EVAPORATION AND CRYSTALLIZATION
EVAPORATION
Evaporation is the operation of concentrating a solution of boiling
away the solvent. It consist of a heat exchanger capable of boiling
the solution and a device to separate the vapour phase from the
boiling liquid.
Usually the desired product is the concentrated solution, but
occasionally the evaporated solvent is the primary product – for
example in the evaporation of seawater to make fresh water or
evaporation of mineral bearing water to produce boiler feed water
(often called water distillation)
It differs with other unit operations in such a way that:
 Distillation: in evaporation vapor is usually a single
component
 Drying: in evaporation, residue is liquid, sometimes a
highly viscous one rather than a solid
 Crystallization: focus is on concentrating a solution rather
than forming crystals
Types of evaporator. See Perry Page 11-110 for more info:
Horizontal-tube evaporator
 The solution to be evaporated boils outside of horizontal
tubes within which steam condenses.
 The horizontal tubes interfere with the natural circulation
of the boiling liquid and thus minimize liquid agitation. As
a result, the over-all heat transfer coefficient (OHTC) is
lower than in any form of evaporator, especially if the
solution is viscous. Thus, it is not recommended to use this
type of evaporator for viscous fluids
 Disadvantage : Fouling from the evaporating solution
builds up on the outside of the tube.
 Application : For small installations, for dilute solutions
that do not foam nor deposit solids on the evaporator
tubes.
Vertical tube evaporator
 The solution boils inside the vertical tube with the heating
medium, usually condensing steam, held in chest through
which the tube pass.
 Natural circulation is promoted having been measured
between 1 to 3 ft/s. As a result, coefficients are somewhat
higher than horizontal tube evaporators.
 Any deposit that will build up inside the tube will be
readily removed by mechanical cleaning:
 Completely satisfactory for most evaporation demands
and are impractical to liquids that are viscous and foams
markedly
Forced circulation evaporator
 In these evaporator, the evaporating liquid is pumped
through a heat exchanger where the heating medium
surrounds the tubes carrying the solution.
 Pressure drop and hydrostatic head in combination are
frequently great enough to prevent the solution from
boiling the exchanger so that the vapour generated is
flashed off as the liquid enters the disengaging space.
Since the flashing velocity is too high, impingement baffles
are important to minimize entrainment.
 Heat transfer coefficient will depend upon circulation rate
as well as over-all ∆T, boiling temperature, and system
properties.
 Advantage : Suitable for scaling solutions because of
turbulence, high velocity rate and high recirculation rate
 Disadvantage : high pumping cost. Thus the decision to use
this type of evaporator depends upon a favourable
economic balance that includes evaporator first cost, the
power cost and maintenance cost of the pump and
cleaning cost of the tubes
Long tube vertical evaporator
 A natural circulation evaporator like horizontal and vertical
type types
 Essential parts are (1) a tubular exchanger with steam in a
shell and liquid to be concentrated in the tubes (2) a
separator or vapour space for removing the entrained
liquid from vapour (3) when operated as a circulation unit
a return leg for the liquid from the separator to the
bottom of the exchanger
 Competes most favourably against forced circulation
evaporator
 Although the OHTC is lower than the forced type, it
however requires no pump. Moreover, the fraction
evaporated per pass is usually larger than the forced type.
 It cannot handle viscous fluids, but it can handle foaming
materials and some heat sensitive solutions
Once through falling film evaporator:
 Once-through evaporators like this one is Ideal for most
heat sensitive solutions.
 In this unit, the fluid is fed at the top of a long vertical
rather than large diameter tubes (2-4’’) so that the fluid
flows down the tube walls in parallel with the flow of the
evaporated gas. The result is short contact time with the
possibility of large fraction evaporation.
 The greatest challenge in this type is how to maintain the
even distribution of fluids in the tubes. This can be
overcome by using (1) levelled weirs , (2) perforated metal
plates above the levelled tube sheet ,or (3) by spider
distributors with radial arms from which the feed is
sprayed at a steady rate inside the tube. Another way is to
 spraying the fluid directly on the tube walls via spray
nozzle.
Agitated film evaporator
 A modified falling film evaporator with a single jacketed
tube containing an internal agitator
 Advantage : Suitable for giving high rates of heat transfer
with viscous fluids. Suitable also for heat sensitive
products such as gelatin, rubber latex, antibiotics and fruit
juices.
 Disadvantage : Maintenance of internal moving parts;
Small capacity
Turbulent film evaporator
 Applicable for handling both viscous and corrosive
solutions. Can be used also for evaporating slurry to
dryness.
 The unit is consist of a vertical tube heated over the
bottom two thirds with the steam jacket and containing
central rotor. Mounted on the rotor are blades extending
almost to the heated walls, The top third of the cylinder is
of larger diameter and is unheated
 Advantage : low residence time and low hold-up
Submerged combustion burner
 Applicable for handling both viscous and corrosive
solutions.
 With this burner, no metal heat transfer surface is
required since the product of combustion bubbled up
through the process fluid.
 Advantage : simple design reduce replacement cost to
minimum
Evaporators according to number of effects
A. Single Effect Evaporators – used when the required capacity of
operation is relatively small and/or cost of steam is relatively
cheap compared to the evaporator cost. Vapor from single
effect is usually condensed and discarded.
Heat and Material balance
Mass Balance
OMB : F = V + P
CB : Fxf = Pxp
Capacity = No of water evaporated per hour
Steam economy = V/S
Energy Balance :
First case:
S (hs – hc) = Php + VHv – Fhf
(applicable if the enthalpy-conc. diagram is available)
hs = enthalpy of steam
hc = enthalpy of condensate
Reminder: If the steam and condensate are at the same temperature
hc – hs = λs (heat of condensation)
Second case:
S (hs – hc) = Pcp (TP – T0) + VHv – FcpF (TF - T0)
applicable if the specific heat capacites of feed,cpf and concentrated
liquor, cpL are given
Reminder: If the problem only provides cp for feed and does not
indicate heat capacity of the concentrated product , we have no
choice but to assume that the given heat capacity of the feed will not
be affected by the changes in concentration, thus cpF = cpL. (This
assumption is rough approximation because in reality, cp is directly
affected by the amount of solute present)
Heat Transfer Equation
Q = UA(Ts-T1)
U = Over-all heat transfer coefficient based on area A
Ts = steam inlet tem
T1 = operating temp inside the vessel
Ts-T1 = ∆T temperature drop
In most cases, the controlling resistance comes from the boiling
liquid inside, thus OHTC will depend largely on the heat transfer
coefficient of the condensing steam outside thus, U will be
evaluated based on outside area (i.e Uo). This over-all heat transfer
coefficient depends upon: properties of solution, the heating
medium , surface geometry and the method of operation
The heat transfer coefficient of the boiling liquid depends primarily
on the velocity of the liquid over the heated surface.
The temperature drop, ∆T depends on the ff
 Solution being evaporated,
 difference in pressure between the steam chest and the
vapour space above the boiling liquid,
 depth of the liquid inside the evaporator
  and the velocity of liquid inside the tube (i.e frictional loss 5.
increases the effective pressure in the liquid
 For multiple effect evaporator, the liquid head (pressure)
and the boiling point elevation reduces the pressure drop
Boiling point Elevation (BPE) –
Increased in boiling point of a solution above the boiling point of
water at the prevailing temperature. BPE can be estimated using
Figure 11-124 (CHE HB 8th edition)
BPE is insensitive to pressure. This generalization was first described
by by Duhring in 1878
Duhring rule : The Boiling point of a solution is a linear function of
the boiling point of pure water at the same pressure
6.
PROBLEMS
1. A single effect evaporator concentrates 1 MT of 10% wt sucrose
solution to 50%. The feed enters the evaporator at 20°C and
has a specific heat of 1.0. The evaporator is maintained at a
vacuum of 600 mm Hg against a barometric reading of 760 mm
Hg. The heat is provided by saturated steam at 8.8 kg/cm2
gage. Assuming that no sensible heat is recovered in the
7.
evaporator, calculate the weight of heating steam, in kg,
needed for concentrating the sucrose solution.
2. ** A solution of organic colloids is to be concentrated from 20
to 65% wt solids in an evaporator. Saturated steam is available
at 172 kPa absolute and the pressure in the condenser is 30cm
Hg vacuum. The feed enters at 25°C and its specific heat is 4.0
J/g·°C. The solution has a negligible elevation in boiling point.
B.
OHTC is 1,000 W/m2·°C and the evaporator must evaporate
9,000 kg/h. a) Determine the steam consumption, kg/h
(10759.3 kg/h) b) How many square meters of heating surface
are required? (126.08 m2) c) What is the steam economy? (Ans
0.84)
3. ** A feed of 4,535 kg/h of a 2.0 % wt salt solution at 311 K
enters continuously a single effect evaporator and is being
concentrated to 3%. The evaporation is at atmospheric
pressure and the area of the evaporator is 69.7 m2. Saturated
steam at 383.2 K is supplied for heating. Since the solution is
dilute, it can be assumed to have the same boiling point as
water. The heat capacity of the feed can be taken as Cp = 4.10
kJ/kg·K. Calculate the amounts of vapor and liquid product and
the over-all heat transfer coefficient.. Ans (P = 3023.33kg/h; V
=1511.67kg/h, U = 1785.53 W/m2-K
4. Determine the heating area required for the production of
10,000lb/h of 50% NaOH solution from a 10% feed entering at
1000F. Evaporation is to be carried out in a single-body standard
evaporator for which an over-all coefficient of 500 is expected.
Steam is available at 50psig and the evaporator can be
operated at 50psig, and the evaporator can be operated at
10psi vacuum relative to a barometric pressure of 14.7 psia
**A single effect evaporator is being used to concentrate a feed
of 10000lb/h of a cane sugar solution at 800F and containing a
sugar content of 150Brix to 300Brix for use in a food process.
Saturated steam at 2400F is available for heating. The vapour
space in the evaporator will be at at 1 atm abs pressure. The
overall U = 350 BTU/h/ft2/F0 and the heat capacity of the feed
is 0.91 BTU/lb/F. The BPR can be estimated from BPR, 0F = 3.2x
+ 11.2x2 where x is wt fraction of sugar sol’n. The heat of sol’n
can be considered negligible and neglected. Calculate the
required area. (Ans 676 ft2)
Trivia: degree Brix is the percent by mass of soluble matter in
sugar sol’n
**A forced-circulation evaporator is to concentrate 60,000 kg/h
of 44 percent NaOH to 65 percent using steam at 3 atm
pressure. The feed temperature and the condensing
temperature are both 40°C. The density of the feed solution is
1,450 kg/m3. If the over-all heat transfer coefficient is 2,000
W/m2·°C, calculate (a) the steam requirement, in kg/h (30,525
kg/h); (b) the heat transfer area required (283.64m2).
**A 10% wt NaOH at 80 °F is to be concentrated in a single
effect evaporator to 40% wt. Steam is supplied at 20 psig and
the vacuum pressure of the barometric condenser is 26 in Hg.
100 gpm of water is fed to the condenser and the water leaving
the condenser (including the condensate) is at 100 °F. OHTC of
evaporator is 200 BTU/h·ft2·°F. Calculate the heating surface
required for the evaporator. (Ans 88.83 ft2)
Hint: The vapour condenser operates at isobaric condition.
Multiple Effect Evaporator
In any evaporation operation, the steam consumed is the
major process cost. Thus methods of increasing steam economy
is very attractive. The most common technique is to feed the
vapour generated from the first evaporator into a second unit,
then feeding the vapour coming out from the second unit to
the third and so on; thus increasing the “effects” of steam fed
to the first unit.
The major objective of increasing the number of units in series
is to obtain a number of pounds of vapour for each pound of
steam consumed equal to the number of evaporating bodies.
Thus, multiple effects evaporator (with no BPE) using n effects
increases the steam economy but decreases the heat flux by
about 1/n relative to the single effect under the same terminal
conditions. (e,g the capacity of a double effect evaporator
concentrating a solution w/o BPE is equal to ½ capacity of two
single effects)
If the solution being evaporated has a significant BPE, the BPE
reduces ∆T in each effect resulting to a very much reduced
capacity . (e,g the capacity of a double effect evaporator
concentrating a solution w/ BPE is less than ½ the capacity of
two single effects).

No matter how many effects are used, provided that OHTC’s in
each effect are the same, the capacity will be no greater that
that of a single effect having an area equal that of each effect in
the multiple unit.
Economics:
The cost of each effect of an evaporator per square meter or
square foot is a function of its total area and decreases with
area approaching an asymptote for very large installation.
Investment required for an N effect is about N times that for a
single effect of the same capacity
Problems
B.1. Forward Feed Multiple Effect Evaporators – fresh feed is
1.
added to the first effect and flows to the next in the same
direction as the vapor flow. This is used when the feed is hot or
when the final concentrated product might be damaged at high
temperatures
B.3. Parallel Feed Multiple Effect Evaporators – involves the
adding of fresh feed and the withdrawal of concentrated
product from each effect. The vapor from each effect is still
used to heat the next effect. This method is used mainly when
the feed is almost saturated and solid crystals are the product,
as in the evaporation of brine to make salt.
B.4. Mixed Feed Multiple Effect Evaporators – fresh feed enters
any of the available effects and continues not necessarily to the
effect next to it.
A triple effect evaporator is supplied with saturated steam at
2500F. The temperature in the last effect is 1500F. The OHTC’s
are 150, 200, and 250 in the 1st, 2nd and 3rd effects
respectively. If the total BPR in the 3 effects is 550F, the area of
the first effect in sq feet is ____ if the steam used is 10000lb/h.

Advantage : No pump is required to transfer liquids between

2.
each effects since the pressure in each effect is lower than that
in the previous effect.
Disadvantage : If the feed is cold, much of the heating capacity
of the medium will be spent resulting in lower economy
**A liquid with no appreciable elevation of boiling-point is
concentrated in a triple-effect evaporator. If the temperature of
the steam to the first effect is 395 K and vacuum is applied to
the third effect so that the boiling-point is 325 K, what are the
approximate boiling-points in the three effects? The overall
transfer coefficients may be taken as 3.1, 2.3, and 1.1 kW/m2 K
in the three effects respectively. Ans. 381.5K, 363.2K, 325K

C. Vapor Recompression

In multiple effect evaporator, temperature drop is generated by

B.2. Backward Feed Multiple Effect Evaporators – fresh feed
enters the last and coldest effect and continues until the
concentrated product leaves the first effect. This is used when
the fresh feed is cold. This type of evaporation would requires
liquid pump for between each effect since flow is from low to
high pressure
lowering the BP of the solution in a series of evaporators through
the use of lower absolute pressure. In vapour recompression, ∆T can
be enhanced by increasing the pressure (and therefore increasing
the condensing temperature)of the evolved vapour. The compressed
vapour is then fed back into steam chest of an appropriate
evaporator effect.
Vapor recompression can be done through the use of centrifugal or
positive displacement compressor (called mechanical
recompression) or through steam jet injection(also called thermal
compression).
Application of mechanical recompression:

Advantage: Higher capacity than forward feed when thick liquor

 Water distillation
is viscous
 Evaporation of black liquor in the paper industry
 Evaporation of heat sensitive materials
Disadvantage; Lower economy than the forward feed when the
 Crystallisation of salts having inverted solubility curves
feed liquor is cold
Disadvantages of vapor recompression:

 The compressor is expensive and subject to higher

maintenance cost .
 In reasonable operating ranges, ∆T obtained is small about -
100F. As a result the evaporating equipment must be large
for a reasonable high production rate.
  Recompression evaporator requires auxiliary equipment
(steam traps, entrainment separators, etc.)
 If the solution has a large BPR, the cost of recompression
increases rapidly because the vapour must be compressed
to such pressure that is saturation tempeature is above the
the temperature at which the solution boils.
In US , vapour recompression is unattractive because fuel cost is low
but electrical power is expensive. Vapor recompression on the other
hand is more feasible in Europe where fuel supply is scarce and yet
the presence of several hydroelectric stations makes the power cost
relatively cheap
CRYSTALLIZATION
Refers to a solid-liquid separation process in which solid particles are
formed within a homogenous phase. ]
B. Equilibrium
Equilibrium in crystallization is reached when the solution is
saturated and the equilibrium relationship for bulk crystals is the
solubility curve. In many industrial crystallization processes, the
crystal and the mother liquor contact long enough to reach
equilibrium, and the mother liquor is saturated at the final
temperature of the process.
When the rate of crystal growth is slow, considerable time is
required to reach equilibrium. This is especially true when the sol’n
is viscous or when the little crystal surface is exposed to the super-
saturation solution. In such situation, the final mother liquor may
retain appreciable supersaturation and the actual yield will be less
than that calculated from the solubility curve

In crystallisation, the two phase mixture of mother liquor and
crystals of all sizes which occupies the crystallizer and is withdrawn
as product is called magma.
Crystallisation habit is strongly affected by the degree of
supersaturation, the agitation intensity, size of crystals in the
environment and purity of the solution
Crystal Size Distribution (CSD) – it is the prime and major objective in
the design and operation of crystallizers. Other factors that influence
the design of crystallizer are crystal habit (mentioned before) and
the produce salability.
Types of Solubility Curves
(1) Type 1 – Solubility increases with temperature, and there
are no hydrates or water of crystallisation
(2) TYPE II: Solubility increases with temperature but curve is
marked with extreme flatness.e.g NaCl
(3) TYPE III: Solubility increasing fairly rapid with temperature
but is characterized by “breaks” and indicates different
“hydrates” or water of crystallization e.g NaHPO4
(4) TYPE IV: Unusual Curve; Solubility increases at a certain
transition point while the solubility of the hydrate
decreases as temperature increases e.g Na2CO3

A. Crystal Geometry
A crystal is highly organized type of matter, the constituent particles
of which are arranged in an orderly and repetitive manner; they are
arranged in orderly three dimensional arrays called SPACE LATTICES
Some have inverted curve which means that their solubility
decreases with increasing temperature. Such crystals are called
invariant . Examples include MnSO4.7H2O, and CaSO4
C. Heat and Mass Balance

Under ideal conditions, a growing crystal maintains a fixed

polyhedron face during growth. Such crystal is called invariant

Types of Crystal Geometry

(1) CUBIC SYSTEM – 3 equal axes at right angles to each other

(2) TETRAGONAL – 3 axes at right angles to each other, one axis
longer than the other 2
(3) ORTHOROMBIC – 3 axes at right angles to each other, all of
different lengths
(4) HEXAGONAL – 3 equal axes in one plane at 60° to each other, and
a fourth axis at a right angle to this plane and not necessarily at the
same length
(5) MONOCLINIC – 3 unequal axes, two at a right angles in a plane,
and a third at some angle to this plane
(6) TRICLINIC – 3 unequal axes at unequal angles to each other and
not 30°, 60°, or 90°
(7) TRIGONAL – 3 unequal and equally inclined axes

A given material may crystallize in two or more different classes

depending on the conditions of the crystallization. Calcium
carbonate occurs naturally in hexagonal form (calcite) but also
occurs in orthorhombic (aragonite)

OMB : F = L + C
CB: FXF = LXL + CXC
Heat Balance:
Fhf + q = LhL + Chc
For rough approximation, if the data for feed and liquor enthalpies
D.1 Primary Nucleation
are not available and assuming that specific heat capacity will not
vary with temperature (cpf = cpL) then the equation above can be
written as:
-q = Fcpf (tF – tL) + Chc
Heat Balance for Crystallizers with Evaporated Water
Fhf + q = Lhl + Chc +Vhv
For adiabatic crystlaiizer (Vacuum crystallizer), q = 0
For rough approximation
-q = Fcpf (tF – tL) + Chc – VλV
Where λV is the heat of vaporization evaluated at product temp
λV = saturated Hvap – saturated Hliq
D. Crystal Formation
 Crystal formation requires two steps. The first step is
nucleation and the second one is crystal growth. The driving
potential for both stages is supersaturation
 Supersaturation is a measure of the quantity of solids
actually present in solution as compared to the quantity
that is in equilibrium with the solution. Mathematically, S =
(part of solute/100 parts solvent) / (part of solute at
equilibrium/100 parts solvent)
 Extent of supersaturation depends upon the number and
shape of crystals upon which precipitation occurs,
temperature level, sol’n concentration and the violence of
agitation
 Crystallization cannot occur without supersaturation. There
D.2 Secondary Nucleation
are 5 basic methods of generating supersaturation
(1) EVAPORATION – by evaporating a portion of the solvent;
applicable for solutions whose solubility is independent of
temperature like NaCl.
(2) COOLING – by cooling a solution through indirect heat
exchange, applicable for solutions whose solubility
increases with temperature like potassium nitrate, sodium
sulphite and majority of all known salts.
(3) VACUUM COOLING – by flashing of feed solution
adiabatically to a lower temperature and inducing
crystallization by simultaneous cooling and evaporation of
the solvent
(4) REACTION / PRECIPITATION – by chemical reaction with
a third substance that will form an insoluble precipitate.
(5) SALTING – by the addition of a third component. The
third component may act physically by forming with the
original solvent, a mixed solvent in which the solubility of
the solvent is sharply reduced.
(6) Combination of evaporation and cooling – Applicable for
sodium nitrate soln.
 The rate of nucleation is the number of new particles
formed per unit time per unit volume of magma or solids
free mother liquor. This quantity is the first kinetic
parameter controlling the CSD. Two types of nucleation
are possible : homogenous and heterogenous
 Homogenous nucleation is defined as the consequence of
rapid local fluctuations on a molecular scale in a
homogenous phase that is in the state of metastable
equilibrium, It is the formation of phase uninfluenced by
any foreign substance.
 Steps in homogenous nucleation:
o Particles associate randomly to form cluster ( a
loose aggregation which usually disappears quickly)
o Association of cluster form embryo, in which there
are a beginning of the lattice arrangement and
formation of new crystal face. Embryos are short
lived and can revert back to clusters because the
concentration gradient favors transfer from
embryo.
o If supersaturation is large, embryo can grow to a
size that is in thermodynamic equilibrium with the
solution known as nucleus
o Nucleus are smallest assemblage of particles that
will not redissolve and therefore grow to form
crystal
 Heterogenous nucleation occurs when solid particles of
foreign origin influence the nucleation process by
catalysing an increase of nucleation rate at a given
supersaturation or giving a finite rate at a supersaturation
where homogenous nucleation would occur only after a
vast time
 Defined as the formation of nuclei attributable to the
influence of the existing macroscopic crystals in the
magma. Two kinds are known : Fluid shear and Contact
nucleation
 When supersaturated solution moves past the surface of
the growing crystal at a substantial velocity, the shear
stress in the boundary layer may sweep embryos or nuclei
that would otherwise be incorporated into the growing
crystal and so appear as new crystal
  Contact nucleation is the most common type in industrial
setup and is influenced by the intensity of agitation caused
by impeller or internal moving devices. It occurs at low
supersaturation and proportional to the first power of
supersaturation instead of the 20th or greater power for
primary nucleation.
 Relationship of Nuclei, N to supersaturation, S and Energy
of impact, E
o For inorganic crystal, the number of nuclei per
contact N is proportional to S
o For most organic and hydrated inorganic crystals, N
is propostional to E
o For some organic crystals, lnN is proportional to E
o For anhydrous inorganic crystals, the energy
required is larger than for other crystals and
threshold energy is required for nucleation. N is
proportional to exp (E )
E. Crystal growth Theories
 Surface growth is based on the concept that growth occurs
layer by layer as a two dimensional nucleus attached to
the face. This theory predicts that growth does not start
until appreciable threshold supersaturation is reached and
the that the rate growth then increases rapidly until at
some fairly high value of supersaturation , it becomes
linear with superstauration.
 Moreover, according to surface growth theory, crystals
have imperfections called dislocations, the most common
one is screw dislocation. The dislocation is in a shear plane
perpendicular to the crystal’s surface and the slipping of
the crystal creates ramp
 ∆L law – If all crystals in magma grow in a uniform
supersaturation field and at the same temperature and if
all crystals grow from birth at a rate governed by the
supersaturation, then all crystals are not only invariant
but also have the same growth rate that is independent of
size
F. Crystal Seeding
The relation between seed and product particle sizes may be written
as
Lp = Ls + ∆L
Lp = Ls + ∆L
Where: Lp or Dp = characteristic particle dimension of the
product; Ls or Ds = characteristic particle dimension of the seed
∆L or ∆D = change in size of crystals and is constant throughout the
range of size present
Since the rate of linear crystal growth is independent of crystal size,
the seed and product masses may be related for
Wp = Ws (Dp3/Ds3)
𝑊𝑝
∫0
𝑊𝑠
𝑑𝑊𝑝 = ∫0 (1 +
∆𝐷
)^3 𝑑𝑊𝑠
𝐷𝑠
C = Wp – Ws
G. Crytallization Equipment
G.1 Supersaturation By Cooling
Applicable for substance that have solubility curve that increases
with temperature (i.e steep solubility-temperature curve);
Pan Crystallizers - Batch operation; seldom used in modern
practice, except in small scale operations, because they are wasteful
of floor space and of labor; usually give a low quality product
Agitated batch Crystallizers - Consist of an agitated tank; usually
cone-bottomed, containing cooling coils. It is convenient in small
scale or batch operations because of their low capital costs,
simplicity of operation and flexibility
Swenson Walker Crystallizer - A continuous crystallizer consist of an
open round bottomed-trough, 24-in wide by 10 ft long, and
containing a long ribbon mixer that turns at about 7 rpm. As many of
these four these units maybe connected together with the agitators
driven from a single shaft.
G.2 Supersaturation By Evaporation Of Solvent
Applicable for the substance whose solubility is independent of
temperature (i.e flat solubility-temp curve) and that yield of solids
by cooling is negligible
Salting Evaporator
The most common of the evaporating crystallizers; in older form, the
crystallizer consisted of an evaporator below which were settling
chambers into which the salt settled. The chambers were connected
in tandem so that the salt could be removed by one of them while
the other was connected to the system
Oslo Crystallizer
Modern form of evaporating crystallizer; this unit is particularly well
adopted to the production of large-sized uniform crystals that are
usually rounded; it consists essentially of a forced circulation
evaporator with an external heater containing a combination of salt
filter and particle size classifier on the bottom of the evaporator
body
Draft Tube Crystallizer
It consist of crystallizer body equipped with draft tube, which also
acts as a baffle to control circulation of the magma, and an upward-
directed propeller agitator to provide a controllable circulation
within the crystallizer. Draft tube crystallizers are also equipped with
elutriation leg below the body to classify the crystal by size and may
also be equipped with baffled settling zones for fines removal.
G.3 Vacuum crystallizers 4 x 104 kJ. Calculate the heat to be removed in the cooling process.
(Ans 455 kJ)
 Evaporation is obtained by flashing a hot solution into a
low pressure space. 5. One ton of Na2S2O3·5H2O is to be crystallized per hour by cooling
 Supersaturation is obtained thru adiabatic evaporative a solution containing 56.5% Na2S2O3 to 30°C in a Swenson-Walker
cooling. crystallizer. Evaporation is negligible. The product is to be sized
 In its original and simplest form, it consist of closed vessel closely to approximately 14 mesh. Seed crystals closely sized to 20
in which vacuum is maintained by a condenser, usually mesh are introduced with the solution as it enters the crystallizer.
with the help of a steam-jet vacuum pump located How many tons of seed crystals and how many tons of solutions are
between the crystaliizer and the condenser. required per hour? At 30°C, solubility of Na2S2O3 is 83 parts per 100
 Energy of vaporization is obtained at the expense of parts water
sensible heat in the feed. As a result, the temperature of
the vapour – liquor mixture after flashing is much lower 6. ** A Swenson-Walker crystallizer is fed with a saturated solution
of magnesium sulfate at 110°F. The solution and its crystalline crop
than that of the liquor before flashing
are cooled to 40°F. The inlet solution contains 1 g of seed crystals
Problems per 100 g of solution. The seeds are 80 mesh. Assuming ideal
growth, what is the mesh size of the crystals leaving with the cooled
1. A Swenson-Walker crystallizer is to be used to produce 1 ton/h product? Evaporation may be neglected.
of copperas (FeSO4·7H2O) crystals. The saturated solution
enters the crystallizer at 120°F. The slurry leaving the Hint: Refer to 7th edition of Perry for Mesh Size
crystallizer will be at 80°F. Cooling water enters the crystallizer
(Ans 24 Mesh)
jacket at 60°F and leaves at 70°F. It may be assumed that the U
for the crystallizer is 35 BTU/h·°F·ft2. There are 3.5 ft2 of
cooling surface per ft of crystallizer length. a) Estimate the
cooling water required b) Determine the number of 10ft- Concept Sources : “Principles of Unit Operations”, 2ed by Foust et.al
crystallizer section to be used. “Unit Operations of Chemical Engineering”, 6ed by
McCabe Smith et.a
2. ** A hot solution of Ba(NO3)2 from an evaporator contains
30.6 kg Ba(NO3)2/100 kg H2O and goes to a crystallizer where
“In most time of our life, it is always the wrong people who teaches
the solution is cooled and Ba(NO3)2 crystallizes. On cooling,
us the right lessons” - Anon
10% of the original water present evaporates. For a feed
solution of 100 kg total, calculate the following: a) The yield of
crystals if the solution is cooled to 290K, where the solubility is
8.6 kg Ba(NO3)2/100 kg total water (17.5026 kg)
b) The yield if cooled instead to 283K, where the solubility is 7
kg Ba(NO3)2/100 kg total water (18. 6077kg)

3. ** The solubility of sodium sulfate is 40 parts Na2SO4 per 100

parts of water at 30°C, and 13.5 parts at 15°C. The latent heat of
crystallization (liberated when crystals form) is 18,000 g-cal per gmol
Na2SO4. Glauber’s salt (Na2SO4·10H2O) is to be made in a
SwensonWalker crystallizer by cooling a solution, saturated at 30°C,
to 15°C. Cooling water enters at 10°C and leaves at 20°C. The
overall heat transfer coefficient in the crystallizer is 25 BTU/h·ft2·°F
and each foot of crystallizer has 3 sq ft of cooling surface. How
many 10-ft units of crystallizer will be required to produce 1 ton/h of
Glauber’s Salt (30 Units)

4. **Lactose syrup is concentrated to 8 g lactose per 10 g of water

and then run into a crystallizing vat which contains 2,500 kg of the
syrup. In this vat, containing 2,500 kg of syrup, it is cooled from 57°C
to 10°C. Lactose crystallizes with one molecule of water of
crystallization. The specific heat of the lactose solution is 3470
J/kg·°C. The heat of solution for lactose monohydrate is -15,500
kJ/kmol. The molecular weight of lactose monohydrate is 360 and
the solubility of lactose at 10°C is 1.5 g/10 g water. Assume that 1%
of the water evaporates and that the heat loss trough the vat walls is