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Vidyamandir Classes Liquids

Liquids
A fluid is a substance, such as a liquid or a gas that has no rigidity like solids. Liquids are distinguished
from the gases by the presence of a surface in liquids. As the fluids have no rigidity, they fail to support a
shearing stress. When a fluid is subjected to a shearing stress, the fluids layers slide relative to one other.
This characteristic gives fluid the ability to flow or change shapes.

PRESSURE AND THRUST Section - 1

Pressure in a stationary liquid :

The hydrostatic pressure in a liquid increases with the depth. For a liquid of density , the total pressure at
a depth h is given by
P (pressure at the surface P0) + (pressure due to liquid column)
P = P0 + hg
In the figure,
total pressure at A = P0 + h1 g
total pressure at B = P0 + h2 g
Note : The pressure due to liquid column = hg
h : height of liquid column above the reference point.
(i) If the pressure at the surface (P0) is changed an equal change in pressure is felt at all depths, that is
through out the liquid. This fact is also known as Pascal’s principle. Suppose the pressure at the liquid
surface is altered by p, then the pressure at A and B in the above figure (or even at any other point
in the liquid) is changed by, p.
(ii) Along any horizontal line in a stationary liquid, the pressure must be same.

THRUST (FORCE) ON A SURFACE BY A LIQUID :

Liquids exert (thrust) on all surfaces in contact with them. They exert a pushing force in a direction
perpendicular (normal) to the surface is contact.
Consider a surface in contact with the liquid. Let A be the area of surface in contact.
UNIFORM PRESSURE DISTRIBUTION
If the liquid pressure P on this area is same every where (uniform), then thrust on the surface is given by
F  PA
NON-UNIFORM PRESSURE DISTRIBUTION
F   PdA

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Illustration - 1 A tank of square cross-section (2m  2m) is filled with water upto a height of 2.5m. Find
the thrust experienced by the vertical and bottom of the tank (g = 10 m/s2)
SOLUTION :
Consider vertical surface ABCD (   h) in
contact with liquid of height h.
Divide the vertical surface ABCD into
rectangular strips of height dx and area l dx.
h
 g h 2
Thrust at the bottom surface F   PdA    x g   dx  2
0
The pressure is uniformly distributed over the
bottom surface.
h 
Thrust = Pressure  area Expressing F as F    g  h
2 
= (2.5 g) A
= 2.5  (1  103) (10) (2  2) F = [pressure at CG of vertical surface]
= 1  105 N  [area of surface]
 2. 5 
Thrust at the vertical surface     g   2  2.5 
 2 
On a vertical surface in contact with liquid, the
pressure is not same at all points. Points at greater 2. 5
  103  10  5
depth experience large pressures and hence 2
greater thrust. = 6.25  104 N

Illustration - 2 A vertical U tube of uniform cross-section contains mercury in both of its arms. A glycerine
(d = 1.3 g/cm3) column of length 10 cm is introduced into one of the arms. Oil of density 0.8 g/cm3 is poured
in the other arm until the upper surfaces of the oil and glycerine are in the same horizontal level. Find the
length of oil column. Density of mercury is 13.6 g/cm3.

SOLUTION :
Equating pressure at horizontal level BE in both
arms,
Poil + PHg = Pglycerine

xd oil g + (10 – x) Hg g = 10dgly.g

x (0.8) + (10 – x) 13.6 = 10 (1.3)

Let the length of oil column = CD = x cm
Length of glycerine = AB = 10 cm 136  13
x  9.6 cm
DE = (10 – x) cm 12.8

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Illustration - 3 Two communicating cylindrical tubes contain mercury. The diameter of one vessel is four
times larger than the diameter of the other. A column of water height 70 cm is poured into the narrow vessel.
How much will the mercury level rise in the other vessel and how much will it sink in the narrow one ? How
much will the mercury level rise in the narrow vessel if a column of water of the same height is poured in to
the broad vessel ?

SOLUTION :
70  1  g = (x + y)  13.6  g
70
x y 
13.6
Solving the equations, we get :
x = 0.3 cm, y = 4.8 cm.
Let x = rise of Hg level in broad vessel, If 70 cm water column is poured into broad
y = drop of Hg level in narrow vessel. vessel, then following the same pattern, we get
x A1 = y A2 the equations
16x = y x  16 y and  x  y   13.6  70  1
(because volume displaced will be same)
 x = 4.8 and y = 0.3 cm.

Illustration - 4 In a simple hydraulic press, the cross-sectional area of the two cylinders are 5  104 m2 and
102 m2 respectively. A force of 20 N is applied at the small plunger.
(a) What is the pressure produced in the cylinders ?
(b) What is the thrust exerted on the large plunger ?
(c) How much work is down by the operator if the smaller plunger moves down 0.1 ?
SOLUTION :
 A2 
Hence, the thrust on A2 magnified  A  times
 1
F1 20
(a)  = 40000 N /m2
A1 5  104

 A2   102 
In a hydraulic press, a force F1 applied to the (b) F2  F1    20    400 N
4 
smaller plunger (creates a pressure (F1/A1) in the  A1   5  10 
liquid and this pressure is transmitted equally (c) Work done by F1 = F1 d1 = 20  0.1 = 2 J.
throughout the liquid and acts on the larger Note that the displacement d2 of the large
plunger. The thrust acting on the larger plunger
 A2 
 F1  plunger = d1  
upwards due to this pressure is F2 = A2  A   A1 
 1 The displacement of larger plunger is less.

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ARCHIMEDES PRINCIPLE Section - 2

Consider an irregularly shaped object at rests with in a fluid. Liquid exerts a thrust on sides of the solid
surface in contact with it due to its pressure. Because the liquid pressure increases with depth the force
exerted by the liquid on the surface of the object is greater for those portions which are more deeply
immersed. In the figure, liquid thrust at point B is greater than that at A. The net effect on the entire body is
an upward or lifting force which is called the buoyant force.
The magnitude of this upward buoyant force (B) is given by Archimedes principle.
B = v g
v = volume occupied by the solid inside the liquid
p = density of the liquid

Archimedes Principle
A body that is partially or entirely submerged in a fluid, feels an upward force equal in magnitude to the
weight of the displaced fluid.

Illustrating the concept :

In the figure, A body is partially dipped in the liquid.
Let v = volume of the liquid displaced.
= space occupied by the body in the liquid
= volume of the shaded portion
 B = v g  : density of liquid

Floating Body :
Whenever the buoyant force on a body equals its weight, the net force acting on the body becomes zero
hence the body floats in equilibrium.
Let a body of total volume V and density d be floating on a liquid of density .
Let v be the volume of the body inside the liquid.
B = mg for a floating body
vg = Vdg  v = Vd

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Note : (i) When a body is in air, the net downward force on it is due to earth’s gravity only.
This net force = mg =Vdg
This force is known as weight of the body.
(ii) When the same body is immersed in a liquid of density  the net downward force on it is :
= mg  B B : buoyant force
= Vdg – Vg
This downward force is also known as apparent weight in the liquid.
(iii) When a body is immersed in a liquid it feels lighter due to buoyant force. Hence the Buoyant force is
also known as loss in weight (= v g)

Illustration - 5 What fraction of an ice berg lies beneath the surface of the sea ? Density of sea water
() = 1.028  10 kg/m3 density of ice (d) = 0.917  103 kg/m3.
3

SOLUTION :
Vdg = vg
v d

V 
d 0.917  103
For floating conditions : 
 1.028  103
weight of the ice berg = buoyant force
v
Let V be the total volume of the ice berg and v = 0.892.
be the volume inside the sea water V
About 89.2% of the iceberg remains inside

Illustration - 6 A plastic sphere floats in water with 0.5 of its volume submerged. This same sphere floats
in oil with 0.4 of its volume submerged. Determine the densities of the oil and the sphere. (Density of water
= 1 gm/cc)

SOLUTION :
In water : In oil :
wt. of the sphere = buoyant force (water) Wt. of the sphere = buoyant force (oil)
Vdg = v w g Vdg = Voil g
40
Vd = V/2 w = Vd  V oil
100
 d = 1/2 g/cc 0.5
oil   oil = 1.25g / cc
0. 4

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Illustration - 7 A piece of an alloy is made up of two metals A and B whose specific gravities are 11.4 and
7.4. The alloy weighs 96 gm in air and loses 10 gms when immersed in water. Find the % composition of the
alloy

SOLUTION :
Let m = mass of metal A (in grams) in the alloy Assuming that alloy piece is fully immersed
96 – m = mass of metal B in the alloy.  m 96  m 
10 g     1.g [dw = 1 g/cc]
Total volume of the piece = VA + VB  11.4 7. 4 

m 96  m Solving for m, we get :

Total volume = 
11.4 7.4 m = 62.7 gm = mass of A
Loss in weight = buoyant force  mass of B = 33.3 gm
% of A = 65.3% and % of B = 34.7%

Illustration - 8 A cubical block of wood 10 cm along each side floats at the interface between an oil and
water with its lowest surface 2 cm below the interface. If the heights of oil and water columns are 10 cm each
and oil = 0.8 g/cc, find :
(a) the mass of the block (b) the liquid pressure at the lower surface of the block

SOLUTION :

m = 640 + 200
m = 840 gm
(b) The pressure at the lower surface of the cube
= Poil + Pw
10 2
(a) For the floating cube : 
100

 0.8  103 9.8  
100

 1  103 9.8 
Weight of cube = buoyant force
N
mg = Boil + Bwater  980
m2
2 2
mg = 8  10  oil g + 2  10 w  g (hoil = 10 cm)
 m = 800  0.8 + 200  1 (hw = 2 cm above the lower surface)

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Illustration - 9 A cube of wood supporting a 200 gm mass just floats is the water. When the mass is
removed the cube rises by 2 cm. What is the size of the cube ?

SOLUTION :

The cube “just floats”  means that it is fully under When the mass is removed
water while floating.
mg = ( – 2) l 2 g . . . .(ii)
Let m be the mass of the cube
Subtracting (ii) from (i)
 (m + 200) g = l3 g . . . .(i)
200 =  [l 3 – (l – 2) l 2]
 l = 10 cm (using  = 1g/cc for water)

Illustration - 10 A glass sphere has a cavity inside it. When placed in water, it floats with 20 % of its volume
above the water surface. Find the volume of the cavity as a fraction of total volume.(density of glass = 2.5
g/cc)

SOLUTION :
Let the total volume of the sphere = Vcc
wt. of the sphere = buoyant force
80
(mass of glass) g  V g
100
80 V
Volume of glass  d =
100
If the volume of the cavity in v cc
then the volume of the glass = (V – v) cc
(V – v) d = 0.8 V
V v
 0.32
V
v
 0.68
V
volume of the cavity is 68% of total volume.

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Illustration - 11 A glass stopper weights 2.5 gm in air, and 1.5 gm in water and 0.7 gm in sulphuric acid.
What is the density of the acid ?

SOLUTION :
Let V be the total volume of the glass stopper dg In acid :
be the density of glass. Let w and a be the Apparent wt. = 0.7 gm
densities of water and acid respectively.
Vdg – Vag = 0.7 g
wt. in air = 2.5 gm . . . . (i)
Vag = 2.5g  0.7 g
In water :
Va g = 1.8 g . . . . (iii)
Apparent wt. = 1.5 gm
Vdg – B = 1.5 g From (ii) and (iii)

Vdg – Vw g = 1.5 g a

 1. 8
w
From (i)
 a = 1.8 g/cc
Vw g = 2.5 g  1.5 g
Vw g = 1 g . . . . (ii)

Illustration - 12 A steel ball of mass 0.25 kg is dropped on the surface of water is tank. If the depths of the
water in the tank is 3 m, find the time after which the ball touches the bottom of the tank. (density of steel =
8.0 g/cc)

SOLUTION :
Let ‘a’ be the acceleration of the ball
mg  B = ma
Vdg Vg = Vda
 
a  1   g
 d
 1
a  1   g
 8
7
Thus a g
8
Using S = ut + 1/2 at2
1 7
30   g t2
2 8
 
48
t t = 0.836 s
7g

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Illustration - 13 A hydrometer consists of a spherical bulb and a cylindrical stem of cross-section 0.4 cm2.
The total volume of bulb and stem is 13.2 cm3. When immersed in water the hydrometer floats with 8 cm of
the stem above the water surface. In alcohol, 1 cm of the stem is above the surface. Find the density of the
alcohol.

SOLUTION :

Let V = total volume of hydrometer = 13.2 cm3

A = area of cross - section of stem = 0.4 cm2
W = weight of hydrometer,
 = density of hydrometer,
1 = density of alcohol

In water :
Weight = buoyant force
W = (V8A) g . . . .(i)
In alcohol :
Weight buoyant force
W = (V – 1A) 1g . . . .(ii)

From (i) and (ii),

(V – 8A)g = (V – 1A)1g

 13.2  3.2 
   1g  1g 1 = 0.781 g/cm3
 13.2  0.4 

Note : In general, if x1 the length of stem above surface in liquid 1 and x2 is the length of stem above the surface in
liquid 2, enter (V – x1A) 1 = (V  x2A)2

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HYDRODYNAMICS Section - 3

Bernoull i’s Theorem

At all the points along a streamline of an ideal liquid (incompressible and non viscous), the sum of pressure
head the gravitational head and the velocity head remains constant.

P v2
  h = constant
 g 2g

Venturi Meter :
This is an instrument for measuring the rate of flow of a liquid and gases [fluids]
The instrument is connected horizontally in the tube in which the rate of flow is to be measured.
If PA is pressure at A and PB is pressure at B
PA – PB = h g
[h : difference of heights of liquids of density  in vertical tubes]
V1 : velocity at A; V2 : velocity at B

Equation of Continuity :
Rate of flow (Q) = (Area of crossection)  (velocity) = Av
For streamline flow at any two points 1 and 2, Q is same.
i.e. Q = A1 V1 = A2 V2
(A1 and A2 are area of cross – section at A and B)
This is called equation of continuity.
Now applying Bernoulli’s equation at A and B in two cases (i.e. liquid, gas) separately.

For Liquids :
V2 V2
PA   1  PB   2
2 2
2 2
V22  V12   PA  PB   h g
 
2 2
 V2 – V1 = 2hg (Q = AV)
2hg
 Q  A1 A2
A12  A22

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For Gases :
Let d be the density of gas
PA – PB = hg

V2 V2
PA  d 1  PB  d 2
2 2
2h  g
V22  V12 
d

2h g
Q  A1 A2

d A12  A22 
Pitot Tube :
Pitot tube is used for measure the speed of flow of a fluids.
The cross-section of tube at B is perpendicular to the direction of flow and tube is at rest, so that at B,
velocity of fluid becomes zero, i.e. VB = 0.
Let V be velocity of fluid at A and PA and PB are pressure.
 PB  PA = gh where  is density of liquid in vertical.
For liquids :
If points A and B are in the same horizontal line and area of cross-section is same at A and B , gravitational
head is same and the pressure difference is due to difference is velocity.
Apply Bernoulli’s theorem at A and B.
1
PA  V 2  PB  0
2
2  PB  PA 
V2

2  PB  PA 
V

 2gh

V  2 gh

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For Gases :
Let  be density of liquid in vertical tube
PB  PA = hg
Apply Bernoulli’s theorem at A and B
1
PA  dV 2  PB
2
2  PB  PA 
V2 
d
2h  g
V2 
d
2h  g
V
d

Velocity of Efflux
Let us find the velocity with which liquid comes out of a hole at a depth below the liquid surface.
Using Bernoulli’s’ theorem,
1 1
PA  V A2   ghA  PB  VB2   ghB
2 2
1 1
Patm  V A2   gh  Patm  V 2  0
2 2
(Note : PB = Patm, because we have opened the liquid to atmosphere)
V 2 = VA2 + 2 gh
We also have AVA = av (using equation of continuity)
A : area of cross-section of vessel
A : area of hole

a2
 V2  V 2  2 gh
2
A

2 gh
 V  2 gh (if the hole is very small)
1  a 2 / A2

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Illustration - 14 If water flows horizontally through a pipe of varying cross-section and pressure of water
equals 10 cm of Hg at a point where the velocity of flow is 40 cm/s, what is the pressure at another point,
where the velocity of flow is 50 cm/s ?

SOLUTION :
For horizontal pipe, gravitational head is same at [Dhg = 13.6 g/cc]
two points, so using Bernaullis theorem,
V2 = 50 cm/s
P 1V2 P 1 V22 and  = 1 g/cc
h 1  1  h 2 
g 2 g g 2 g
10  13.6  980 1 2 P 1 2
(P1 and P2 : Pressure at two points. V1 and V2 :    40   2   50 
1 2 1 2
Velocities of water at two points)
P2 = 1.328  105 dynes/cm2
P1 1 2 P2 1 2 P2 = 9.97 cm of Hg
 V1   V2
 2  2
P1 = 10  13.6  980 CGS units

Illustration - 15 A pipe is running full of water. At a certain point A it tapers from 60 cm diameter to 2.0 cm
diameter at B. The pressure difference between A and B is 100 cm of water column. Find the rate of water
through the pipe.

SOLUTION :

Using the formula :

2  PA  PB 
Q  A1 A2
 A12  A22 
Diameter of tube of A = 60 cm Substitute the values
radius at A = rA = 30 cm 2  100  1  980 
Q = (900) (100)
radius at B = rB = 10 cm
area of cross-section at A =  (30)2 cm2 = A1
9002  2 1002  2 
area of cross-section at B =  (10)2 cm2 = A2 Q = 4.42 m2/s
PA  PB  100 cm of H2O
= 100  1  980 dynes/cm2

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Illustration - 16 A pilot tube is fixed in a water pipe of diameter 10 cm, and difference of pressure by the
gauge is 9.8 cm of water column. Calculate the rate of flow of water.

SOLUTION :
In pilot tube, velocity of liquids is given by 2gh Q = Av = r2v
= 3.14  52  138.6
V  2  980  9.8
= 10.88 lt/s
= 138.6 cm/s

Illustration - 17 Water is used as the manometeric liquid in a pilot tube mounted in aircraft to measure air
speed. If the maximum difference in height between the liquid columns is 0.1 m, what is the maximum airspeed
that can be measured ? ddir = 1.3 kg/m3

SOLUTION :
For gases, velocity is given by

2h g 2  0.1  1000  9.8

v   38.83 m / s
d 1.3

Illustration - 18 Water stands at depth H in a tank whose sides are vertical. A

hole is made in one of the walls at a depth h, below the water surface.
Calculate :
(i) range of emerging stream
(ii) value of h for which this range is maximum.

SOLUTION :
(i) When liquid stream emerges out of the hole, it (ii) From previous part,
goes along a parabolic path. So time taken by Horizontal range
water to fall through a height of (H – h) is given
R  4h  H  h 
as :

 H  h  0  t 
1 2
gt  4hH  4 h 2  H 2  H 2
2 2
 H 2   2h  H 
2 H  h
t For the range to be maximum,
g
Horizontal range = V  t (2h – H)2 = 0

2 H  h 2h – H = 0
 2 gh  4h  H  h  h = H/2
g

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Illustration - 19 A vessel contains water upto a height H.A small hole is made in the side wall at a depth h
below the water level. Find :
(a) The value of h for which the water jet coming out hits the ground at a maximum distance from the
vessel.
(b) The reaction force exerted on the vessel by the water jet.

SOLUTION :

(a) Velocity of efflux at a depth h below the free surface

= V  2 gh

2  H  h
range = R = vt  v
g
 
4 Hh  h 2 
Hh – h2 is maximum for h = H/2
(b) Momentum of water coming out per sec.
= reaction (back) force on vessel

P m
 F  v   A v   v = av2  = 2 Agh
t t
Illustration - 20 Water flows out of a big tank along a tube bent at right angles;
the inside of the tube is of radius r = 0.5 cm. The length of the horizontal portion is
l = 22 cm. The water flows rate is Q = 0.5 lt/sec.
Find the moment of reaction force of flowing water, acting on the tubes walls
relative to the point O.

SOLUTION :

Velocity of flow V  Q Torque about O = Fl

 r2
Reaction force = Av2  Q2
=  0.7 Nm
2 2  r2
 Q  Q
 F   r2    
2
r   r2

NOW ATTEMPT IN-CHAPTER EXERCISE-B BEFORE PROCEEDING AHEAD IN THIS EBOOK

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SURFACE TENSION Section - 4

Angle of Contact :
If a plate of glass is dipped in water with its side vertical, then water is drawn up along the plane and assumes
the curved shape as shown.

If the glass plate is immersed in mercury, the surface is curved and the mercury is depressed below.
If the plate is dipped in water with its side vertical, the water is drawn-up along the plane and assumes the
curved shape as shown.
The angle between the tangent to the liquid surface at the point of contact and the solid surface
inside the liquid is called the “angle of contact”.
When a capillary tube is put inside a liquid :
When a glass tube is put in water, then forces acting upon a mol-
ecule A of the liquid have been shown in diagram.
Fa : adhesive force between solid and liquid
Fc : cohesive force between liquid molecules
( may be taken at 45 with wall of tube)

Case - I :
Fa = Fc sin 45
The resultant is drawn downwards and the surface will be plane.

Case - II :
Fa > Fc sin 45 resultant R lies outside the liquid.
The liquid surface being perpendicular to R is concave.
(e.g. H2O)

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Case - III :
Fa < Fc sin 45, resultant R lies inside the liquid.
The liquid surface, being perpendicular to R is convex.
(e.g. Hg)

Pressure Difference across a liquid surface :

Due to surface tension, pressure difference exists on the two sides of a liquid surface.

If surface is plane If surface is concave If surface in convex

P1 = P2 P1 > P2 P1 < P2
Pressure difference = 0
Note : Whenever we cross a convex surface (from convex to concave side),
2
we get a rise of pressure equal to .
r
P3 > P2 > P1
2
P3 – P2=
r
2 4
P2  P1   P3  p1 
r r

2
 excess pressure across the liquid surface (ONE SURFACE) =
r
where r : radius of curvature of surface
 : surface tension of liquid.

 for a soap bubble, there are two surfaces

4
 excess pressure (p) =
r

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Capillarity :
When an open capillary (glass tube of very small diameter) is put
into a liquid, liquid either rises or falls.

Reason : When the liquid comes is contact with solid, surface

tension forces make the surface curved. The pressure outside is
atmospheric whereas the pressure just below the curved surface of
liquid is larger (for convex surfaces) orsmaller (for concave surfaces)
than atmospheric. Thus liquid falls (convex surface) or rises (concave
surface) till the pressure is equalised.

 If a capillary of radius R be immersed in a liquid of surface tension , the liquid rises (or falls) to height
(or depth) h.
If r : radius of curvature of meniscus ,  : density of liquid and Patm atmospheric pressure.
PA = PB (in same horizontal line)

2
Patm   h g  Patm
r

2σ
 h=
r ρg

In terms of R (radius of tube)

C : centre of curvature of meniscus
 : angle of contact

R
 r 
cos 

2σ
h=
r ρg

2  cos 
 h
R g

Capillary rise in a tube of insufficient length :

If the actual height to which a liquid will rise in a capillary tube is ‘h’ then a
capillary tube of length less than ‘h’ can be called a tube of “insufficient length”.

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In such a case, liquid rises to the top of the capillary tube of length  ( < h)
and adjusts the radius of curvature of its meniscus until the excess pressure is
equalised by the pressure of liquid column of length . (Note liquid does not
overflow)
2σ
 =g . . . . .(i)
r
r: new radius of curvature
If r were the actual radius of curvature,
2σ
 =hg . . . . .(ii)
r
Comparing (i) and (ii)

2
 g = r = hr   r = h r


hr
 r  i.e. radius of curvature r can be calculated.


Note : In case of mercury, calculations are same.

Illustration - 21 Calculate the work done in blowing a soap bubble of radius 10 cm, surface tension being
0.03 N/m. What additional work will be performed in further blowing it so that its radius is doubled ?

SOLUTION :
In forming bubble, a free surface is created and therefore work has to be done. The free surface area of a
bubble of radius r is (2  4 r2) : twice due to two free surfaces.
 Work done is blowing a bubble of radius r ;
W1 = (8   r2)  ( : surface tension)
= 8    (0.1)2  0.03
= 7.45  10 3 N/m
 Work done is forming a bubble of radius 20 cm ;
W2 = 8    (0.2)2  0.03
= 30.16  103 N-m
 Addition work = W2  W1 = 22.62  10 3 N-m

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Illustration - 22 Find the work done in spraying a spherical drop of 1 mm radius into 106 droplets of equal
size, of water = 0.072 N/m.

SOLUTION :
1 drop  106 small drops  Increase in surface area
 there will be an increase in surface area = 4 (106. r2  R2 )
Work done =   increase in surface area
= 4 [106  (10 5)2  (10 3 )2 ]
If r be radius of one drops (small) and R be the
radius of bigger drop = 3.96  10 4  m2.
4 4   Work done =   (3.96  10 4) 
  R 3    r 3   106
3  3 
= 0.072  3.96  10– 4  3.14
R3 10 3 3
 3
r   = 1015 = 8.96  10– 5 J.
106 106
 r = 10 5 m.

Illustration - 23 Find the difference in air pressure between inside and outside of a soap bubble 5 mm in
diameter.  (soap solution) = 1.6 N/m.

SOLUTION :
4
Excess Pressure (P) = for soap bubble
r
4  1.6
 P=5 = 2560 N/m2
 10 3
2

Illustration - 24 The pressure of air in a soap bubble of diameter 0.7 cm is 8 mm of water above atm.
Calculate the surface tension of soap solution.

SOLUTION :
P = (8  10 3)  (1  103) (9.8) N/m2. [P = hdg]
4 Pr
Excess pressure P =  σ =
r 4

  =
8  10 3  1  103   9.8  0.7


 102 
4  2 
= 0.0686 N/m.

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Illustration - 25 What would be the pressure inside a small air bubble of 104 m radius situated just below
water surface ?  water = 0.072 N/m ; 1atm = 1.013  105 N/m2.

SOLUTION :
Excess pressure in air bubble

2 2  0.072
=  = 1440 N/m2
r 10 4
As bubble is just below water, so total pressure inside the bubble
= 1440 + atm. pressure
= 1440 + 1.013  105 = 102740 N/m2

Illustration - 26 What is the pressure inside a vapour bubble of radius 10 3m in boiling water ?  water at
100C = 0.059 N/m.1 atm. pressure = 1.01325 105 N/m2.

SOLUTION :
Proceeding in same manner as done is last example.
As bubble is in boiling water, external pressure on it will be equal so atmospheric pressure.
 Pressure in vapour bubble
2
= + Patm
r
2  0.059
= + 101325 = 101443 N/m2
10 3

Illustration - 27 A ring is cut from a platinum tube 8.5 cm internal and 8.7 cm external diameter supported
horizontally from the pan of a balance so that it comes in contact with water in a glass vessel. It is found that
an extra weight of 3.97 gm is required to pull the ring out of water. Find  of water.

SOLUTION :
As force of surface tension acts along the length force of surface tension = extra weight
so,
L =W
 8.5 8.7 
L = 2    = 2 (8.6) cm.  (2 (8.6)   = 3.97  981)
 2 2 
CGS units

  = 0.72 N/m.

[converted to SI units]

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Illustration - 28 A soap film is formed on a rectangular frame of length 7 cm dipped into soap solution. The
frame work hangs from a balance and an extra weight of 0.4 gm is placed to balance the pull of the film. Find
the surface tension.

SOLUTION :
 Force of surface tension =  L
  L = extra weight in the par
 2 L = W

W 0.4  981
 =  = 28 dynes/cm
2L 72
Length of soap film = Length of frame = L
= 0.028 Nm–1.

Illustration - 29 If a number of little drops of water, all of same radius r cm, coalesce to form a single
3 1 1 
drop of radius R cm, show that the rise in temperature of water will be given by    . J = me-
J r R
chanical equivalent of heat.

SOLUTION :

Let there are n number of drops. 
= 4   n r 2  R 2 J
The decrease in surface area = 4 [nr2  R2]
3  n r 2 1
  = J  3  R
 Work done =  4   n r 2  R 2     R 
4 4
4 Find n. n .   r 3    R3

J
 nr 2  R2   m s  (Using W = JH) 3 3
3
R
4 2   n 
m =   R .   ; s =1 for water ; r
3 
 = 1 for water. 3  R3  r 2  1  3 1 1 
 =  3  3     r  R 
4  J r  R  R J
3
   R . 
3 

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Illustration - 30 Two spherical soap bubbles unite to form one spherical soap bubble without any leak-
age of air. Show that : 3Pdv + 4ds = 0.P : atmospheric pressure ; dv and ds are the resulting change in
volume and surface area respectively and  is surface tension.

SOLUTION :
r1 and r2 = radii of soap bubbles ;  4   4 3   4   4 3 
  P     r1    P    r 
 r1   3   r2   3 2 
R = radius of big bubble
 4   4 3
P1 and P2 = pressures in side the two bubbles  P    R 
 R  3 
4 4
P1 = P + r ; P2 = P + r 4 4 4 
1 2  P   r13   r23   R3 
3 3 3 
4
P3 = pressure inside new bubble = P +
R 4
  4 r12  4 r22  4 R 2  = 0
4 4 3
V1   r13 ; V2   r23 ;
3 3  Pdv + (4/3)  ds = 0
4 3 4 [dv = change in volume and ds
V3   r3   R 3
3 3 = change in surface area]
 3 Pdv + 4 ds = 0
At constant temperature, Boyle’s Law is applied.
 P1V1 + P2V2 = P3V3

Illustration - 31 Water rises to a height of 10 cm in a certain capillary tube. In the same tube, the level of
Hg is depressed by 3.42 cm. find the ratio of surface tensions of water and Hg. The angle of contact for water
is zero and that for Hg is 135.

SOLUTION :
10
2 cos  1
Rise (or depression) in height = h = r  g 1   1 
  cos 135  
3.42  2
r gh 13.6 
  cos 135
2 cos 
1 h1 (For depression h2 =  3.42 cm)
1 cos 1 1
    0.1522
2 2 h2 2
cos  2

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Illustration - 32 A glass tube of 1 mm diameter bore is dipped with its lower end 2 cm below the surface of
mercury. What must be the gauge pressure of air to blow a hemispherical bubble at its lower end ? ( for Hg
= 0.49 N/m.)

SOLUTION :
2
 Pair  = Patm + h g
r
2
 Pair for bubble = Patm + hg +
r
 Gauge pressure of air required
= Pair  Patm
 2 
Going to point A from inside the tube, =  Patm  h  g    Patm
 r 
2 2
PA = Pair  = h g 
r r
2  0.49 
Going to point A from inside the mercury, =  2  102  13.6  103  9.8 
0.5  103
PA = Patm + hg
= 4625.6 N/m2

Illustration - 33 A glass vessel has a minute hole of diameter 0.1 mm at the bottom. What is the maximum
depth of water which the vessel can hold without leakage.( = 72 dynes/cm)

SOLUTION :

2
PA + h g  = PB
r
But PA = PB = Patm
2σ
Hence hρg=
r
Starting from A and moving downwards to B, 2
 h= = 29.4 cm
while adding algebraically the pressure changes, r g
we get :

Note : When we cross a meniscus from concave to convex side, a pressure drop of 2/r occurs (and vice-versa).

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Illustration - 34 What is the maximum height of water column which a capillary of diameter 2r can hold
without leaking ? The capillary is open at both ends.

SOLUTION :
When water is filled in the open capillary, two
meniscuses are formed one at top and the other
at bottom end. Again going from A to B and
adding pressure changes, we get :
2 2
PA   h g  = PB
r r
and PA = PB = Patm.
2 2
 h g  
r r

4
 h
r g

Illustration - 35
A U - tube is such that the diameter of one of the limbs is 0.4 mm and that of the other is
0.8 mm.
(a) Find the pressure just below the meniscus in both limbs.
(b) Compute in which limb the level of liquid would be higher and
by how much if the liquid density in 103 kg/m3. for water,  = 0.07 N/m

SOLUTION :
 more liquid goes to B (low pressure) and
hence level is higher in B (i.e. narrow
limb)
Equating pressures at bottom of each limb,

2 2
Patm   h1  g  Patm   h2  g
r1 r2
2 2  0.07  1 1
PA  Patm   Patm    h2  h1   g  2   
r1 0.8  103  r2 r1 
2 2  0.07  2  1 1 
PB  Patm   Patm   h2 h1=level difference =   
r2 0.4  103  g  r2 r1 
PA > PB (Note that if liquid is Hg i.e. convex menis-
cus, level is higher in wider limb)

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Illustration - 36 Two soap bubbles (radii a, b) combine to form a single bubble of radius r. If external

p  r 3  a 3  b3 
pressure is p0, show that   0   . (Assume isothermal process)
4  a 2  b2  r 2 

SOLUTION :
P1V1 + P2V2 = PV

 4  4 3  4 4 3  4  4 3
  P0    a   P0    b   P0   r
 a  3  b 3  r  3

VISCOSITY Section - 5

The property by virtue of which a liquid opposes relative motion between its different layers is called
viscosity.
 The resistive viscous force exerted by the liquid is given by :
dv
F   A
dx
Where  : coefficient of viscosity (eta)

dv
: velocity gradient; [] = ML1 T–1 Units of  = poise (CGS) = Nm–2s (SI)
dx
A : area of layer
  is defined as tangential force (viscous) per unit area acting between layers of liquid is which unit
velocity gradient is maintained.
 1 Poise is the tangential force per unit area offered by a liquid layer to create a unit velocity gradient.

Steady flow :
When liquid velocity at any point is constant is magnitude and direction at all times, the motion of the liquid
is said to be steady.
 Every particle of a steadily flowing liquid follows exactly the same
path that has been followed by the particles preceding it, the flow is
said to be stream-lined. The path is known as a “stream line”.
 1, 2, 3 : streamline ; if a liquid follows a path ABC, particles follow-
ing it move along the same path.

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Turbulent flow :
When the velocity exceeds a certain value, the nature of flow becomes
complicated. Random, irregular, local circular currents (called
VORTICES) develop throughout the fluid. The resistance to the flow
increases tremendously. This type of flow is called Turbulent flow.
Reynold Number
VD
NR 

 : coefficient of viscosity
NR : Reynold Number
 : density of liquid
D : diameter of tube
V : Velocity of liquid
 If NR > 3000, flow is said a be turbulent
 If 2000 < NR < 3000, flow is streamlined.
 If NR < 2000, flow is called laminas flow
 In non-viscous liquids, velocities of all layers are equal.

 In viscous fluids, if the velocities are not too large, flow is laminar. The layers at the centre have
maximum velocity. Layers is contact with tube have minimum velocity (zero)

Poisseuille’s Formula
In a horizontal pipe of uniform cross sectional area, to maintain the flow of a various liquid, a pressure
difference is required across the ends of the tube. The liquid flow is given by :

 P1  P2  r 4
Q
8 

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Stoke’s Law
The viscous force on a sphere of radius r, velocity, v through a liquid having coefficient of viscosity  is
called Stoke’s Force and its magnitude is given by F = 6  rv .
 The terminal velocity v of the sphere (when sphere is moving down with zero acceleration) is given
2 r2
by v  d    g
9
where d : density of material of sphere and  : density of fluid.

Illustration - 37
A square metallic plate having 5 cm length is placed on a layer of oil having a thickness of
0.1 cm. Calculate the value of the tangential force required to move the plate with a velocity of 5 cm/s.The
coefficient of viscosity  is 0.8 N-s/m2 (MKS units).

SOLUTION :
The force required to move the plate is equal to dv relative velocity of plate
Here, 
the viscous drag on the plate : dx thickness of oil layer
dv
F =  A 5  102
dx
= = 0.5 per sec
“ve sign for viscous drag” 0.1  102
dv
= velocity gradient A = (side)2 = (5  10 2)2
dx
A = area of surface  F =  0.8  (5  10 2)2  50
=  1  10 1 N
 Viscous drag is 1  10 1 N

Illustration - 38 In a certain to study the flow of liquid out of a capillary, following data were obtained :
Volume of liquid coming out of tube per sec = 15 cc ; head of liquid (h) = 30 cm ; length of tube = 25 cm ;
radius of tube = 1.0 mm, density of liquid = 2.3 g/ml. Find the coefficient of viscosity of the liquid flowing in
the tube.

SOLUTION :
The purpose of example is to explain ‘Poiseuille’s r = 1 mm = 0.1 cm ;  = 25 cm ;
formula’ for liquid flow. V = 15 mL ; t = 1 min. = 60 sec.
 p r 4t
  3.14  30  2.3  980   0.14  60 
8v   
8  15  25
P = hdg = 30  2.3  980 (CGS units)  = 0.4247 CGS units.

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Illustration - 39 Water flows in a horizontal tube of length 13.6 cm and radius 0.1 mm. The pressure
difference between the two ends of the tube is balanced by 10 cm of Hg column. dhg = 13.6  103 kg/m3, 
(water) = 0.1 MKS units, find the volume of water flowing out of the tube in l min

SOLUTION :
P = 0.1  13.6  103  9.81  P r 4t  P r4t
   V 
8V  8 
r = 1  10 4 m ; t = 60 sec.
Substitute the values to find V = 23.10  10 10
 = 0.136 m ; V = ?
m3

Illustration - 40 Find the terminal velocity obtained by a rain drop of radius 3 mm falling through air of
viscosity. 8  10 8 S.I Units . Neglect density of air.

SOLUTION :
Stoke’s Law is applied here. w = 1  103 kg/m3.

4 3 2 r2
6   r v =  r     g  v g
3 9
2
Neglecting “”
=

2 310
3

1 103  9.8 
 = 1.8  10 8 ; r = 3 mm 9 1.8  108
= 3  10 3 m = 1.088  106 m/s.

Illustration - 41 Find the terminal velocity of steel ball, 2 mm in diameter, falling through glycerine
(glycerine = 1.3 g/cc) steel = 8.3 g/cc, (glycerine) = 8.3 poise

SOLUTION :
2 2   
v gr  
9   

(  ) = (8.3  1.3) = 7
 = 8.3
r = 0.1 cm
2
2 980   0.1  7
 v 
9 8.3
= 1.83 cm/s.

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Illustration - 42 An air bubble of radius 1 cm rises steadily through water of density 1 g/cc at the rate of 0.2
cm/s. Calculate the coefficient of viscosity of water. (Neglect the density of air) [ g = 981 cm/s2]

SOLUTION :
2       = neglected.
 g r2  
9  v  r = 1 cm.
 = 1 g/cc
2 981  1
   
9 0.2
= 1.09  103 poise.
Illustration - 43 Two drops of water of the same size are falling through air with terminal velocities of 10
cm/s. If the two drops combine to form a single drop, what will be the terminal velocity ?

SOLUTION :
Volume of new drop = vol. of two drops.
4 4
3
 R3  2   r 3
3
  R : radius of new drop

r : radii of each small drop

 R3 = 2r3 . . . . .(i)

Each drop acquires a velocity equal to its terminal velocity, when viscous force (6 rv) acting on it
equals its effective wt. let V and v be the velocities of new and old drops respectively
6  rv = 4/3 r 3 (   ) g . . . . .(ii)
6RV = 4/3 R3 (   ) g . . . . .(iii)

RV R3
 
r r3

RV
 2 [From equation (i)]
r
V 2
   22 / 3
 21/ 3

 V = 22/3 : v = 22/3  10 = 15.9 cm/s.

NOW ATTEMPT IN-CHAPTER EXERCISE-C BEFORE PROCEEDING AHEAD IN THIS EBOOK

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SUBJECTIVE SOLVED EXAMPLES

Example - 1 Find the net downward thrust on the curved surface of a bucket full of water of height h
and radii a and b.

SOLUTION :
Consider an element of ht. dx. at depth x below surface.

Area = 2  r (AB)
dx  ba 
 2 r  where tan   
cos   h 

 b  a 
AD  BC  2r  2 b    x
  h  

thrust  F   dF sin 

h
2 r
 x g dx sin 
cos 
0

 bh 2  b  a  h3 
 2 tan      g
 2  h  3 

b  2a
 2 gh b  a 
6

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Example - 2 The figure shows a cross-sectional view of a

masonry dam whose length perpendicular to the diagram in 30
m. The depth of water behind the dam is 10 m, The masonry of
which the dam is constructed has a density of 3000 kg/m3.
(a) Find the dimensions x and 2x if the weight of the dam is
to be 10 times the horizontal force exerted on it by water.
(b) Check the stability of the dam with respect to its
overturning about the edge through point O.

SOLUTION :
(a) Weight of dam = volume  density Anticlockwise torque exerted by weight of dam
1   11  11
=   x  2 x 12  30  3000 kg  W  x   162  162 104  x 2 g
2  9  9
= 1620000  kgf = 169.78  106 g
Horizontal thrust due to water in kgf Clockwise torque due to liquid thrust about O,
(on a vertical surface) = pressure at G  area
o    dF 10  x 
1 3
=  10  g  10  (30  10) 10
2
= 15  106 kgf.    x  g  30dx 10  x 
According to problem, 0

1620000 x = (15  106)

 x = 9.26 m and 2x = 18.52 m.
(b) Let G be the centre of gravity of dam. Taking O
as origin and left as + X-axis,
A x A x
x 1 1 2 2 10
A1  A2 x3
 30  g 5 x 2 
3x 2x 3
12 x   6 x  0
x 2 3  11 x
12 x  6 x 9 = 5000 g
= 5  106 g
As the torque due to liquid thrust is less than
that due to weight of dam, the dam is stable.

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Example - 3 A rod of length 6m has a mass of 12kg. It is hinged at one end of the rod at a distance of
3m below the water surface.
(a) What must be the weight (Point mass) of a block that is attached to the other end of the rod so that 5
m of the rod’s length is under water ?
(b) Find the magnitude and direction of the force exerted by the hinge on the rod. The specific gravity of
the material of rod is 0.5.

SOLUTION :

(5A) g (2.5) = (6A) dg (3) + W (6)

6W
103 (5  1  2.5) = 103 (6  0.5  3) +
Ag

mass of rod = 12 kg = (6A) 0.5  103

4m2
 A
Let w = weight attached at the end Q. 1000
X, Y = components of force exerted by hinge P 3.5  4  9.8
 W
on the rod. 6
= 2.33  9.8
B = buoyant force acting at the centre of
buoyancy B0 (mid point of submerged portion) = 22.83 N (or 2.33 kg)
G = weight of rod, acting at centre of gravity G0 Y=G+WB
( = angle of rod with vertical) = (6A dg) + 2.33g  (5A g)
=  5.66 g
Balancing forces :
 The horizontal component of force by
B + Y = G + W and X = 0 hinge = X = 0 and vertical component
Balancing torque about P = 5.66 kg acting downwards.
B sin  (PB0) = G sin  (PG0) + W sin  (PQ)
B sin  (2.5) = G sin (3) + W sin  (6)

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Example - 4 A horizontally oriented tube AB of length l rotates with a

consant angular velocity  about a stationary vertical axis passing through the
end A. The tube is filled with an ideal liquid and the end a is open. Find the
pressure just inside the tube at B as function of the length of liquid column h.

SOLUTION :
Pressure force = ( A dx) 2 x
PB l
 dp  A     A 2 xdx
PO l h

Consider element of length dx at distance x from  2  2

PB  P0  l  (l  h)2  [ P0  Patm ]
centre. Let p and P + dp be the pressures at its 2  
left and sides.
This is the pressure just inside the tube at B.

Example - 5 A cylinder containing water is rotated about its vertical axis with a constant angular
velocity . Find.
(a) the water pressure distribution over the bottom of the vessel along its radius provided the pressure at
the central point is P0.
(b) the shape of the surface of water.

SOLUTION :
dp = x2dx
P r

 dp    dx
P0 0
P = P0 + 1/2 2r2
(b) We can see that pressure at a distance r from
axis at a point A is : P = P0 + y g
(a) Consider a cylindrical shall of radius x and where y is height of free surface of liquid above
thickness dx as shown. Let P and P + dP be the pt. A
pressure on the inner and outer surfaces of this
element. 2 2
 P0 + yg = P0 + 1/2 2x2  y  x
Let A = c.s. area of element 2g
= 2xh (h : hight) which is the equation of parabola will vertex at
pressure force inwards = (dp)A O. Hence free surface of liquid is a parabola or
= centripetal force requird strictly speaking it is the paraboloid of revolution
(dp) A = (dm)2 x (surface generated by rotating a parabola around
(dp) A = (Adx) 2x its axis).

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Example - 6 A cylindrical vessel of area of cross-section A is filled with a liquid upto a height H. A very
small hole of area of cross-section a is made at the bottom of vessel. Find the time taken by the vessel to
become empty.

SOLUTION :
At the hole, volume escaping per sec.
 av  a 2 gy
dy
The liquid expanse with a velocity  2gh   2 gy   A
dt
which varies with the level of liquid. Hence we 0 t
have to use integral. Let y be the height of the dy a 2 g
liquid at an instant.
  y  A  dt
H 0
This height changes by dy in time dt. A
 t 2 H (assuming a  A )
Volume per second leaving out = –Ady/dt a 2g

Example - 7 A wide vessel with a small hole in the bottom is filled with water and kerosene. Find the
velocity of water flow if the thickness of water layer is h1 =30 cm and kerosene is h2 = 20 cm.

SOLUTION :

1
1 V12  Patm  0 =
2
1
1 V22  Patm   h2  2 g  h11g 
2
and av1 = Av2
Let A = area of the vessel
1  a2   h  
a = area of the hole  1 V12 1     h1  2 2  1g
Apply Bernoulli’s theorem at cross-section
2  A2   1 

1 and 2
 h  
(Just outside and just inside the Hole)  v1 ~ 2 g  h1  2 2 
 1 

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Example - 8 The side wall of wise vertical of height h = 75 cm has a narrow slit (vertical) running all
the way down to the bottom of the vessel. The length of the slit is l = 50 cm and width is b = 1 mm with the slit
closed water is filled to the top. Find the resultant reaction force of water coming out as the slit is opened.

SOLUTION :

Total relation force =  dF

h
=  2 g  b  x dx 
h
Let us consider an infinitesimal portion of length
dx of the slit at depth x below water level. 2 g b  2 2
= h  l  h 
Reaction force due to this portion 2  
= dF = Av2 = (bdx) 2gx  = g bl (2h – )

Illustration - 9 A horizontally oriented tube AB of length l rotates

with a constant angular velocity about a stationary vertical axis O1
O2 passing through the end A. The tube is filled with an ideal fluid.
The end A is open and end B has a very small hole. Find the velocity
of the fluid from hole as a function of the length of liquid column h.

SOLUTION :
We apply Bernoulli’s theorem taking two points-
one just inside the end B and other just outside
the end B.

1 2

B
From Example - 4 1 2 1
 v1  P1   v22  P2
2  2 2 2
2
PB  P0  P l   l  h   [P0 = Patm] where P1 = PB and P2 = P0 and av2 = Av1
2  
This is the pressure inside the tube at B. 1
The pressure just outside the tube at B, (in the

2
 
 v22  v12  P1  P2

liquid jet) is P0
1 2 a2  2
2
 v2 1 



A 
2 2
2hl  h2  
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1 2 dh

2
 v22  
2

2hl  h 2  A
dt
 a 2hl  h 2

t 0
 V22 2
  (2 hl  h ) 2  Adh
  dt  
0 h a 2hl  h 2
V2   2hl  h 2 Note that ‘h’ decreases with time.
Time required to empty the tube can also be
calculated

Example - 10 A horizontal cylinder of length l contains water. On the

left a constant force F pushed on the piston and on the right there is a small
hole of area a. What is the velocity of the piston ? Hence calculate the work
done in emptying the vessel in time t.

SOLUTION :

Let A = area of piston and v1 be its velocity

 F  1 2 1 2
  P0    v1  P0   v2
A  2 2

Av1 = a V2

F 1  A2 
  v12  1  
A 2  a 2 

F v12 A2

A 2 a2

2Fa 2
V1 
A3 
Now work done = F (distance) = F
 V 2 A3 
W  1 l
 2a 2 
 

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Example - 11 Two separate soap bubbles (radii = 0.002 m and 0.004 m) formed of same liquid ( = 0.07
N/m) come together to form a double bubble. Find the radius and the sense of curvature of the internal film
surface common to both the bubbles.

SOLUTION :
 P = P1  P2

4 4 4
 
r r1 r2

rr 0.002  0.004
r = radius of curvature of joint commons surface r 1 2   0.004 m
r1 and r2 be two radii (see figure on next page) r2  r1  0.004  0.002 
4 So radius of internal film surface = 0.004 m.
P1 = r
1 As the excess pressure always acts towards the
4 concave surface and the pressure in the smaller
P2 = r bubble (of radius r1) is greater than the pressure
2
in the larger bubble (of radius r2), therefore the
4
Pressure different = P = r common joint surface will be “CONCAVE”
towards the centre of the smaller bubble.
(r : radius of new curvature)

Example - 12 A fine rubber band which is in its un-stretched condition forms a circle of diameter 7.5 cm
is dropped on a soap film formed over a wire frame. When the film inside the band is broken, it stretches into
a circle of diameter 8.1 cm. If the band when cut and used as a single strand can be stretched to double its
length by a 3 gm wt, calculate the surface tension of soap film.

SOLUTION :

Elongation produced by the forces of surface

tension =  (8.1)   (7.5) cm.
 Tension in the band
3  981
= (8.1  7.5) 7.5 
K = equivalent spring constant for band i.e. force
2
3  981 T   3  981 dynes.
per unit elongation =  7.5 dynes/cm. 25
 

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By force diagram of a very small element of length (twice because film is pulling from two sides)
r d , 2
 2 r   3  981
T d = 2 (r d) 25

 T=2r 1 2 1
     3  981  dynes/cm
2 25 4.05
where  = surface tension
= 29.066 dynes/cm

Example - 13 Calculate the force required to separate two glass plates of area 0.01 m2 with film of
water 0.0 5 mm thick between them. Given : = 0.07 N/m. (Assume angle of contact is zero)

SOLUTION :
General relation :

If the radii of curvature along two mutually per-

pendicular directions are r1 and r2 then :
Pressure inside the liquid film = 1 1
p =     (concave radii are taken
   r1 r2 
Patm   Patm 
r d/2 ve)
Attractive force due to low pressure in liquid For this situation,
1 1   2
   p =      (ve means
= (p) A =   A  R d / 2  d
d / 2
these is a pressure drop inside the liquid).
 Attractive force between plates
(ii) Hence for a cylindrical surface,
2  A 2  0.07   0.01
= d   28 N
0.05  103
1 1
Note : (i) For the liquid film between the plates, the  p    
 r1 r2 
2 
pressure difference is not but 1 1  
r 2     
r  r
because it is not spherical.

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Example - 14 Two identical vessels with their bases at same level, each contains a liquid of density  .
The height of liquid in one vessel is h1 and that in the other is h2. The area at either base in A. What is the work
down by gravity is equalising the levels when the two vessels are connected ?

SOLUTION :
Let h be the level of liquid in the two vessels h1  h2
h
after being connected. In the initial position. i.e., 2
before connecting the two vessels, the sum of 2
h  h 
potential energy of the liquids in two vessels will  U 2  A g  1 2 
 2 
be given by :
A g  2 2
U1 = (Ah1 g  h1/2) + (A h2 g  h2/2)   h1  h2  2 h1h2 
4  

A g  2 2  Work done by gravity = U1  U2

U1 = h1  h2 
2  

Potential energy of the liquid, when levels are A g  2

2 h  2 h22  h12  h22  2h1h2 
equal 4  1 
A g
 h  h 2
U 2 =  A h  g     Ah  g    A  h g
=  h1  h2 2
2  2 4


Example - 15 Three capillaries of same length but internal radii 3r, 4r, 5r are connected in series and a
liquid flows through them in stream line condition. If the pressure difference across the third capillary is 8.1
mm, calculate the pressure difference across the first capillary.

SOLUTION :
4
By poiseuille’s formula  p2 r2 4   2  4r 
Q2  
8  8 
 p r4
Q 4
8v   p3 r34  3  5r 
Q3  
Let us express the volumes of liquid flowing 8  8 
through three capillaries.
Since the capillaries are connected in series, the
4
 p1 r14  1  3r  volume of liquid flowing through the three
Q1  
8  8  capillaries in same,
 V1 = V2 = V3
4 4 4
 1  3r    2  4r   3  5r 
  
8  8  8 

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 P1  81 r4 = P2  256 r4 = P3  625 r4  625 

 P1 = 8.1 
 81 
P  625 r 4 625 (P3 = 8.1 mm given)
 P1 = 3  P3 .
81 r 4 81
 P1 = 62.5 mm.

Example - 16 A conical glass capillary tube A of length 0.1 m has diameters 103 m and 5  10-4 m at
the ends. When it is just immersed in a liquid at 0C with larger diameter in contact with it, the liquid rises
to 8  10-2 m in the tube. In another cylindrical glass capillary tube B, when immersed in the same liquid at
0C, the liquid rises to 6  102 m height. The rise of liquid is tube B is only 5.5  102 m when the liquid is
at 50C. Find the rate at which the surface tension changes with temperature considering the change to be
linear. The density of the liquid is 0.72  109 mg/m3 and the angle of contact is zero. Effect of temperature
on the density of liquid and glass is negligible.

SOLUTION :
In Tube A, In Tube B
Radius at height 8 cm (r) 0 6  1012 12
 
 12
0.5  0.25  50 5.5  10 11
= (0  5  103 )   103  0.8
0.1 11 11
 103   50   0  0.084   0.077 N / m.
12 12
[Using similar triangles concept] Now rate of change of surface tension with
temperature = P
r = 0.3  10–3 m
 50   0 0.077  0.084
  per K
2 0  g hr ΔT 50
  gh or  0 
r 2
   14  105
0.72  10  9.8  0.08  0.3  103  Surface tension of liquid decreases
=
2 linearly by 14  10-5 N/m per K rise of
temperature.

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Example - 17 A glass capillary sealed at the upper end is of length 0.11 m and internal diameter
2  105 m. The tube is immersed vertically into a liquid of surface tension 5.06  102 N/m. To what length
the capillary has to be immersed so that the liquid level inside the capillary is same as outside. What happens
if the seal is now broken ?

SOLUTION :
Let capillary of tube length ‘L’ is immersed in the liquid upto length ‘‘ .
Now, the levels of liquid inside and outside the capillary will become equal only when.
P1V1 = P2V2
P1 = initial pressure in the capillary = Patm
P2 = final pressure in the capillary = gas pressure
V1 = initial volume = A  L
V2 = final volume = (L  ) A

Now P1 = Patm
2
and P2 = Patm  r : radius (internal)
r
As P1V1 =P2V2

 2 
 Patm LA   Patm    L   A
 r 
 
 L 
 =  
 1  Patm r 
 2 
Substituting values :
L = 0.11,  = 5.06  102 ,
r = 1  105 , Patm. = 1.01  105
 = 10.09 mm
Now, if the seal of capillary tube is broken, then the level of water in the tube will rise further.

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Example - 18 A bubble having surface tension T and radius R is formed

on a ring of radius r (r << R). Air is blown inside the tube with velocity v as
shown in the figure. The air molecules collide perpendicularly with the wall
the wall of the bubble and stops. Derive the expression of radius of bubble
separating from the ring.

SOLUTION :
Mass of air blown per unit time is
m = r2v

Force exerted by air is

Fair = ( r2v) v

Force of surface tension acting around the tube of radius r is

(for two surfaces)

Fsurface tension = (2r) (2T sin )

r 4π r 2T
=  2πr  2T =
R R
In the limit, bubble breaks away when
Fair = Fsurface tension

4π r 2T
i.e.  r2v2  =
R

4T
 R
 v2

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Liquids Vidyamandir Classes

THNGS TO REMEMBER

1. Pressure in a stationary liquid :

The hydrostatic pressure in a liquid increases with the depth. For a liquid of density , the total pressure at
a depth h is given by
P (pressure at the surface P0) + (pressure due to liquid column)
P = P0 + hg

2. Thrust (force) on a surface by a liquid :

(i) Uniform pressure distribution
If the liquid pressure P on this area is same every where (uniform), then thrust on the surface is given
by
F  PA

(ii) Non-uniform pressure distribution

F   PdA

3. Archimedes Principle
A body that is partially or entirely submerged in a fluid, feels an upward force equal in magnitude to the
weight of the displaced fluid.
B = v g
v = volume occupied by the solid inside the liquid
p = density of the liquid

4. Apparent Weight
When the same body is immersed in a liquid of density  the net downward force on it is :
= mg  B
= Vdg – Vg
5. Bernoulli’s Theorem
At all the points along a streamline of an ideal liquid (incompressible and non viscous), the sum of pressure
head the gravitational head and the velocity head remains constant.

P v2
  h = constant
 g 2g

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6. Velocity of Efflux
The velocity with which liquid comes out of a hole at a depth h below the liquid surface is given by

V  2 gh (If hole is very small)

7. Pressure Difference across a liquid surface :

Due to surface tension, pressure difference exists on the two sides of a liquid surface.

If surface is plane If surface is concave If surface in convex

P1 = P2 P1 > P2 P1 < P2
Pressure difference = 0

2
 excess pressure across the liquid surface (ONE SURFACE) =
r
where r : radius of curvature of surface
 : surface tension of liquid.
 for a soap bubble, there are two surfaces
4
 excess pressure (p) =
r

8. Capillarity :
When an open capillary (glass tube of very small diameter) is put into a liquid, liquid either rises or falls.

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2  cos 
h
R g

9. Viscosity
The property by virtue of which a liquid opposes relative motion between its different layers is called
viscosity.
 The resistive viscous force exerted by the liquid is given by :
dv
F   A
dx
10. Reynold Number
VD
NR 


11. Poisseuille’s Formula

 P1  P2  r 4
Q
8 

12. Stoke’s Law

The viscous force on a sphere of radius r, velocity, v through a liquid having coefficient of viscosity  is
called Stoke’s Force and its magnitude is given by F = 6  rv .
 The terminal velocity v of the sphere (when sphere is moving down with zero acceleration) is given
2 r2
by v  d    g
9
where d : density of material of sphere and  : density of fluid.

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My Chapter Notes

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Illustration - 1

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