Name : Tamseel Ahmed Khan

Reg. No: MBA – EV/1 – 10 /004

D.I.H.E.
Chapter 2
The Shapes of Computers Today
There are four types of computers
1. Supercomputers
2. Mainframe Computers
3. Minicomputers
4. Workstations
5. Microcomputers, or Personal Computers

Super Computers
Supercomputers are the most powerful computers. They are used for
problems requiring complex calculations. Because of their size and expense,
supercomputers are relatively rare. Supercomputers are used by
universities, government agencies, and large businesses

Mainframe Computers
Mainframe computers can support hundreds or thousands of users, handling
massive amounts of input, output, and storage. Mainframe computers are
used in large organizations where many users need access to shared data
and programs. Mainframes are also used as e-commerce servers,
handling transactions over the Internet.

Mini Computers
Minicomputers are smaller than mainframes but larger than microcomputers.
Minicomputers usually have multiple terminals. Minicomputers may be used
as network servers and Internet servers.

Workstations
Workstations are powerful single-user computers. Workstations are used for
tasks that require a great deal of number-crunching power, such as product
design and computer animation. Workstations are often used as network and
Internet servers.
Micro Computer
Microcomputers are more commonly known as personal computers. The
term "PC" is applied to IBM-PCs or compatible computers. Full-size desktop
computers are the most common type of PC. Notebook (laptop) computers
are used by people who need the power of a desktop system, but also
portability. Handheld PCs (such as PDAs) lack the power of a desktop or
notebook PC, but offer features for users who need limited functions and
small size
Name : Tamseel Ahmed Khan
Reg. No: MBA – EV/1 – 10 /004
D.I.H.E.
Chapter 3
Standard Methods of Input
There are three way inputs methods
• The Keyboard
• The Mouse
• Variants of the Mouse

The Keyboard
• The Standard Keyboard Layout
• Ergonomic Keyboards
• How a Keyboard Works

The standard keyboard layout

A standard computer keyboard has about 100 keys. Most keyboards use the
QWERTY layout, named for the first six keys in the top row of letters.

Most keyboards have keys arranged in five groups:

1. Alphanumeric Keys
2. Numeric Keypad
3. Function Keys
4. Modifier Keys
5. Curser–movement keys

Ergonomic Keyboards
Long periods of keyboard use can cause
injuries. An ergonomically correct keyboard
can help you avoid injuries. You also can
avoid injuries by adopting correct
keyboarding practices.
How a Keyboard Works
When you press a key:
The keyboard controller detects the keystroke. The controller places a scan
code in the keyboard buffer, indicating which key was pressed. The keyboard
sends the computer an interrupt request, telling the CPU to accept the
keystroke.

The Mouse - What is a Mouse?

The mouse is a pointing device. You use it to move a graphical pointer on the
screen. The mouse can be used to issue commands, draw, and perform other
types of input tasks.

Using the mouse involves five techniques:

1. Pointing; Move the mouse to move the on-screen pointer.
2. Clicking; Press and release the left mouse button once.
3. Double-clicking; Press and release the left mouse button twice.
4. Dragging; Hold down the left mouse button as you move the pointer.
5. Right-clicking; Press and release the right mouse button.

Variants of the Mouse

• Trackballs
• Trackpads
• Integrated Pointed Devices
Trackballs mouse
• A trackball is like a mouse turned upside-down.
• Use your thumb to move the exposed ball and your fingers to press the
buttons.

Trackpads
• A trackpad is a touch-sensitive pad that provides the same
functionality as a mouse.
• To use a trackpad, you glide your finger across its surface.
• Trackpads provide a set of buttons that function like mouse buttons.

Integrated Pointing Devices

• An integrated pointing device is a small joystick built into the
keyboard.
• To use an integrated pointing device, you move the joystick.
• These devices provide a set of buttons that function like mouse
buttons
Name : Tamseel Ahmed Khan
Reg. No: MBA – EV/1 – 10 /004
D.I.H.E.
Chapter 4
Alternative Methods Of Input
We have three way to alternative method of input
• Devices for the Hand
• Optical Input Devices
• Audio-Visual (Multimedia) Input Devices

Devices for the Hand

• Pens
1. With a pen-based system, you use an electronic pen to write on the
screen and choose commands.
2. Pens are common input devices for handheld computers, like “personal
digital assistants (PDAs).”
3. Pens are handy for making notes or selecting commands, not for
inputting a lot of text.

• Touch Screens
1. Touch-screen systems accept input directly through the
monitor.
2. Touch screens use sensors to detect the touch of a finger. They
are useful where environmental conditions prohibit the use of a
keyboard or mouse.
3. Touch-screen systems are useful for selecting options from
menus.

• Game Controllers
1. The two primary types of game controllers are joysticks and
game pads.
2. Game pads usually provide controls for each hand.
3. Joysticks are popular for flight simulator and driving games.
Optical Input Devices
• Bar Code Readers
1. Bar code readers can read bar codes—patterns of printed bars.
2. The reader emits light, which reflects off the bar code and into a
detector in the reader. The detector translates the code into
numbers.
3. Flatbed bar code readers are commonly found in supermarkets.
Courier services often use handheld readers.
• Image Scanners and OCR
1. Image scanners digitize printed images for storage and
manipulation in a computer.
2. A scanner shines light onto the image and interprets the
reflection.
3. Optical character recognition (OCR) software translates scanned
text into editable electronic documents.

Audio-Visual (Multimedia) Input Devices

• Microphones and Speech Recognition
1. Microphones can accept auditory input. A microphone requires a
sound card in the PC.
2. A sound card can digitize analog sound signals, and convert
digital sound signals to analog form.
3. With speech recognition software, you can use your microphone
to dictate text, navigate programs, and choose commands.

• Video Input
1. PC video cameras digitize full-motion images.
2. Digital cameras capture still images.
3. These cameras break images into pixels and store data
about each pixel.
4. Video images may be compressed to use less memory and
storage space.
Name : Tamseel Ahmed Khan
Reg. No: MBA–EV/1–10 /004
D.I.H.E.
Chapter 5
Monitors and Sound Systems
• Monitors
• PC Projectors
• Sound Systems

Monitors
• Categories of Monitors
Monitors are categorized by the technology they use:
1. Cathode ray tube (CRT) monitors
2. Flat-panel displays
And by the way they display colors:
1. Monochrome – One color on a black background
2. Grayscale – Shades of gray on a white or off-white
background
3. Color – From 16 to 16 million unique colors
• CRT Monitors
1. In CRT monitors, electrons are fired at phosphor dots
on the screen.
2. The dots are grouped into pixels, which glow when struck
by electrons.
3. In color CRTs, each pixel contains a red, green, and blue
dot. These glow at varying intensities to produce color
images.

• Flat-Panel Monitors
 1. Most flat-panel monitors use liquid crystal display (LCD)
technology.
2. Passive matrix LCD uses a transistor for each row and
column of pixels.
3. Active matrix LCD uses a transistor for each pixel on the
screen.
4. Thin-film transistor displays use multiple transistors for
each pixel.

• Comparing Monitors
When comparing monitors, consider four features:
1. Size
• A monitor's size is the diagonal measurement of its
face, in inches.
• For years, 15" monitors (13"viewing area) were
standard.
• Today, 17" monitors (15" viewing area) are common.
• Larger monitors are available, but can be expensive.
2. Resolution
• Resolution is the number of pixels on the screen,
expressed as a matrix (such as 600x800).
• A 17" monitor offers resolutions from 640x480 up to
1280x1024.
• The Video Graphics Array (VGA) standard is
640x480. Super VGA (SVGA) monitors provide
resolutions of 800x600, 1024x768 or higher.
3. Refresh rate
• Refresh rate is the number of times each second that
the electron guns scan the screen's pixels.
• Refresh rate is measured in Hertz (Hz), or cycles per
second.
• Look for a refresh rate of 72 Hz or higher. A
slower rate may cause eyestrain.
4. Dot pitch
• Dot pitch is the distance between the phosphor dots
that make up a single pixel.
• In color monitors, three dots (red, green, and blue)
comprise each pixel.
 • Look for a dot pitch no greater than .28 millimeter.
• Video Controllers
1. The video controller is an interface between the monitor
and the CPU.
2. The video controller determines many aspects of a
monitor's performance, such as resolution or the number of
colors displayed.
3. The video controller contains its own on-board processor
and memory, called video RAM (VRAM).
PC Projectors
• A PC projector connects to a PC and is used to project images on a
large screen.
• Many PC projectors provide the same resolutions and color levels as
high-quality monitors.
• Digital light processing (DLP) projectors use a microchip containing tiny
mirrors to produce very sharp, bright images
Sound Systems

• Multimedia PCs come with a sound card, speakers, and a CD-ROM or

DVD drive.
• A sound card translates digital signals into analog ones that drive
the speakers.
• With the right software, you can use your PC to edit sounds and create
special sound effects.
Name : Tamseel Ahmed Khan
Reg. No: MBA–EV/1–10 /004
D.I.H.E.
Chapter 6
Devices that Output Hard Copy
• Overview of Printers
• Dot Matrix Printers
• Ink Jet Printers
• Laser Printers
• Snapshot Printers
• Other High-Quality Printers

Overview of Printers
• Categorizing Printers
Printers fall into two categories
• Impact printers use a device to strike an inked ribbon,
pressing ink from the ribbon onto the paper.
• Non-impact printers use different methods to place ink (or
another substance) on the page.

• Evaluating Printers
• Image quality – Measured in dots per inch (dpi). Most printers
produce 300 – 600 dpi.
• Speed – Measured in pages per minute (ppm) or characters
per second (cps).
• Initial cost – Consumer printers cost $250 or less, but
professional printers can cost thousands of dollars.
• Cost of operation – This refers to the cost of supplies used by
the printer.

Dot Matrix Printers

• How Do Dot Matrix Printers Work?
• Dot matrix printers are a common type of impact printer.
• A dot matrix printer's print head contains a cluster of pins.
The printer can push the pins out to form patterns in rapid
sequence.
 • The pins press an inked ribbon against the paper, creating an
image.
• Performance
• Lower-resolution dot matrix printers use nine pins. Higher-
resolution models have 24 pins.
• Speed is measured in characters per second (cps). Some dot
matrix printers print 500 cps.

Ink Jet Printers

• How Do Ink Jet Printers Work?
• Ink jet printers are an example of non-impact printers.
• The printer sprays tiny droplets of ink onto the paper.
• Ink jet printers are available for color and black-and-white
printing.
• Performance
• Ink jet printers offer speeds of (2 – 4 pages per minute ppm)
and resolution (300 – 600 dots per inch dpi), comparable to
low-end laser printers.
• Ink jet printers are inexpensive and have low operating costs.

Laser Printers
• How Do Laser Printers Work?
• Laser printers are non-impact printers.
• They use heat and pressure to bond particles of toner to
paper.
• Laser printers are available for color and black-and-white
printing.
• Performance
• Laser printers provide resolutions from 300 – 1200 dpi and
higher.
• Black-and-white laser printers usually produce 4 – 16 ppm.
• Laser printers produce higher-quality print than ink jet
printers, but are more expensive.
Snapshot Printers
• Snapshot printers are specialized, small-format printers that print
digital photographs.
• Snapshot printers are fairly slow, and can be more expensive to
operate

Other High-Quality Printers

 Print shops and publishers use these printers to create high-quality color
images:
• Thermal-wax
• Dye-sublimation Plotters use mechanical, ink jet,
or thermal technology to create
• Fiery
large-format images for
• IRIS
architectural or engineering
• Plotters uses.
Name : Tamseel Ahmed Khan
Reg. No: MBA–EV/1–10 /004
D.I.H.E.
Chapter 7
Transforming Data into Information
How Computers Represent Data
How Computers Process Data
Factors Affecting Processing Speed
Extending the Processor's Power to Other Devices

How Computers Represent Data

• Binary Numbers
• Computer processing is performed by transistors, which are
switches with only two possible states: on and off.
• All computer data is converted to a series of binary numbers– 1
and 0. For example, you see a sentence as a collection of
letters, but the computer sees each letter as a collection of 1s
and 0s.
• If a transistor is assigned a value of 1, it is on. If it has a value of
0, it is off. A computer's transistors can be switched on and off
millions of times each second.

• The Binary Number System

• To convert data into strings of numbers, computers use the
binary number system.
• Humans use the decimal system (“deci”stands for “ten”).
• The binary number system works the same way as the decimal
system, but has only two available symbols (0 and 1) rather than
ten (0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, and 9).
 • Bits and Bytes
• A single unit of data is called a bit, having a value of 1 or 0.
• Computers work with collections of bits, grouping them to
represent larger pieces of data, such as letters of the alphabet.
• Eight bits make up one byte. A byte is the amount of memory
needed to store one alphanumeric character.
• With one byte, the computer can represent one of 256 different
symbols or characters.
• Text Codes
• A text code is a system that uses binary numbers (1s and
0s) to represent characters understood by humans (letters and
numerals).

• An early text code system, called EBCDIC, uses eight-bit

codes, but is used primarily in older mainframe systems.
• In the most common text-code set, ASCII, each character
consists of eight bits (one byte) of data. ASCII is used in nearly all
personal computers.
• In the Unicode text-code set, each character consists of 16
bits (two bytes) of data.

How Computers Process Data

Where Processing Occurs
• The Control Unit
• Processing takes place in the PC's central processing unit
(CPU).
• The system's memory also plays a crucial role in
processing data.
• Both the CPU and memory are attached to the system's
motherboard, which connects all the computer's devices
together, enabling them to communicate.
The two main parts of a CPU are the control unit and the
arithmetic logic unit (ALU)
• The control unit directs the flow of data through the
CPU, and to and from other devices.
• The control unit stores the CPU's microcode, which
contains the instructions for all the tasks the CPU can
perform.
• The Arithmetic Logic Unit
• The actual manipulation of data takes place in the ALU.
 • The ALU can perform arithmetic and logic operations.
• The ALU is connected to a set of registers—small memory
areas in the CPU, which hold data and program instructions
while they are being processed
• Machine Cycles
• The CPU follows a set of steps-called a machine cycle-for
each instruction it carries out.
• By using a technique called pipelining, many CPUs can
process more than one instruction at a time.
• The machine cycle includes two smaller cycles:
• During the instruction cycle, the CPU "fetches" a command
or data from memory and "decodes" it for the CPU.
• During the execution cycle, the CPU carries out the
instruction, and may store the instruction's result in
memory.
• The Role of Memory in Processing
• RAM stores data and program code needed by the CPU.
The contents of RAM change rapidly and often.
• Read-only memory (ROM) is nonvolatile (or permanent). It
holds instructions that run the computer when the power is
first turned on.
• The CPU accesses each location in memory by using a
unique number, called the memory address.

• Types of RAM
There are two basic types of RAM: static and dynamic
• Dynamic RAM (DRAM) chips must be recharged with
electricity very frequently, or they will lose their contents.
• Static RAM (SRAM) does not need to be recharged as
often as DRAM, and can hold its contents longer.
• Another type of RAM, called flash memory, can store its
contents after power is turned off. Flash memory is used in
digital cameras to store pictures.

Factors Affecting Processing Speed

• Registers
• The CPU contains a number of small memory areas, called
registers, which store data and instructions while the CPU
processes them.
 • The size of the registers (also called word size) determines
the amount of data with which the computer can work at a
one time.
• Today, most PCs have 32-bit registers, mean the CPU can
process four bytes of data at one time. Register sizes are
rapidly growing to 64 bits.
• RAM
• The amount of RAM in a PC has a direct affect on the
system's speed.
• The more RAM a PC has, the more program instructions
and data can be held in memory, which is faster than
storage on disk.
• If a PC does not have enough memory to run a program, it
must move data between RAM and the hard disk
frequently. This process, called swapping, can greatly slow
a PC's performance.

• The System Clock

• The computer's system clock sets the pace for the CPU by
using a vibrating quartz crystal.
• A single "tick" of the clock is the time required to turn a
transistor off and back on. This is called a clock cycle.
• Clock cycles are measured in Hertz (Hz), a measure of
cycles per second. If a computer has a clock speed of 300
MHz, then its system clock "ticks" 300 million times every
second.
• The faster a PC's clock runs, the more instructions the PC
can execute each second.
• The Bus
• A bus is a path between the components of a
computer. Data and instructions travel along these paths.
• The data bus' width determines how many bits can
be transmitted between the CPU and other devices.
• The address bus runs only between the CPU and RAM, and
carries nothing but memory addresses for the CPU to use.
• Peripheral devices are connected to the CPU by an
expansion bus.

• Cache Memory
 • Cache memory is high-speed memory that holds the most
recent data and instructions that have been loaded by the
CPU.
• Cache is located directly on the CPU or between the CPU
and RAM, making it faster than normal RAM.
• CPU-resident cache is called Level-1 (L1) cache. External
cache is called Level-2 (L2) cache.
• The amount of cache memory has a tremendous impact on
the computer's speed.
Extending the Processor's Power to Other Devices
• Ports
• External devices—such as those used for input and output
—are connected to the system by ports on the back of the
computer.
• PCs feature a number of built-in ports, which are ready to
accept devices such as a printer, mouse, keyboard, phone
line, microphone and speakers, and others.
• Most computers come with a serial port and a parallel port.
A serial port transmits one bit of data at a time; a parallel
port transmits data one byte at a time.

• Expansion Slots and Boards

• If the PC does not have a port for an external device, you
can install an expansion board into one of the empty
expansion slots.
• A board provides the correct port for the new device, and
connects the device to the CPU by way of the computer's
expansion bus.
• Newer bus technologies such as Universal Serial Bus (USB)
and IEEE 1394 enable many devices to be connected to
one port.
• Small Computer System Interface (SCSI) is an older
standard for extending the bus to multiple devices through
a single port.
Name : Tamseel Ahmed Khan
Reg. No: MBA–EV/1–10 /004
D.I.H.E.
Chapter 9
Types of Storage Devices
Categorizing Storage Devices
Magnetic Storage Devices
Optical Storage Devices

Categorizing Storage Devices

• Storage devices hold data, even when the computer is turned off.
• The physical material that actually holds data is called a storage
medium. The surface of a floppy disk is a storage medium.
• The hardware that writes data to or reads data from a storage medium
is called a storage device. A floppy disk drive is a storage device.
• The two primary storage technologies are magnetic and optical.

Magnetic Storage Devices

• Diskettes (floppy disks)
• Hard disks
• High-capacity floppy disks
• Disk cartridges
• Magnetic tape
How Magnetic Storage Works
A magnetic disk's medium contains iron particles, which
can be polarized—given a magnetic charge—in one of two
directions.
Each particle's direction represents a 1 (on) or 0 (off),
representing each bit of data that the CPU can recognize.
A disk drive uses read/write heads containing
electromagnets to create magnetic charges on the
medium.
Formatting
Before a magnetic disk can be used, it must be formatted—
a process that maps the disk's surface and determines how
data will be stored.
During formatting, the drive creates circular tracks around
the disk's surface, then divides each track into sectors.
The OS organizes sectors into groups, called clusters, then
tracks each file's location according to the clusters it
occupies.

Disk Areas
When a disk is formatted, the OS creates four areas on its
surface:
Boot sector – stores the master boot record, a small
program that runs when you first start (boot) the computer
File allocation table (FAT) – a log that records each file's
location and each sector's status
Root folder – enables the user to store data on the disk in a
logical way
Data area – the portion of the disk that actually holds data

Diskettes
Diskette drives, also known as floppy disk drives, read and
write to diskettes (called floppy disks or floppies).
Diskettes are used to transfer files between computers, as
a means for distributing software, and as a backup
medium.
Diskettes come in two sizes: 5.25-inch and 3.5-inch.

Hard Disks
Hard disks use multiple platters, stacked on a spindle. Each
platter has two read/write heads, one for each side.
Hard disks use higher-quality media and a faster rotational
speed than diskettes.
Removable hard disks combine high capacity with the
convenience of diskettes.

Disk Capacities
Diskettes are available in different capacities, but the most
common store 1.44 MB.
 Hard disks store large amounts of data. New PCs feature
hard disks with capacities of 10 GB and higher.

Other Magnetic Storage Devices

High-capacity floppy disks offer capacities up to 250 MB
and the portability of standard floppy disks.
Disk cartridges are like small removable hard disks, and
can store up to 2 GB.
Magnetic tape systems offer very slow data access, but
provide large capacities and low cost.

Optical Storage Devices

• Compact Disk Read-Only Memory (CD-ROM)

• Digital Video Disk Read-Only Memory (DVD-ROM)
• CD-Recordable (CD-R)
• CD-Rewritable (CD-RW)
• PhotoCD
How Optical Storage Works
An optical disk is a high-capacity storage medium. An
optical drive uses reflected light to read data.
To store data, the disk's metal surface is covered with tiny
dents (pits) and flat spots (lands), which cause light to be
reflected differently.
When an optical drive shines light into a pit, the light
cannot be reflected back. This represents a bit value of 0
(off). A land reflects light back to its source, representing a
bit value of 1 (on).

CD-ROM
In PCs, the most commonly used optical storage
technology is called Compact Disk Read-Only Memory (CD-
ROM).
A standard CD-ROM disk can store up to 650 MB of data, or
about 70 minutes of audio.
Once data is written to a standard CD-ROM disk, the data
cannot be altered or overwritten
CD-ROM Speeds and Uses
 Early CD-ROM drives were called single speed, and read
data at a rate of 150 KBps. (Hard disks transfer data at
rates of 5 – 15 MBps).
CD-ROM drives now can transfer data at speeds of up to
7800 KBps. Data transfer speeds are getting faster.
CD-ROM is typically used to store software programs. CDs
can store audio and video data, as well as text and
program instructions.

DVD-ROM
A variation of CD-ROM is called Digital Video Disk Read-
Only Memory (DVD-ROM), and is being used in place of CD-
ROM in many newer PCs.
Standard DVD disks store up to 9.4 GB of data—enough to
store an entire movie. Dual-layer DVD disks can store up
to 17 GB.
DVD disks can store so much data because both sides of
the disk are used, along with sophisticated data
compression technologies.

Other Optical Storage Devices

A CD-Recordable (CD-R) drive lets you record your own
CDs, but data cannot be overwritten once it is recorded to
the disk.
A CD-Rewritable (CD-RW) drive lets you record a CD, then
write new data over the already recorded data.
PhotoCD technology is used to store digital photographs.
Name : Tamseel Ahmed Khan
Reg. No: MBA–EV/1–10 /004
D.I.H.E.
Chapter 11
Operating System Basics
The User Interface
Running Programs
Managing Files
Managing Hardware
Utility Software

The User Interface

• Graphical User Interfaces (GUIs)
• Most modern operating systems, like Windows and the Macintosh
OS, provide a graphical user interface (GUI).
• A GUI lets you control the system by using a mouse to click
graphical objects on screen.
• A GUI is based on the desktop metaphor. Graphical objects
appear on a background (the desktop), representing resources
you can use.
• GUI Tools
• Icons are pictures that represent computer resources, such as
printers, documents, and programs.
• You double-click an icon to choose (activate) it, for instance, to
launch a program.
• The Windows operating system offers two unique tools, called
the taskbar and Start button. These help you run and
manage programs.
• Applications and the Interface
• Applications designed to run under one operating system use
similar interface elements.
• Under an OS such as Windows, you see a familiar interface no
matter what programs you use.
• In a GUI, each program opens and runs in a separate window—a
frame that presents the program and its documents.
 • In a GUI, you can run multiple programs at once, each in a
separate window. The application in use is said to be the active
window.
• Menus
• GUI-based programs let you issue commands by choosing them
from menus.
• A menu groups related commands. For example, the File menu's
commands let you open, save, and print document files.
• Menus let you avoid memorizing and typing command names.
• In programs designed for the same GUI, menus and commands
are similar from one program to another.
•
• Dialog Boxes
• A dialog box is a special window that appears when a program or
the OS needs more information before completing a task.
• Dialog boxes are so named because they conduct a "dialog" with
the user, asking the user to provide more information or make
choices.
• Command-Line Interfaces
• Some older operating systems, such as DOS and UNIX, use
command-line interfaces.
• In a command-line interface, you type commands at a prompt.
• Under command-line interfaces, individual applications do
not need to look or function the same way, so different programs
can look very different

Running Programs
• Basic Services
• The operating system manages all the other programs that run
on the PC.
• The operating system provides services to programs and the
user, including file management, memory management, and
printing
• To provide services to programs, the OS makes system calls—
requesting other hardware and software resources to perform
tasks.
• Sharing Information
• Some operating systems, such as Windows, enable programs
to share information.
 • You can create data in one program and use it again in other
programs without re-creating it.
• Windows provides the Clipboard, a special area that stores data
cut or copied from one document, so you can re-use it
elsewhere.

• Multitasking
• Multitasking is the capability of running multiple processes
simultaneously.
• A multitasking OS lets you run multiple programs at the same
time.
• Through multitasking, you can do several chores at one time,
such as printing a document while downloading a file from the
Internet.
• There are two types of multitasking: cooperative and
preemptive.

Managing Files
• The operating system keeps track of all the files on each disk.
• Users can make file management easier by creating a hierarchical
file system that includes folders and subfolders arranged in a logical
order.

Managing Hardware
 • The OS uses interrupt requests (IRQs) to maintain organized
communication with the CPU and other pieces of hardware.
• Each hardware device is controlled by a piece of software, called a
driver, which allows the OS to activate and use the device.
• The operating system provides the software necessary to link
computers and form a network.

Utility Software
A utility is a program that performs a task that is not typically handled by the
operating system.
Some utilities enhance the operating system's functionality.
Some of the major categories of utilities include
• File defragmentation
• Data compression
• Backup
• Antivirus
• Screen savers
Name : Tamseel Ahmed Khan
Reg. No: MBA–EV/1–10 /004
D.I.H.E.
Chapter 12
PC Operating Systems in Review
UNIX
DOS
The Macintosh Operating System
Windows 3.x
OS/2 Warp
Windows NT
Windows 95 and 98
Linux
Windows 2000

UNIX
• UNIX is the oldest operating system used on PCs.
• UNIX was the first multi-user, multiprocessor, multitasking operating
system available for use on PCs.
• Most versions of UNIX use a command-line interface, but some
versions offer a GUI.

DOS
• DOS dominated the operating system market during the 1980s.
• DOS is a single-user OS that supports only 640 KB of memory.
• DOS features a command-line interface, and does not support
multitasking or multiprocessing.
• Because DOS provides no interface restrictions, DOS applications
can look and function differently.

The Macintosh Operating System

• The Macintosh OS supports the graphical nature of the Macintosh
computer.
• The Mac OS brought the first truly graphical user interface to
consumers.
 • The Mac OS also brought interface conformity to the desktop. All
applications running under the Mac OS, therefore, provided the
same "look and feel" to the user.

Windows 3.x
• Windows 3.0, 3.1, and 3.11 are called the Windows 3.x family.
• Windows 3.x brought a GUI and multitasking capabilities to PCs
running DOS.
• Windows 3.x is an operating environment because it ran on top of
DOS, which was the actual OS.

OS/2 Warp
• OS/2 Warp was the first true GUI-based operating system for Intel-
based PCs.
• OS/2 is a multitasking OS that provides support for networking
and multiple users.
• It was the first PC OS to feature built-in speech recognition
capabilities.

Windows NT
• Microsoft's Windows NT was meant as a replacement for DOS, but
was too resource-intensive to work on most PCs at the time of its
release.
• Microsoft issued two versions of Windows NT—Windows NT
Workstation and Windows NT Server.
• NT is a very powerful and robust OS, resistant to system crashes.

Windows 95 and 98
• Windows 95 was Microsoft's first true GUI-based, 32-bit operating
system for Intel PCs.
• Windows 95 supports multitasking and can run older DOS and
Windows 3.x programs.
• Windows 98's features include advanced Internet capabilities, an
improved user interface, and enhanced file system performance,
among others.

Linux
• Linux is a recently developed version of UNIX, which is available for
free or at a very low cost from various sources.
• Linux is a very powerful 32-bit OS that supports multitasking,
multiple users, networking, and virtually any application.
 • Linux can run on nearly any type of computer.
• Because of its power and openness, Linux is attracting many users,
including students, teachers, Internet service providers, and others.

Windows 2000
• Windows 2000 features the same interface and features of Windows
98, with the file system, networking, power, and stability of
Windows NT.
• Several versions of Windows 2000 are available, each targeting a
specific user or computing environment, from home PCs to large
enterprise networks.