!~OIOI co a:t co ,._, .... !!9!! ~!~~~ ~E~~~ ~955~ ~I;;~
..: d 0 0
i l: ~~ iHl ~~l::!U ll!~iU~

....: di es c:s d d 0 0 d
~ ~ ~ ~ iii ~~UHi
<:::i <:i 0 d cs <:i c::s <:i 0 d 000<::)0 C":!3:ill~&3
'I----
OiO<::iOC:S
-
~ - ~ 'It
~:;::::;:::;:
0 <::i 0 c::s 0
-
!H~HH
<:::iOOC:SO
i
il!!l11q~5
-
N
OI t-. UI
- ,...- ..-
11! ~:I! I!~
t? .... ;:~~ ~!~S~ ~~I
&u)fOr.olrilri ll! IU!llP81'1
'Iii .. ., M ri ~~~~~ ~!~9~ 59~!~
i~U!&lie
.....: <:id cs 0
~c:i UHii!i! ~Hillll:! ~~~~~
d c:i 0 c:S d 0 <:i 0 d <:i d 0 d d
!!1\HEH~ ~~\H1~
d 0 <:i es cs 00 0 c:::i c:;;
i i ~~~::::Iii
~~i:?:: ~!!~~ s;:i~! ;~~~~ ~~!!5 !!~~;
i~HU~!il
-ooeo
~~~!ii !:i ~HHH
c:s cs es 0 0 <::i cs Ci C) Q
s ~ ~ Qes §o
cs <:id
""i
i:l!l!~CI
~ ~ - ;:: oi
;,e ;g :II Ill ;!:
tdP.:.Owl• s~~~~ '5!!5
i ~~~lij:q
c 0 Cl 0 0 ~~!~~ ~!!~5 !!!!! ~~~!! - ... - -
&! ~Ii! Ii!~ ~!~~~ ~~~~! !!~!~
Table 11.10 (contd) - !cu= 35 N/mm2, k = 0.90.
~
i
I
ii I s!Hl
..: Cid
Ui~~~
0 cs 0 d 0
~~~ii~
OdO<:::iCS
~~i9~~ !llUH~ 5;&!~~~0 lf!0 !Hl
cs 0 0 cs 0 c::s cs 0 0 es cs 0 cs 00
reC:Sdiii 1HHIJ:Hl
ddOOO
i:;!:\l!HH!!
cs cs 0 0 0 Oi
i
i~~=~~ O:U!lnl:it::
R~==t: =~~~; ~!~~~ ...... ................. ~
II iq ~ i:p~,... ~5~~5 ~!5!~ !:11!8iilfi
...; MM N N
8 ~:fl l:i 8
N..,.: .... ..,.:..,.:
ii I ~..: § ill ~ ~i?!!HU~ i~iUi ~~)Hl fij 5lill Ul ~ ~~~~~ !Hilill!J!lj ~~H? !!!
~ - ,..,_,. C'\j
~~~~N
-: c::i <::ii c:s c:s d d 0 er cs cs cs cs 0 0 cs d 0 ocscsoc:s 0 c:s 0 c:s cs 00000 cs cs 0 0 0 0 c:s d 0Ci
0
t
i~~~~~~ .,:; ;!: :fl l=! ~
; == ~ - ;~~;~ 55~!~
......... =~~~! ~l!l:l~~
alt vs_,, II') .... 5!~~~ ! t;................
Ii! :ti i:I :!; l:l ~~
... .......
~
..- a
ii II ~3!
....: 0
1a ~~~~ic:s
0 d 0 c::; d 0
iii!!liH!~
0 cs es cs
~~~iH;
d c:s d 0 d
Ci
~0 ~cs ~0 ~0 !ll0 !Hl~HHl
es es c:s 0 Ci
;;M~~::!
('\t t'\t (\I
d 00
C\1(\1
C:Sd
~~~~~ \HdHH:
cs cs cs cs es cs 0 cs 0 cs
ii i:i Ill~\!! !II

~IQ i:i i;i ~ ~~~;a 18 BPI I! 111 i!l:il!fi!~
~::;::~~ Cll Gt CD G:t ~!~!~ ~s!;! ~~~~~ ~~~!S !~!~~
ii! : ~Uil3cs ~~~illi8
- 000000
0
~~~1HI
00000
~ !8 ~ ~ ~ ~~!lHl~
0 0 0 <::) 0 00000
~~~~~
0 0 0 0 0
~~lH!~
0 0 0 0 0
~~~~~
00000
~s~~!
00000
C>
ri
!'..
i~~~;; ~a~
~~~~~ - - °' i;;°" ~.. ~:I! 51$ ~ • .... .... .... fO !!~~~ &'I :I! ~ ~ ~
ri ..,..,..,C"'J
~~~~' s'~s~ !~a~~
l8 :;i;:;; s ~
~iit i5!HH! ~ ~ ta i
..,.: 0 c::) 0 0 0 0 0 0
ij ~~~El~ ~?SU!~ ~~~~H! i:;lUlH0
0 0 0 (::) 0 0 0 c:::s cs 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
c::) Ci
~ ~ ~ ~ !!!
cs cs 0 0 0
~~~~~
00000 00000
i
~-,. --
il:I!~!~ s~;::=S!ot
Ii; s l:i Ill
... .
Ii;~ :a:!!
,..: ....:
:3 'l:a:&~s
40115.S!IS
5 ~:;;I!!;;; !!~~~ !S!~~ !!~!~
.., ri MN
1:
ddd
Ill Ii!~ cl;II
i!S~!ii~i:!
~oocso
~~ ~ iil ~ 00000
00000
~ ~ lil ~ ~ ~~~~~
00000
~~~Hl
00000
~Hl~~~
00000
~HHHH~ ~~~~~
00000 00000
~~~~~
00000
C!
i
--
1~~~~5
. . ........
~ Q/11
~ :3
.... «$
Ii! Iii $1 • :: :0
........
... .,, od "' "'
~
!~~~~ ~!!!5 ~~~~~ Ii! ~ ~ ~ ~ 00000 !!~~~ ~~!;!~~
ii!iHU~~
~0000
~~i~~
0 0 0 0 <:) ~ "'
00000 - - - ~~~~a
"- ~ :§: r::: 1;:l
00000
~;:~~§?
00000
i
i!~~~:
......... 3!~~~ ~~!~~ ~!3'~ !!!E!
i ~Si;~
00000
Ill If! ~~~!~ ll!i:S~~
0 d d cS c:i
~lll!i!I!~
0000..- : ;~,!~ sssss-
.... .... ... ~~!!! ~~!!! ~!~!~
Table 11.11 Rectangular columns - fcu = 35 N/mm2, k = 0.85.
-
ij !Hliidl
~ 0 0 0
~!~i~ ~Hl~~ Ul!il~~
0 0 0 0 c:s es 0 di c:s 0
iii!U~~
cs 0 es 00000 Ci C)
~~~~~ ~!Hi~!;
<::i 0 cs c:s c:s 0 0 (:)0 d
iHa
00000
Ill gi 0!H~~~
0 0 0 cs
i 1•a
:(::;Iii~
s:;; 111 l=i5~!!... - !.... !;::;~~~
r.l N --
~ i:?;:: ii!~ II!~ ;e !3iilll!ll!
=::~$!- oi ........ fO 3~:~! ~~ i! ~ri
.... ri = ~~~!~ ~'~~!
i I ~.....: :ilcs ~0 &i0 ~~~~il ;g~lJfA~
0 0 0 0 c:::i 00000
~ scs ~~illcs ~~'~;
0 Ci 0 OOOOd
~ll! ~ !!! ~ ~ ~ l:'i ill ill !U!Hl~
C:Sd 0 0 c:s oocsoc:s ooocsc:s
1¬ !U ~
!I!OOC:SdO
i !II IS ~ :II I ~~
I~~~~~ =~ 11!
t: ~ ~ ; ~~~~~ ~ :! : ~ SJ ~!=~! ~::?
.,..;:1.;
-e- :;;
... iil~~!tii
~
"'..,"' N
~:u~~
l'll'I -
Iii llll:i Ii!~
- .... - 0 Cll
ii I ~!Hi~
~Odo
l!!~l!l:U
0 cs 0 c::; c:s
~1Hi~~
00000
S!Ylill~~ ~~~~~
0000<:) 00000
i00000
Hl~Ul ~a!&H::~
cs
l\j
0
r;\ll\j
cs cs
(',,!
0
~!U!U ~a~~!!!
cs cs 0 0 0 c:s c:s 0 c:s 0
i
=;-~~ 5:!!!
i~~~~~lii1D?~I! - -- 811!1Ulil!
oiocSod,...:: .... !~5~!!~!!~ !! r::: ~ ::! ~ 811! ~I! Ci
f'i l'I l'I N l'I N.-..- ... ..-
i:i- q II! ;e Ii!
... 0 0 0
i I !Hi~
.,...: 0 cs 0
~$~;z/i; §~5iiiiiii
0 0 0 c:i 0 00000
~~~~~
00000
!U!il~~
OOOdC:S
~ iii ~ ~ ~
OC:S<:::iOO
~oc:sc:scso
lil ill~~ ~~~~~ 1H:iHrn
c:s cs <:i 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
i i~su~~ ::? !l! ! ll! ii!
C!& ... ~ ....
N 'P' .-
&O
.- ;f~ ... ::~
~ ~
... t;;
o;;td 3 oO! lq i:i ii!~~
......... coco co S!SS~ ~ t: I ~
(")MN
;
N N ~~~5! 's~~; !~!~!
iHl~UI ~~~~~ tll :I!
::'q- ~- (") t(l !ill!~~ ~[ij ~~~~~ re~~~~ ~~~~~ lHl~!~
ii ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ 0 0 c:s 0 0 cs 0 cs 0 0 0 c:s 0 00
f"") (\')
0 0 0 0 cs
C'\I C'\I C'\I C'\I
0 c:s es 0 c:s ocsocso
(\I
00000 00000
iii ~I t: I ~NNN,.:....:
~ a a 11! !!55~
2~=~~ ~:!!~Ul
_;::_o1a1 ~~~~~ S~!!9 ~111:!!1!:11
MririNN !~~!~ !~~~a
i§!iii~~
~0000
§ ~ !ii ~
~00000 ; ~ R ~ re
0 0 <:S 0 0
~l!l~!Hl
0 0 0 c:s 0
~0 ~0 ~ &)0 0~ l!l00000
Ci
~~~~~ ~HHH!
\!! ~ ~ ~ CSOCSO<:i OdOOO
~0 ~0 lHH!
0 C) 0
C!
i
i~:SS:!~
~ ~ ~ ... ;: fiia~~ll!
OllOliDD'..,_CO !~!;~ ~~!~~ ~!~~~ Ml:.:~ !ll ii! =!1:;~"8!
- ... - ... 0 00000 ~~!!~ ~00 Ill ~ a~ 0
,~'O\l)fTlC'\I
~ ;; &; ~ ~
~OCSO<:S
!l\0 !§~~!ii
d 0 0 0
~~!U:! ~Sl(i?!S:
0 0 c:s 0 d 00000
~a~~a
cs
c:; 0 0 0
~c:s ~0 ~0 0:: !0 E~E£:E
0 0 O<:iC:S
~~H!~ 2~~~~
Ci Ci 0 0 cs es cs c:s cs 0
i
i ~ ~ ~ ~ II!
.- - .- .- OI
~ :too: a116 3vs :
.,.f ~~~~! !S~~S fii. !!! ll! :ii
oocSoo ~~~!! lll:i!IHll:i
c:ii 0 cii 0 0 ~~~a~ "' ... -!~
ddd
1 !~~~~ ~~!!~ ~~!~5 !!~!! ~'~!' !~!!~ ~~!!~ ~!~~! !!!!~

Table 11.·11 (contd) - fcu = 35 N/mm2, k = 0.80.
q
ii l §~~~
..-0 0 0
~iii ill~ 0iii ~lH!~~
0 0 00 d 0 0 0
~~i~El
oocsoo <::)
i;i~~Hl
cs 0 0 0 0
~~~;~
OdOOO
~~~f;~
00000
!il !il til ~ lil :iCiOOOO
OOOOCi
1!:iiHi~
1
j•:;::111s
:a i:iCI: i::i
IU! Sil!! II
IU!~~;f ~~a~~ '!=:;i~;e
$! daicid
~;zs!s
.s ,..; ....: .n !~!!~ ~~~~~ ~~~~~ I! ~p:; Iii ---oo I:;
ii5~~~~
(\I lit) (ft -
~iid'HH
0 cs 0 0 c:; dOCiOO
~Ul&H00000
~U!!ll!il 00000 ~~~~~ ~HlUl
d (:)0 0 d
!il !!! :ii~ ~00000
!i;00000 '1 l!HH! ~~~~~
OOOc::iO
0
t
i :iig l:i~ ~ ...~ s~ -~,~~
si ~$! :!: gl!iPil?!
~::~$!at :;i ! 3 ; ~ ~!!!! ~....... l:i g ~fl!
"""'..,CO') sssss :: ;; 8l
,., N N N N NT",..:,...::
I!! I! f:! ~Ii!0 Cl;q 0:II
.......
~·~~~
~,....I,()~,...
0
ii § !~ ~ ~ OOOde)
~ !8 ill~ itl !ii0 ill~ i ~ ~dH~~ ~~Hl~
c:s 0 0 0 00000 00
~~~~~
0 0 c:s 00000
~!!HH!~
00000 00000
l"')P)P)C")P) lHHiUJ
00000
t
Ii:i~
l:i
~
... ~ (::
!;! ~
;~~~~ Ii!$! ~$! t; ~
oi ca
! ~I::~ I!!~
odi ....: ..... ,.. c6 !~53~ ~~~~~ ~~~~9 ~'~!~ ... 0 Cl g
ii§~OOdO
!il iii i'H! !!Ul~rli
00000
!!liliHHi
00000
i~i~~
0 cs cs 0 0
ill!:;
00000
!'I iii~ l!l<::i ~0 ~0 ~0 ~0 ~UHli
OCiCiOO
iJ ~!UH!
<::iO<::iOO
~iU;;lH:i
0 cs 0 0 0
i jS!~;:~~
i:i ... = 1::- ~ ~ 9 ~ Si T"' .......... ,... Cl'J
~ ~CO lG
0)
~ ~ ;5;'!8;;!EI
CD .......... cdcocd.OllS
:s=f!~=
~ .... M,., C"i ~s~~~ s' = =l
:fl ..-
N....:,..:,..:
~:«ii=:::!!
....: ...: ..,.:...,.: li:Pl!lll:ii~
00000
ii§UH:~ ~HH!
00000
-c:)OOO
:g ~ I()---'°
&f ;o ~ i ;
0 0 0 0 C)
l!i~!Hl~
00000
iHU!~
00000
iH.i~~~
0
~lHdH:l
0 0 0 0 0
~~~~~ c::::s C) C) Ci Ci C) 0 0 0
~~~\!Hl
00000
0
1
1~;;~~ ~ll!;er;;g
::S?c:llitd.S
~l:ll3S6l
~ .... .o.o.o ~lll1'i:St!
... of ...... <'I ~!~S~ ~~~!! S~!!~ ~~~a5 lll~~:q~
0 0 0 0 Cl
ii8Slill~~
-0000
i;;!i'di~~
0
81 iii~lH!
0 0 0 0 0 0 C) C) C)
!llt;;!U~
0<::)000
~~~~~
C) C)
i:i!U~~
0 0 0 0 0 0
~~~~~
00000 C) C)
HHHH!!
00000
\ll!HH~!!!
0 0 0 0 C)
i
I~"~~~
~~~~~
~:;ire :Ul
oicD...:c11-s ~!~!~ !S!~~ '!~~~ ~!!qU!
............... Cl Cl a5!~~ ~~!~~ ~l!l
00000
l:li;; ~
ii ~,..: &l0 i0 ~ &i0 !ia~Ul

00000
c::::s
~Hi~~~
Odc:>Od
~8!\H! ~§~:fS:
0 0 0 cs cs es <:> 0 0
iii !1l:;, l'! ~
o:;:;;;;; ~!HHH! ~~~~~
cs 0 0 cs
0 0 0 cs 0 Ci
~a~~~
00000
~ C)
t
I~~~~; ~~!!~ :t;i!lfl!;;t!
C"'S N N .>..: '5~~~ !!~!~ ~~~~! Ill Ill~~00 f;j ~~~~~
00
~ t? ~ !
d c:i d d
t
es
:S~~!Ul :li:S21!!
i d d d es d ~~!~~ 0 d d cS cS ~!!!~ ~~~!' ili!ili8
...,:: .,; ..- ...:N ~~~~! ~~~~! !!~!~
Table 11.12 Rectangular columns - !cu= 40N/mm2, k = 0.95.
-
ii j: iI Ui&! i§llii!H! ~iH!Hl
....: d 0 OOO<::id d d d d
~i!U~
0 0 c:j (:ii <:S cs
~~~~~
c:::ii d
c::) d
~~~~~
0 0 0
~iHH~l\i
0 0
tj
~~~~~
0 0 OOOdO
c:::) c::) tj
!!:~:=;:~
cs 0 0 c:::i 0
C!
1
1-~~l!li!
:; ;:; !UI
~Ii!;::; II! <G
!:I :i:o lil \!! ~~~~~
~:ip::-~
~ ::! ~ ~
1i8!1:;8!
;:~criaiao
~~P!"'~
., ........ '°'°
&I Ill\!! s
!~93; Ill"f"i""" l=;l:S~::?
N,..:.,...: ..- .,.;
0
ii I ! ~~~
I
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!i;i;i ~I':~
"'"'0 <::i 0 <::i 0 0 ~lHi!li!8 ~HHHl
c::s 0 <:S <:S 0 <::i <:S 0 0 c::::i
~§!~'~ ~~!U!!!
cs es 0 es 0 <::i c::s es 0
~~~Hl~
es c:scs 0 c::::i cs
1ii
cs cs
!!! ~ \!!0
C:)
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c:s es es cs cs es
t
jSI~~~
;s; :;i ~"'
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- - - =;1~a §~~~~ !
2 OI CO i:i
....
ll! i q ~
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I
ii I: ~!H!~
.,...: ,...: <::i 0
!~~~~ !HHU;t ~1Hi!i!~
<::i 0 <::i 0 <::i 00000 <::i c::s
1:l ~ ; ~ ~ ~~~~~ ~~~!~
c::s <::i <::i 0 c::s <::i 0 0 0 0 0
<:S es cs 0 0 Cj 0
~~~~~
0 0 0 () 0
;:~~~~ cs cs cs ca cs
i
fll~~ll!Ol'i
li! !::; !:I ... ~,~~~ ~~~E~
:;i &1 !II\!!~ ~ ~ I:; I ~ t; :;:i \!!:ii~
~ ~ ~ oi OI ce...:...:u;.o 5~~53 sf'i P'Ss af'i art Ne !~~~~ ll!~~:JlleCll
............... d
ii ! iH1&1~ ~~~~i ~00000

~ 0 0 c::s 00000
fll ~ ~ ~ ~0 !!l Ci
!;:j ~ ~
0 0
~ ~ iii ~ ~ ~~!i~~
c::s c:; 0 c:; c::s 0
! @ ~ ~ fi
0 0 0 <::i es 0 0 0 c::s <::i - - - - - ~~
~<0~<'\10
0 c::s c::s cs es <::i 0
i
jS!~lll~ll!
'1l !:I Iii,
~~ss:e
~'~;f~ a~~~; Ii! I!"' Q II! " = J
O)Cl)Cl)CI)~ coailrillri~ t: :e :;!!~ ~5~~~ !95:9 ..,
-
"'
Cl> ...
C)
0
ii 'I iHdHi ~~iH~ iHl!!l~~
,..; es c::s c::s 0 0 0 c::s 0 Ci
; ~ !ll lll;); iH~ ~~t:l ~~\H!~ ~ ?: :::cs ~<:::i ~c::;
cs cs 0 c::; cs es <::i 0 0 ca cs cs cs cs 00000 0 d
~~§
Cid es
'l
jl!! !<!Ii iu
t:l N ~ ~ ~
l:::f:&1r!I
;f ~ ~ ;:: ~ ~ ~ = :l ~ ~ ~ '1l I lil ill!
t-.: ai ai liri ltS ..f~Mf"iri
I Ii! li!
~~~~~ :git; :;p~ ~~~
N,..:,..:,..:""" ,..: ,..: ,..:
ii~!Hi~~ Ul~!li~ ~Hlildll~~~~~ \!!!~;:;:

,..; 0 0 0 0 0 0 es 0 c:; 0 0 0 0 0 0 Ci 0 Ci 0 OOCiOO
~§
00
C!
i
11:!1:::a~
~ t:: ~ :t ~
~~llS
::: ~ oi «i «i
~ ~ !!? - ;:
,.: ori :;i " ~~~~~ t;l!l~~;:
.... .... .... - ..: ~~
ii~!Hl~&5 ~ ~ ¥ ~ *i llHHH~~ ~2~

,..; 0 0 0 0 Ci 0 0 0 0 Ci 0 0 0 0 Ci 0 0
i
i~S!!~
........................ S3~!~
:g ~~Iii !II
lU! 8 :31'1
'°'ririNN
~'~
i ddddd ~~~~~ ~!~a5 i:SiS8
cidcid....= ~~~!! !~!~~ ~~!~~ ~~~~! ~!!!~
Table 11.12 {contd) - fcu=40N/mm2, k=0.90.
-
i ! ~Ha~
.,.; ..,; 0 0
~~~!H ~!HHa
0 d <::i 0 0
OC:SOO<:::i
iii0 ~cs ~0 0ii c:s~ ~ ~ ill ~ '
00000
~~~!U
00000
!:l~lU!:l
cs er cs cs cs
~~~~~
0 d 0 0
~~~Hi~
0 0 0 cs <::) Ci
i. 1~~:q~~
f.;::llil!U.l a~~~~ ~~~~~ ~ ~ ~ ::
1":1\:l:Zli!
;: ~S~!~ ~!!~S ~5~!~ ~~~~~ !!I~~ l>i
N-.-.--
~
0
ii U! Si!§ iii!!~~§i
...: 0 0 0 00000
U!Ui~
00000
~es ~ ~ § ill
cs cs es es ~~'~;
00000
~0 ;i U!ii\
0 0 0
C)
~0 ~0 f:l0 ~cs ~0 ~0 ~0 lll ~0 ~0 Ci
~ 0~ 0~ cs! 0!!!
cs
t
1aa~~~ S!S~~ ~;~~a NT"...-.- 'I"'
ilUlllls
:: :: ~ ~ ai 53!~5 ~!~~5 5!~~~ !~~~~ ~~~l!!O'g
or- .... 'II"' ... Q
i ! §!Bl!
-c cs cs cs
:e ~ ~ ~ ~~~~~
~00000 C) 0 d 0 0
U!!ll!il!;l
0 cs 0 0 Ci
~~~ia
cs cs
0 d 0
~~~~~ 00000
~~~Ul
cs cs Ci C)
!Hl!~~
00000
Ci
~~~~8
00000
0
t
I~lii ~l:o ~1e ~!:Uih ~~;~~ lo;~~~ lli asi5ll!l:a
.....
:? ...... ~$! dli cri a6
111 \:! fj! ~ ;g
.... ,.: "' 'IS Iii ~!!~~ ~~~~~ ~~~'~ ~~·=it;
... ..: d did
0
11i I !Hi~~
...: 0 0 0
EE!§i~~
00000
a ~ § ~ i;;
0 <::i cs 0 0
~~~~6
00000
!!l00000
~ ~ ~ [ij 0~~~~~ ~~~~!
to-.. - "Q'
0 cs cs 0 Oc::>OOO
Q:l l")
~~~~~ ~lH~§
cs cs cs ca cs cs c <:S c::s 0
t
i Ill!El ~ =! ! ~
i; _ - ;~~~~ l:! ii! 111111 ~
:;:: $! $ m G:I 5~~~= ~!!!~ ~M II!""'Mq ~ ~
C'?
l"'t !~~~! S~93~ l!!... lli0 ~Ct ~0 01ii
i~~HU! i:!ii!HH§
,..; ,..; es c:::s <::i c::s <::i Ci 0
Ci
[!! 18 ~ ~ ;
CS<::iC::S<::id
;~lll!:li;
cs 0 Ci 0 cs es
~~~~~
<::i <::i 0 c:s
!~!~~
C:SCSO<::iO
~~~~~
es es es cs es
!!!C:S<::iC:::SCSO
~ ~ ~H'i ~ :;::n 9!
0 es 0 c::s d
0
t
i ~R~lli !... ~- s... t:: 111?;: l!l m:s~~::i
:t ~ ;: :: ~ °'o>.s...:.. .:.
li!::?:: ~8
corOlriuitd 3!~~~ N• ~:::NNNt:: s !!'!~~ l::~lU~
... - ... 0 0
:::doeeto
II! Ii! q ~
i~!!~~ ii~§!~~
es es es 0 0
~ia~~
0 0 Ci 0 0
~~ i;; ~ ~
OdOOO
!::tHl~~
00000
~Hl~~ 5~~~~
0 0 cs 0 0 00000
~~~~::c::s
0 0 0 0
~~~E~
00000
q
i
ll! lo; :q Ill 5!~5~
i~~~~§ lo;;:$!••,... ~!!9~~ :;;N 8111 :a~
N .- .,; .,.. !~~~! !!~~! !~~!: ~Ii'!~~~
0 0 Ct c
i ~!.HliH Si~~10i ~~@\?! ~a~~::0 000

....: 0 0 0 cs 0 c::> 0 0 0 0 0 0 cs cs 0 c::s 00
ll! ~ §
i j~!~'"~
~ ... ~~~ Oii. a:i lri.
!i;~lll!~ Iii~ r::
., :g
NNf,; <"I !!!!!5~ ~;~
i ! $ ~ Ii! ~ ~~!!! !!!~5 ~!!!!
cl cl 0
~'''~ li!~IU8
............ fl ~!~!~ ~~!!! !!~!~
Table 11.13 Rectangular columns - !cu= 40 N/mm2, k = 0.85.
~
r-, N OJ. r-, e-,
.t ii ~~HUI::~~ i~
I ~ 0 cs 0 0 c::::s 0 0 0
;t&!10liltil
C::SOC::Sdc:>
!fl~ !Hdii iii~~~~
<::iOOOO 00000
~iii~~
00000
!ii ~~Ul~
00000
~~~iHl
00000
~~~~~
0 0 0 cs cs
i=~~== ill~~ I! lij

~lil-t:= ~~~~~ ~~~;~ i;:n::ss o;m.s....:...:
:R~l!?~8
• cd &ri.,, lri !5~!~ !~~!~ ~;j!il~I!
- - - - C)
0
i I aiiH0
..,:: c:) 0
~~!Ii~~
00000
ailiUl!il
00000
il51HHl~ OO<::ic::iO
~ ~ ~i;; UHHH
~00000 00000
~RlFi~~
00000
~~~~~
00000
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0 0 <::ii 0 0
t
::!l!l 111~ a
1~r::; - - i~~!~
- ......... ~s :;;~
;fjJ:!l!l;!8 ~ ~:;; 51 :;!
2m...:u;.o
... ... ~5?oioio; ~~~~! ~~5~~ iil~~il
"'.., r'i N N ~~~~~ :l! 'P' - - 0 0
ii ! ~SlU!
.,...: 0 d 0
~~~Ui
oooc:::so
lclUl~ifl
dOOOO
~0 ~es ~0 1ii~
0 0
~~~1dl
00000
~~UiFi
00000
~~!Hl~ l!!llllHi~ ~~~~~
0 cs 0 0 0 00000 cs 0 c:) Ci Ci
i
j=!~iliilll
IUI i; ~
:;!:S~i;i:q
=~~:!~ ~~~~; l:!~~IH!
O)OllOU. .... ~~=~! :;; :!!Ii :I!~ s ~ill;!!=
N N N N ~!59,
..... MM M eoi
~&!Iii~~
--coo
ii~U!1H lHl!!l~iil
..,:: 0 0 0 d <::iOOOc::i
mill 8l ~ iil ~~~~~c:s ~ill);;
er ca cs er cs cs cs CiOOOC:S
l:l ~ ~~~~~
Ci Ci
lU!U~ ~~~~~
0 0 0 0 c::i cs 0 0 cs 0 0 0 c::i 0 Ci
(\; ~ ~ :!: ~
N
0
C\I t\l
cs 0 0
N C\I
cs
i i ~:;pip;~ =i::i~slq ~ ~ Ill ti Iii
~ ~ ~ ~ == !:? :t ~ T" ~ T"..,cnatco ~~!~~ ~~~~~ !~~~~ ~~!~~ 3S~~~ !5~~!
ii !1j;.....: ~0 lil0 ~0 ;il

<:::ii
~ ~ ~ ~ Ill
0 0 cs cs cs
1il ~~ ~ cs~ cs!:5UH~~
cs cs 0 Cica cs cs cs
;£~18iil!O!
t'.I C'\i C\I C'\i
(',!
oocsoo
~~~~~
0 0 c::i 0 c::i
~~!U~
Oc::iOCSO
~Hl~~~ \HnHH!l
0 cs 0 cs 00000
Ci
s!'..
i a II! : ~ ~ T" T" ~ s I:!
::! :::; :l II!
~~::;5!cri ~~~~: !~~5~ ~!~~~ ~~!9: ~!59~ ~~~~~ !~!~a
ii~!!~~ :;i ~ ~ ~
c::iOOOO
s ~ ~ ~ ii3 ~
0 cs Ci 0 cs
~~~~~
00000
-~:ii11;~
ii: - 0- 0- -cs
0 (::)
~eoooo
t:: ~ ~ ~ \;1\HH!!\!l
00000
\;HHH~ ~~~~!
00000 00000
i i ~ ~ t; ~ :::
~ == ~ ~ ~ - = ! ....
§ a; ~ ~co ...S! 5 ~ ~ !~~~!..,
:;!IPBl:!lll
NT"..,.;..,.;,..;
~T" =;............
~ q S!
0 ~5~!! !~!!! ~~~!H
ii~;;ii;~i;i !!! ~~~Ii!
~ 0 0 c:s cs 00000
~ :: ~ J:? ~
C\I C'\i - -
0000(::) -
S!~~\:?E
00000
~a~~~
00000
~EE~~
00000
\HdH!~
00000
~~!2\H~
0 0 cs 00
gg~
000
i i ~ r: "'.., _
t; !;; ill
~~~~$! ~!!!S ~!~~! !9~~~ !!5~! IU:O!! ddd
~00000
111::i i;i Iii ~~~a~ ddd
i sc:S ~c:i ~c:i fild ~ ~~~!~

0
Ill&!=!~~
00000 !!~~! ~~~!' ~~~'~ ~~~~! ~!!!! !!~!~
Table 11.13 (contd) - fcu=40N/mm2, k=0.80.
-
ii UdU ~SJ \HI
0 Ci 0 cs OOdCiO
s mUi&I
00000
!il 5U.HHH:i Si~~~~
0 0 0 0 0 00000
~ Hl!IH!! ~U!
OdOdO 00000
~ ~ ~ !!! !HHHi~
tqlil ~00000 00000
i
i~~~~~ ~~~!! J; ............ ;~;~~ lii~f!t;~ ~ ~~ "'oi
51:3=1113
cd~~u;.o !~!!5 !~~~~ ~~~E~ !5~~a
i3~!~~ ~!H1H1 5l!i:~ !H &l~1H

0 0 cs 0 c:s CiO<:>C::SO 00000
!:! fi~~~
0 0 Ci 0
~~i:;!a
00000
lil~H!!:l l!ii!li'Hl~
0 0 cs Ci 0 OOdOO Ci
;;;0 ~0 ll!0 ~0 ~Ci
"'
t
1~~~a~ ~~,~~ 8:! ~~ ~~ 11~ ~ 5~!!~ S!!~~ ~5~~~ ~~~~~
;t ~ ~ SI i l=! =N sN.,.:i P.,.:
iii ~ ~::: aj
... ... Q
I<!
0 Q
:I!
i~~~~~
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al!§
00000
!ll !Hl ~0 !!l0 ~0 iHl
0 d
liilH ~ ~ ~0 H!iU~
00000
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c:s 0 0 0 00000
~lHHU ~H!Hl
0 0 0 0 (:) 00000
ii!~
cs 0 0 0 0
"'
t
i~~~~~SIR lUI ::!
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~$!$!oiot !~~~~ 8'° '-:I~:! lft "" "' ""
Iii 51 f;; =II!
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i !i51Hli!H~
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Ul!U
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~ i.\j ~ ~ ~HH~~ ~ ~ ~ i:i ~ ~ ~ !ii ~ ?J R!~~Hl~
i8 ~00000 00000 cs 0 0 <:::i 0 00000 00000
~~~~~
0 0 0 0 0
lHHll!ll!l
00000
i
i~~~;~ ~~~~; !i~S~E ;!: :q
...: fO
;!:
r,O Id &ri . . . !S~!~ ~ tp:;
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tj ~
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0 0 0 0 0 00000
!ii~~ i:i ill ~ ~ ftl ~ ~ !UHH!l(l
0 0 0 0 cs 00000
~~~~~
0 0 c::i 0 0 00000
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Table 11.14 Rectangular columns - fcu = 45 N/mm2, k = 0.95.
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I
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Ci
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0 cs 0 es cs cs cs cs cs cs cs cs es cs es 0 cs c:s es c:S
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lli::l lii !:i :I.I ~~~~~ g;~~~ a~a~~ ~ll!:Jl!ti
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General Figures, Tables and Charts Sll
Table 11.14 (contd} - fcu=45N/mm2, k=0.90.
-
i II §!Hl~
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U!ilHd! ~UlUi iii~Ui~ ~ill~~; ~d 0!!Hil0 Hl
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c:i 0 <::i 0 0
i 11:1:11111519
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Table 11.15 Rectangular columns - /cu= 45 N/mm2, k = 0.85.
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Index
active pressure coefficient, 232 transverse reinforcement in flange, 58, 80, 92

additional moments variable depth, 13
braced column, 157 bearing capacity,
circular column, 162 allowable, 227, 252, 283
unbraced column, 157, 170 of c-cp soil, 227
anchorage, of cohesionless soil, 227, 283
bond length, 205, 466, of cohesive soil, 227, 278
bond stress, 205, 460 factors, 227, 252, 267, 289, 354
effective lengths, 465 horizontal, 232, 284
length, 463 presumed allowable, 228, 239, 250, 265
angle of friction, B, 233, 298 ultimate, 227, 251, 267, 278
angle of internal friction, cp, 229 bearing length of nibs, 198
areas of steel reinforcement, 493 bearing pressure, 219, 222, 225, 232, 253, 269, 272
bearing stress,
beam element, 368, 386 inside bend, 61, I 96, 204
beam, mass concrete, 249
balanced design, 7 bearing width of nibs, 198, 209
continuous, 48 bending stress, mass concrete, 249, 282
cover to reinforcement, 51, 66, 74 loss of contact, 235
curtailment of bars, 61, 71, 81, 93 multiple column, 238
deflection, 59, 70, 80, 92 rectangular pad foundation, 234
design for shear, 55, 68, 78, 90 biaxial bending and tension, 183
doubly reinforced rectangular, 8 containment, 191
effective shear force, 13 crack width, 191
effective span, 43, 67 shear reinforcement, 190
effective width of compression flange, 43, 74, shear stress, 189
361 bond stress, 460
flanged, alternative approach, 11
flanged, design for flexure, 54, 75, 77, 89 C-cp soil, bearing capacity of, 227
load combination, 47 cantilever wall, 360
loads from slab, I 05 centroid of stressed area, 37, 38
minimum compressive reinforcement, 58, 80 circular column,
minimum tension reinforcement, 57, 79 biaxial moment, 162
moment of resistance, 7 shear reinforcement, 163
rectangular, design for flexure, 52, 67, 76 shear stress, 162
reinforcement in side face, 58, 69 short supporting cont. beams 162
sections, 5 short with moment, 162
serviceability limit state, 35 short with no moment, 161
shear reinforcement, 56 slender, 162
simplified detailing rules, I 00 slenderness of, 161
singly reinforced, flanged, 9 circular pad foundation, 238
singly reinforced, rectangular, 5 circular pile, 317, 321
slenderness ratio, 51, 67, 89 shear capacity, 321, 351
spacing of bars, 61, 71, 81, 93 class of exposure, 242
stress-strain diagram, 6, 7, 8 cohesionless soil, bearing capacity of, 227, 283
torsional reinforcement, 63, 94 cohesive soil, bearing capacity of, 227, 278
538
Index 539
cohesive strength of soil, 229 wall to wall, 479

column, consolidation settlement, 229, 269
analysis of, 154 corbel,
axial load and moment, 21 alternative geometry, 194
axial load capacity, 19 bearing stress on concrete, 194
balanced failure, 22, 166 design of, 194, 200
braced, 154 geometry, 194, 201
charts, 498-537 internal forces, 195, 201
circular section, 29, 161 maximum tension reinforcement, 196, 204
compression failure, 26 minimum tension reinforcement, 196, 204
containment of reinforcement, 164, 168, 172, shear reinforcement, 196, 204
180 shear stress, 196, 203
cover to reinforcement, 156, 165, 169, 177 spacing of bars, 197, 206
crack width, 164, 168, 173 strut and tie diagram, 31, 195, 201
effective height, I 53 ultimate limit state, 31
end conditions, 153 corner column, flat slab, 411
interaction curve, 21, 187 cover to reinforcement, 51, 66, 74, 88, 123
load combinations, 154 crack width,
maximum reinforcement, I 63, I 68, 172, I 80 beams, 63, 71, 82, 96
minimum reinforcement, 163, I 68, 172, 180 biaxial bending and tension, 191
rectangular section, 21, 155 corbels, 206
redistribution of moments, I 55 flexural, 17
serviceability limit state, 36 slab, 118, 128
shear reinforcement, 160, 163 uniaxial bending and tension, 180
shear stress, 159, 162 wall, 401
slender, 20, 157, 162, 164 critical sections, pile cap, 305, 313, 343, 344
slenderness of rectangular, 155, 165, 169
strip, 407, 428 deep beam, 378
symmetrically reinforced rectangular, 28 deflection, 17, 59, 70, 80, 92
tension failure, 25 design concrete shear stress, 489, 490, 491, 492
torsional rigidity, 152 differential settlement, 220, 269
ultimate limit state, 19 drop, 403
unbraced, 154
uniaxial bending and tension, 176 edge column, flat slab, 410, 424
column head, 404 effective stress in soil, 299
effective diameter, 405, 414 effective vertical stress, 298
effective dimension, 404 elasto-plastic unit resistance, I 30
compressibility, constant of, 230 end conditions, walls, 359
concrete, end-bearing resistance, 296
cube strength, 3 envelope,
initial elastic modulus, 4 moment, 50, 87, 418
stress-strain relationship, 4 shear, 50, 87, 418
ultimate strain, 4 equivalent beam elements, 368, 386
ultimate stress, 4 equivalent torsional element, 369, 387
cone penetration resistance, 297
cone penetration test, 229 factor of safety, 232, 28 I, 287
cone resistance, 230 finite element analysis, 308, 334
connection, fire resistance, 497
column to beam, 480 flange, effective width of, 43, 74, 36 I, 392
column to column, 477 flat slab,
column to foundation, 476 charts, 438-457
column to wall, 485 column head, 404
ductile beam to column, 482 column strip, 407, 428
pile to pile cap, 470, 471, 472, 473 connection to column, 409, 424
slab to beam, 485 crack width, 412
wall to beam, 482 curtailment of bars, 412
wall to foundation, 477 design of, 406, 430
wall to slab, 483 detailing of reinforcement, 409
540 Index
flat slab (cont.) characteristic strength, 3

division of panels, 407, 428 factors, 3
drop, 403 mean strength, 3
early thermal cracking, 412 stress-strain relationship, 4
effective shear, 410 mean vertical stress in soil, 290
effective width, 405, 409, 424 middle strip, 407, 428
equivalent frame analysis, 405, 415 modification factor,
load combination, 405 compression reinforcement, 496
middle strip, 407, 428 tension reinforcement, 496
minimum reinforcement, 412 modulus of elasticity, 45
moment envelope, 418 concrete, long-term, 45
moment transfer capacity, 410 concrete, short-term, 45
negative moment limitation, 406, 426 steel reinforcement, 45
punching shear, 411, 431 modulus of pile material, 299
redistribution of moment, 410, 418, 420 modulus of rigidity, 367
shear envelope, 418 modulus of soil, 299
spacing of bars, 412 modulus of subgrade reaction, 231, 234, 279, 284,
span/effective depth, 412 299
stiffness correction factors, 436 moment envelope, 50, 87, 418
flexural tensile stress, 319 moment of inertia, 44
foundation, cracked section, 44, 86
horizontal movement, 231, 280, 285 gross concrete section, 44
load combination, 225, 252 uncracked transformed section, 44
loss of contact, 233, 235
mass concrete, 218, 249, 277, 282, 287 neutral axis, 6, 8, 10, 12, 18, 24, 29, 34, 36, 38
settlement, 225, 228, 230, 249, 263, 269 nib,
side bearing, 277, 283 bearing length, 198, 209
bearing width, 198, 209
global analysis, 368, 370, 389 continuous, 199
grillage analysis, 307 design of, 197, 208
ground beam, 219, 220, 221, 224 effective bearing length, 198
effective length, 200
holding down bolt, 239, 265 extra vertical reinforcement, 199, 211
horizontal bearing capacity, 232, 284 geometry, 198, 209
horizontal column tie, 469 isolated loads, 199
horizontal movement of foundation, 231, 280, 285 line load, 200
minimum reinforcement, 199, 210
inaccuracies, allowance for, 198, 213 projection of, 198
internal column, flat slab, 411 shear, 199, 211
internal tie, 468 spacing of bars, 199, 210
ultimate loads on, 197
lap length, 462 nominal cover, 497
laps,
compression, 464 overburden pressure, 227, 230
tension, 463
lever arm, 6, 8, 11 pad foundation, 219, 222, 223
links, anchorage of, 461 approximate size, 239, 250, 265
loads, bearing and sliding, 241, 254, 273
accidental, 49 bending moment, 242, 255, 256, 273
concentrated on slab, I 06 circular, 238
exceptional, 49 crack width, 247, 248, 262
on beams from slab, I 05 critical sections, 241, 256, 275
local analysis, 369, 370, 390 detailing rules, 243, 244
local bond stress, 460 distribution of reinforcement, 243, 259
losses in prestress, 319 early thermal cracking, 246, 261
effective depth, 240
mass concrete foundation, 218, 249, 277, 282, 287 equivalent eccentricity, 240
material, minimum cover, 242, 258
Index 541
pad foundation (cont.) flexible, 306

minimum reinforcement, 246, 248, 261 minimum reinforcement, 325, 352
minimum thickness, 240, 251, 265 punching shear, 314, 349
punching shear, 245, 249, 260 punching shear perimeter, 315, 349
rectangular, 234 rigid, 302
shear, 242, 255, 257, 273 shear, 313, 344, 347
shear perimeter, 245, 260 spacing of bars, 325, 353
shear stress, 244, 249, 260 pile efficiency, 354
spacing of reinforcement, 246, 261 pile fixity moments, 306, 346
passive pressure coefficient, 232 pile group torsion, 304
passive resistance, 231, 285 pile load combinations, 309, 337
peripheral tie, 467 plain wall,
pile, braced, 360, 383
additional moment, 317 in-plane shear, 384
allowable group capacity, 302 unbraced, 360, 384
allowable load, 298, 333 plastic hinges, 421
approximate number of, 310, 335 Poisson's ratio, 47
bored and cast in-situ, 470 prestressed concrete pile, 318, 323
boundary conditions, 300 prestressed pile,
circular, 317, 350 links, 325
containment of reinforcement, 325, 352 shear capacity, 323
degrees of freedom, 300 punching shear,
effective length, 315 modification due to holes, 115
fixed head, 300 pad foundation, 245, 249, 260
free head, 300 perimeter, 411, 431, 433
group capacity, 30I, 339 pile cap, 315, 349
group end-bearing capacity, 302, 339 reinforcement, 113, 114
group friction capacity, 301, 339 slabs, 112
horizontal stiffness, 335
lateral load, 300, 333 rectangular column,
maximum reinforcement, 325 bending and tension, 176
minimum prestress, 325 biaxial bending, 158, 164, 166
minimum reinforcement, 325, 351 modification of shear strength, 160, 172
point resistance, 296, 329 shear cracking, 160, 172
precast prestressed, 473 shear reinforcement, 160
precast reinforced concrete, 472 shear stress, I 59, 168, 171
prestressed concrete, 318, 323 short, supporting continuous beams, 156
rectangular, 314 short with no moment, 156
reinforcement, 315, 350 short with uniaxial moment, 156
shear reinforcement, 321 slender, 157, 164, 165, 169
skin friction, 296, 331 rectangular pad foundation, 234
slenderness, 317 rectangular pile, 316, 320
spacing of, 301 shear capacity, 320
steel circular pile, 476 redistribution of moments, 7, 48, 49, 107, 418, 420
steel H-pile, 474 reinforced wall,
types of, 310 design of, 373, 394
volume displacement, 297 in-plane shear, 379, 397
with biaxial moment, 316 out-of-plane shear, 380
with no moment, 316, 318 rigorous method, 373, 393
with uniaxial moment, 316, 318 short and squat, 378
pile cap, simple method, 376
bending moments, 305, 343 stocky braced, 373
critical section for bending moment, 305, 343 reinforcement,
critical section for shear, 313, 344 bearing stress inside bend, 61, 196, 204
critical sections, 305, 313, 343, 344 containment in wall, 384, 400
curtailment of bars, 325, 352 containment of compressive, 60, 81
design of, 312, 344 longitudinal for torsion, 63, 96
enhancement of design shear stress, 313, 348 maximum areas, 60
542 Index
reinforcement (cont.) sign convention, 226, 271, 305

maximum in wall, 384 skin resistance, 297
minimum compression, 58, 80 slab,
minimum in wall, 384, 400 analysis, I 04
minimum tension, 57, 79, 116, 125, 196 concentrated loads, 106
orthogonal in slab, 33 cover to reinforcement 107
side face of beams, 58, 69 design for flexure, I 08, 124
skew in slab, 33 early thermal cracking, 117, 127
transverse for torsion, 63, 95 effective span, 103
transverse in flange, 58, 80, 92 elastic resistance, 130
relative density of sand, 298 elasto-plastic resistance, 130
residual prestress, 319 finite element method, 105
restraint factor, 117, 247 finite difference method, 105
lacing shear reinforcement, 112
sectional properties, 494 minimum tension reinforcement, 116, 125
service stress, reinforcement, 60, 92 moment of inertia, 103
settlement, foundations, 225, 228, 230, 249, 263, punching shear, 112
269 punching shear perimeter, 115
shear area, 47, 364, 386 redistribution of moment, 107
shear centre, 86 shear reinforcement, 110
shear envelope, 50, 87, 418 shear stress, 110, 125
shear flow, 12, 367, 368 simplified detailing rules, 116, 126, 145
shear lag, 363 spacing of bars in tension, 116, 127
shear modulus, 46 span/effective depth ratio, 116, 126
shear reinforcement, 14 support shears, 131
additional tensile reinforcement, 16 torsional reinforcement, 116
biaxial bending and tension, 190 two-way charts, 132-6
circular pile, 322 ultimate unit resistance, 146-50
concrete strut, 16 yield-line method, 105, 122
prestressed pile, 324 slab panel,
rectangular pile, 320 moment triad, 33
truss analogy, 14 orthogonal reinforcement, 33
wall, 380, 398 skew reinforcement, 33
shear stress, slenderness ratio, 371
biaxial bending and tension, 189 sliding and bearing, combined, 241, 254, 273
design concrete, 14 sliding resistance, 231, 254, 272
mass concrete, 249, 281 soil cohesion, 227
torsional, 62, 93 soil mechanics, essentials of, 226
shear stress and tension, 179 soil pressure diagrams, 233, 282, 288
shear wall, 362 spacing of bars,
analysis of, 374 biaxial bending and tension, 192
cantilever, 363, 378 uniaxial bending and tension, 182
closed cell, 365 spalling, allowance for, 198, 213
combination of loading, 371, 390 span/effective depth ratio, 495
continuous, 363 spring stiffness, horizontal (soil), 299, 334
effective breadth ratio, 363, 392 SPT, 299, 329
global analysis, 368, 370, 389 standard deviation, 3
in-plane shear, 379, 397 steel beam theory, 178, 184, 186
irregular closed cell, 366 steel reinforcement,
local analysis, 369, 370, 390 elastic modulus, 5
modelling, 368 stress-strain relationship, 5
multiple cell, 367, 388 yield strength, 3
open cell, 365 sulphates,
out-of-plane shear, 380 concentration of, 242, 312
shear flow, 367, 368, 388 surcharge on backfill, 218, 219, 221
single closed cell, 366
torsional stiffness, 365, 386 tension and shear stress, I 79
side friction resistance, 298 thermal cracking, 117
Index 543
thermal cracking (cont.) wall,

minimum reinforcement, 118 additional moments, 372, 392
thermal expansion, coefficient of, 47 braced, 357, 358
tie force, 467, 469 cantilever, 360
ties, containment of reinforcement, 384, 400
horizontal, 469 crack width, 401
internal, 468 deflection, 372, 392
peripheral, 467 early thermal cracking, 385, 400
vertical, 469 effective heights, 358
torsion, 367 effective width of flange, 361, 392
membrane analogy, 18 end conditions, 359
on pile group, 304 in-plane forces, 370
ultimate limit state, 18, 87 maximum reinforcement, 384
torsional element, 369, 387 minimum reinforcement, 384, 400
torsional reinforcement, 63, 95, 96 out-of-plane bending, 396, 399
torsional stiffness, 45, 365, 386 out-of-plane forces, 371, 383
non-rectangular section, 46 plain, 357, 360, 383
rectangular section, 45 plain slender braced, 383
transmission length, 320 plain stocky braced, 383
triaxial test, 299 plain unbraced, 384
truss analogy, 14 reinforced, 357, 358
twist of cell, 367 shear reinforcement, 380, 398
slender, 358, 383
unconfined compressive strength, 281, 297, 299, slenderness, 371, 391
302 spacing of bars, 385, 402
uniaxial bending and compression, 36 stocky, 358, 383
uniaxial bending and tension, 39, 176 unbraced, 357, 358
uniaxial bending stresses, 35 Wood-Armer combination, 32, 309, 369, 437
vertical tie, 469 yield-line tables, 146-50

volume compressibility, coefficient of, 228, 230, yield-lines, location of, 137-44
299
S.S. Ray BE(Cal), CEng, FICE is Chief
Design Engineer with Taywood
Engineering Ltd, part of the Taylor
I Woodrow Group. He has been concerned
Ir
ru with the analysis, design and construction
c[J
Cl of almost all types of civil engineering

rn
..D structures and has worked in a number of
M
M
Cl consultancy practices both in the UK and
Cl
IJ"J
abroad. He is a member of several BSI
c[J
Ir code sub-committees and is author of
M
rn numerous papers in scientific journals.
Cl
I-
Cover illustrations show projects designed and built

by the Taylor Woodrow Group of companies.
Other books of interest
Multi-Storey Precast Concrete

Framed Structures
Kim S. Elliott
0-632-03415- 7
Structural Details in Concrete

M. Y. H. Bangash
0-632-02853-X
Structural Foundation Designers·

Manual ==--
Curtins
0-632-02025-3
Steel Designers' Manual

Fifth Edition
Steel Construction Institute
0-632-03877-2 (paperback)
0-632-02488-7 (hardback)
In preparation
Structural Steelwork
Analysis and Design
S.S. Ray
0-632-03857-8
ISBN 0-632-03724-S
~ 1111 ~I
9 780632 03724 7 >

Reinforced Concrete Analysis and Design PDF

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This book covers the analysis and design

of reinforced concrete elements in

foundations and superstructures in a

logical, step-by-step fashion. The theory of

reinforced concrete and the derivation of

the code formulae have been clearly

The text is backed up by numerous

illustrations, design charts and tables

referring frequently to the relevant codes of

practice. A large number of worked

examples cover almost all types of

reinforced concrete elements.

The step-by-step approach will ensure

• all design requirements are logically

• a standardised approach is established

• a simplified procedure for checking

and for quality assurance can be

Blackwell Wissenschafts-Verlag GmbH Canada

Chapter 1 Theory of Reinforced Concrete 1

Chapter 2 Design of Reinforced Concrete Beams 41

Chapter 3 Design of Reinforced Concrete Slabs 101

Chapter 4 Design of Reinforced Concrete Columns 151

Chapter S Design of Corbels and Nibs 193

Example 5.1: Design of a corbel 200

Chapter 6 Designof Pad Foundations 215

Chapter 7 Design of Piled Foundations 293

Chapter 8 Design of Walls 355

Chapter 9 Design of Flat Slabs 403

Chapter IO Design of Connections 459

10.3.1 Basic rules of anchorage and laps 461

Chapter 11 General Figures, Tables and Charts 487

l. British Standards Institution (1985) Structural use of concrete. Parts l , 2

8. US Army Armament Research and Development Centre (1987) Structures

Allen, A.H. (1983) Reinforced Concrete Design to BStlJIO - Simply

au Deflection of column due to slenderness

Curvature of a member in bending

Angle of inclination to horizontal of shear reinforcement

Fitness for purpose

Fitness for purpose is generally covered by the overall geometry of the

External appearance of structures changes over a period of time. The

Robustness comes with the chosen structural form and is determined by

1.2 CHARACTERISTIC STRENGTH OF MATERIALS

The characteristic strength of a material is defined as the strength below

where f• strength of material

The characteristic strength of concrete, f~u' is the cube strength of concrete

1.3 MATERIAL FACTORS

To obtain the design strength of materials a further factor called the

1.4 MATERIAL STRESS-STRAIN RELATIONSHIP

1.4.1 Short-term design stress-strain curve for normal weight concrete

PARA BOU C CURVE

2.4xlo-• ~ 0.0035 SK 1/1 Short-term design stress-

The features of this design curve are as follows:

• The initial elastic modulus of concrete may be defined as the initial

Ee= 5.5 (fcu)

• The ultimate stress in concrete for design purposes is defined as:

The strain in concrete when the parabolic stress-strain relationship

1.4.2 Short-termdesign stress-strain curve for reinforcement

SK 112 Short-term design stress- fy ll!m

The features of this design curve are as follows:

• The elastic modulus of steel reinforcement regardless of grade of steel

The stress-strain relationship is identical in tension and compression.

1.5 DESIGN FORMULAE FOR REINFORCED CONCRETE SECTIONS

I.5.1 Singly reinforced rectangular section