Rethinking the Global Context“The future of anarchism must be appraised within a global context; any attempt to Jocalise it is bound to yleld a distorted outcome, The obstacles to anar- chism are, in the main, global; only their specifics are determined by local circumstances.” - Sam Mbah "To the reactionists of today we are revolutionists, but to the revolutionists of tomorrow our acts will have been those of conservatives" ~ Ricardo Flores MagonNon-Western Anarchisms Rethinking the Global Context by Jason Adams %*® Introduction The purpose of this paper is to help anarchist / anti-authoritarian movements: active today to reconceptualise the history and theary of first-warve anarchism on the global level, and to reconsider its rolevanca to the continuing anarchist project. in order to truly understand the full compleaity and interconnectedness of anarchism as a worldwide movement however, a speci: focus on the uniqueness and agency of movements amongst the *people without history" is a deeply needed change. This 's because the Ristoniogeaphy of anarchism has focused almost entirely on inese Movements as they have pertained to the paopes of tha West and the North, while movements amongst the peoples of the East and the South have been widely neg- lected. AS 2 resuil, the appearance has boén that anarchist movements have aris- ven primarily within the context of the mare privileged countries. Irocically, the truth 's that anarchism has primanly been a movement of the most expioked regions and peoples of te world. That most avallable anarchist literature does not tell this his- tory speaks not to a necessary malicious disregard of non-Westem anarchist move- iments but rather te the fact that even in the contest of radical publishing, conturies ‘of engrained eurocentrism has nol really been overcome, This has been changing to an exient however, as there hore have been several attempts in just the past decade to re-examine this history in detail in specific non-Weslem countries and segions, with works such as Arif Dirii’s Anarchiam in tha Chinese Revolution, Sam Mbah's African Anarchism and Frank Femandex' Cuban Anarchism, Iis within the footsteps of this recent tradition that this paper treads further into the relatively new ground of systematically assessing, comparing and synthesizing the findings of all of fhese studies combined with original investigation in erder to davelop a mare wholly Blobal understanding of anarchism and its history.Jason Adams - Page 3 ‘To begin our inquiry we frst must mako clear what itis that is actually meant by ire teem “Westen anarchism.” Going back to the debates within the First ‘chism is written in such a way that one Is bed to believe thal anarchism has existed ‘solely within this cantoxt, and rarely, ifever, outside of It. Tharafors, the anarchism ‘that becomes widely known Is that which has come to be identified with the West, despite its origins in the East; |, Bakunin,Non-Western Anarchisms - Page 4 hind wave theorists and writers. Thair work then becomes the standard-bearer of what anarchism actually means to most people, as it ts printed and reprinted, sold ‘and resold perennially at anarchist bookiairs, infoshops, bookstores and other places, as itis quoted and analysed, compared and debated in reading circies, aca- demic papers, at sociais, parties, demonstrations, meetings and on pickellines. Clearly, there has been a great deal of reverence in second ark Bird wave anarchist movements for this "Westar anarchism" - tho result has beon that much of anar- ‘This paper demonstrates an alternative understanding in the hope that this fate can be overcome; that anarchism, in the first quarter of the 20th century, was the largest anti-systemic movernent in almost all parts of the world, not just in the West, Upon considering thal over three quarters of the global population is situated outside ‘of the West, it quickly becomas clear that anarchism actually claimed the greatest number of adherents outside ef the West rather than within it as well. Therefore, it is fair to say that not only has anarchism been a globally significant movement from its very incaplen, has also been a primarily non-Western movereant irom its incep- tion 28 well, This basic fact was reconfimned with the rise of second wave anar- ‘chism, spanning from the late 1960s and on into the early 1970s in india, Argentina, ‘Mexico, and South Africa (Joll, 1974, pg. 171). In tum, third wave anarchism, which has risen to popularity from the late 1990s to the present, also reconfinms this in ‘resurgent movements In Brazil, Argentina, Korea, Nigeria and elsewhere. The rele- ‘vance of this particular essay, however, is to critically re-examine the first global wave of anarchism in order to enable anarchists to think more holistically and effec ively about the reievance of tha past and ils long-term affect on the present. This ahompt to critique fe narrow vision of “Westem anarchism” should of course result ina more accurate understanding of the significance and potentiality of second and third wave anarchism In both the present and the future as well, Indeed, i was & ‘Ssmilar mhotivation that drove the critique of Leninism / Stalinism that came out in the wake of the largely anarchist inspired events of May 1968, a well as the critique of Maoism that came in the wake of the Democracy Movement of the late 1970's in ‘China; both of which contributed greatly to the development of second and third wave anarchism worldwide. In working tc eritique our understanding of the past though, thera are several points thal should be kept in mind at all times. A, cursory reading inia the contextu- al history Surrounding these waves of anarchism could easily seam be to unearthing Sevoral “historical stages." For instance one might get the impression that first wave Snarchism Universally fell into decline workdwite with he fis Gf the Bolsheviks, or that the dectine of state socialism since 1989 has boon the "lyichpin" that brought anarchism beck in its third wave. White both statements are indeed true to a certain extent, the temptaton 1 syslematise and essentialise global social mavements in order to make them easier ta digest is one that should be undertaken with great careJason Adams - Page 5 ‘and discrimination; indeed, often it is. reason is Mal ene cannot ever fully understand the nuanee and complexity of the social | much of the world after the October Revolution of 117, in large sections of the Plane! this was procisety the point at which anarchism rose to a level of unpeece. Gented poputanty. in these countries this was largely dua to the saturation of anar. chist-oriontad periodicals in a particular local language - which meant of course that anarchism became the major filter tor general altemative understandings of te Nature of events in the world, ‘nother words @ rather minor variation in language and social conditions from one region of the workd to the riixt rendered any broad Statement on fhe global significance of Lenin's risa to power completely indefensible, Or, for instance, i one was to posit that primitive communism “inevitably” has given way to Feudalism, followed lockstap by capétalism, socialism and finally estimunism, that person would be rendering the entire history of hybrid Altican socialiszns non. exdstent. These attempts at ‘universal laws in the of his tay are We Sars Of tings that need ta be delberaiey reine ‘ender to under: ‘stand the significance of difference in the creation of the whale. Indeed, as Theodore how, and there aire many pattems that seem to present themsetves es a result, itis Important to remember that this connection has. also bien enérely uneven, chaotic and unpredictable. AS a resus, whal is true for one particular region is not true for ‘another, and what is tuo for a particular country within a particular region Is often not Therefore universal ving tend to crumble quite easily when put to the test of criticism. This critique becornes ‘especially simple amongst the representatives of the worst of such deterministic ‘thinking. For instance, a Sam Mbah has poiniad out, many Mandstoriented aca- mics have even gone fo such an extent aS to argue that colonialism can be under- ssinod a8 being a “good” thing as ithas allowed all parts af the workd to reach the cag alist “stage” of history, a “Hesassary" precondition of course, to te dictalorship of ‘he proletariat. In order to avold this sort of univeralistic absurdity. | have chasen io ‘ries, regions and subregions unique, with on aye as well to whol aspects they may have in common and how they have been interconnected, fis my hope that in this choice | wil have made a greater contripution to the future of the global anarchist [project by consciously choosing not to define the histories. of non-Westom societies for them. Instead | lot the individual histories speak for themselves, drawing con- nections where they actually exist, while allowing contradictions to arise freely a8 they must, (ido this delaratoly, &s this Is the approach of cne who would be an ally.Non-Western Anarchisms - Page 6 Despite my decision to avoid adopling ary one overarching theory, | hove decid- ed to focus primarily on ane particular time period; from the late 18th Century up until the end of the first quarter of the 20th Century, While second and third wave anar- chists typically describe this time period as the being the domain of wnat thay call “dassical” anarchism | argue that anarchism has afways been a decentered and diverse tradition, Rather than essantialising an entire time poriod as being of one Bersuasion of another | choose to focus insiead on the primacy of contradiction and difference, using the "wave" concept as a means of understanding the wax and wane lin ine global spread of anarchisms rather than a3 a way of defining the nature of the but rater Io the refutaton an decanstruckon of the concept of "clasi- ‘cal" anarchism asa homogenous body af ihought that can be located in a specific lime and piace, This is because | balieve that this notion of classical anarchism Pays. key role in the construction of the concept of Westar anarchism, as il is in Do are oe ee eee ed Te ani et Eee coeentoes orn Ae sever los: fence to non-Westem anarchism that such terminology is used. tronically, by focus- aon pee ere rato | aca ae peg to deconstruct the false dichotomy of ‘vs. "postmodern" currents of anarchism in order to show that sch soubor undaaionaage ee Spoone: OomneIa aE renls are ultimately awed, This is because they do not recognise anywhore naar the full spectrum of thought that has axisted on the global level in the history of anare hist ideas; nor do they recognise the direct connections between early ideas and mora recent ideas, If "Westem anarchism" Is a eurocentric construction, then of course, “non- Western" must also be somewhal problematic, By employing it, | do nat mean to give the impression that non-Waslem secieties can or should bo seon a5 some homogenous singular “world” in any sense, Not am | implying that within the West self there are not peoples who are ofiginally of ancestrally of nom-Westem societies or that these peoples have never engaged in anarchist activity, Indeed, a mace com- Facto study of non-Westem anarchisms would investigate additionally the history of ‘anarchism amongst indigenous peoples and people of colour within the borders of Western countries, However, | do make a particular point to focus on the consider. able impact global migrations and the resultant kdeological hybridity has had on the evelopment of anarchism - soma of this has even eon within the borders of the Western counties, notably Paris and Gan Francisco. Another criticism that I antick Pate is my inclusion of Lalin America in the context of this study and what exactly the tar “ihe West" is supposed fo mean here. To this question | reply that by including Latin America | am denying that the segion can be undersicod as being wholly a part of "the West" simply because much of the rogion’s populations ieentily awongly with the coloniat culture - or perhaps it could be sald that itis the colonist: re tnd kde ties them. Rather, in the tradition of Guillermo Beef! Batalla, | recognise the “deap’ indigenous conten that hoon lagoly masts sosiclos wete bom rain and lve los.Jason Adams - Page 7 ing impact this has had, and continues to have on these societies. tn this way, Latin America can indeed be seen as being part of the context af non-Westem societies, For the purposes of this study. which is to attempt to plece together a history of anar- chism in thos» countries in which it has boen largely ignored, | would define tha term: “he West" as essentially being comprised of Europe, Australia, New Zealand, Canada and the United States, These regions and nation-states are grouped togeth. er because they have represonied the heart of world domination teem the Inte 15th ‘88 the phenomenon of globalisation has the hegemony af the neo-fiberal capitalist projact the world over, This is notjust a reault of the force of arms: It aloo because nor-Western caurivies largely responded 0 by 2001). So mroughaut the world, many nan-Westem peoples saw their gaverments ‘bowing to the pressures of the West and took the only options that came within that Modernist package which seemed to ofr either a modicum of liberty or equality, anarchism or socialism. In this way, can be said that te mademist project was fumed inside out and against itself by those lt would intend to victimize and placa lunder its, control. This. inside-out modemism (er ant-mademism) was spread Kartar Singh Sarabha became @ major influence on the Indian anarehist Ghagat Singh after ceganising Indian workers in San Francisco in 1912. ‘Throughout this work, which wil consider yr world anarchist mavement, The $écond is ta map and to analyse the influence of the migrations and immigration of peoples and ideologies and haw these diferingNon-Western Anarchisms - Page 8 social contexts influenced each other through a hybrid exchange. The last area of which Is contained in the condusion, is to assess which unique sspects of first wave non-Western anarchisms carried over into second wave anar- chism, as well as to consider what valuable aspects of frst and second wave anar- schism have io the continuing anarchist project, now in its third wave. * Asian Anarchism: China, Korea, Japan & India tn order to begin to challenge the predominant Eurocentric understanding of anarchism and! its history, ene should begin first with the most populated continent on the planet, Asia. With over half of the glabal population, to ignore the volatile Political history of the region isto engage in the worst sort of eurosentrism: this is of states within Asia. In terms. of population share alone, these facts make a rethink ing of the giabal context extremely valuable, and this is why I begin here. "Within the Continent, we will begin fit with China then eave on to fhe other countries of East ‘Asia, and then | will proceed ta India. There wore multiple locally specific reasons why anarchism gained such wide- ‘spread popularity in Ghina. bany have pointed cut te “imited gevernment™ (wu) ‘sloment in traditional Chinese thought, ranging te gamut from Taoism to Buddhism to Confurianism. In line with this view, Poter Zarrow claims in Anarchism and ‘Chinese Political Culture that anarchism was “created out of the ruins of Neo- Confucian discourse." Building on this belief, he goes on to trace the connections bolween Taoist ideas of “order without coercion” and the later emergence of anar- chism (1890, p. §). While there cartainly is some truth to Zamow's claims, what must be doliberately avoided is any overcdocus on the “anarchistie” elements contained ‘within Chinese traditional thought to the detriment of an understanding of the impar- ant roto played by global migration and by colenialism itself. As Jrif Dirlic has Hemarked, an over focus on traditional thought ean also be sald to be somawhal (Onerialist, as it atributes “everything new in China to Chinese tradition... anomer ‘way of saying that thera is never anything significantly new in China.” Adlernativety, Dini posits that “he Chinase past is being read in now ways with the halp ef anar-Jason Adams - Page 9 ‘chia, and conversely there is. rereading of anarchism through Taolst and Buddhist eas" (1997), In other wards the development and spread of ideas is never a com- ‘one-way process, it ls aba an exchange. ‘h any cape, this i just one part: another major reason was that practleally no Marxist theoratical works had beon tansiated into Chinese until around 1921, and even sien & mavemont based around It failed to materialize unt around the and of the decade. As a result, anarchism enjayed a nearly universal hegemony ever tha movemenl from 1905-1930, thereby serving as:a sort of filler for developments in the worldwide radical movements, Even Russia's October Revolution of 1918 wis 85 2 nation-state in a decentered, cosmopolitan work! of nationastates, rather than 88 the centre of all culture, that brought about the rise of an kdeology that called for the abofition of the nation-stata (p. 3), ‘The concept of “cultural revolution,” which is the very definition of variance bebween Chinese socialism and that of the rest of the socialist movement, can be (raved directly back to this heavily anarchistic “New Cultura paiad when Mag him. self was a memiter of the anarchist People's Volce Sociaty and emerge. When speaking of “Chinese anarchism" one might be tempted to think of ox simply that whieh developed within the actual borders of the couritry. But to do 90 ot ‘as in Beijing. In Guangzhou, Shitu was the mast active and influential of the anar- ‘chists, helping to organise some of tha first unions in the country. Stadents from Guangzhou formed the Truth Society, the frst anarchist organisation in the city of quel Geenly by Bie repeated Invasions of foreign powers a8 well sa by the global migra- Hons ofits own peaples. Anarchists lived and organised in Chinese communities the ‘world over, Including Japan, France, the Philippines. Singapore, Canada and thoNon-Western Anarchisms - Page 10 United States; of these, the two most significant locations were the diaspora com: munities in Tokyo and Paris. ‘OF the two, the Paris anarchists were ultimately the more influential on @ global evel. Heavily infuenced by their European surroundings (as well as whatover other personal reasans brought them there), they came to see much of China as back- Wards, rejecting mast dspects of traditional culture, Tuming towards modernism a3. Qe answer to China's problems, thay embraced what they saw as the universal power of science, embodied largely in the Keas of Kropotkin. In tis split, Li Shizeng and Wu Zhihul formed an organisation with a strong Internationalist bent, Called “the World Society" in 1906 (Dirlik p. 15). In contrast the Chinese anarchists 'n Tokyo such as Liu Shipei were blatantly antkmoderist, embracing traditional Chinese thought and customs. Living in a different social contend, for many differant reasons, they were far mone heavily influenced by anarchism as it had developed in Japan; whieh brings us éf course, to the question of Japanese anarchism, ‘As in China, the October Revolution in Japan did not cary the same downward impact on the movement as it had in so many other parts of the world, ln fact, the Doriod immediately following 1917 became the apex of Japanese anarchism in terms of actual numbers and Influence (Crump, p. xi). sAnarchism in Japan was quite «able number of adherents, and both had their heyday at diferent paints in the first ‘quarter of the bwentieth ‘The anarchist-syndicalists fouowed in the footsteps of the Bakuninist tradition of ‘collectivism, which was largely based en axchange relations: io each an amount anarchists in San Francisco, and became more and more intrigued by anarchist the- Ory. Afftor getting out of jal, Shusul moved to San Francisco, organised with memn- bers of the WW, and retumed to Japan with the intelectual and practical seeds of syndicalison. This development would soon influence figures such as Osugi Sakae and lead to the formation of Zenkoku Jiren (Crump, p. 22), In contrast, the pure anarchists were more simar to anarchist communists in theJason Adams - Page 1i ‘tradition of Kropotkin, cambined with a strong anti-modemnist, pro-tradisanalist bent. ‘As. group they were embadied largely in the miftant ceganisation fhe Black Youth League (Kokuren). Historically, the mid-19th Century “agricultural communist arar- chist* theorist Ando Shoakl is considered by many to have been their primary philo- ‘Ssophical predecessor, The pure anarchist critique of anarchist syndicalism was focused largely on the syndicalist preservation of a division of labour in the adminis: ‘vation of the post-ravolutionary society. This division of labour meant that speciali- ‘sation would stil ba & major feature of society that would load to a view that focused inwardly on particular industries rather than blending the intellectual and the worker. ‘The pure anarchists also sought to abolish exchange relations in favour of tha maxim from each according ta Weir ability; fo each according to tholrneed. In a senso, thoy’ scan be sean a3 stlampling to develop more uniquely Japanese interpretation of anarchism. For instance, they questioned the relavance af yndicalism to a socioty that was stil largely peasani-based and had a relatively small industrial working tas (Crump, p, 7), Despite the variance between syndicalist and puro anarchisens, in general the ‘one thing they had in common was that all Japanese interpretations of anarchism: wora hytrid thearies, made relevant for the local situation. That situation was an ‘extremely repressive one; meetings were broken up, demonstrations suppressed and anarchist publications banned on a regular basis throughout the io of firet wave anarchism. The Red Flags Inckient of 1806 is a good example of this, when dazens of anarchists celebrating the release of political prisoner Kokon Yamaguchi ware bru- tally attacked and arrested simply for displaying the red flag. Translation and publi- ‘made relevant to the local population. For instance, in the widely available Japaneso ‘ranstation of Kropatin’s Gallactod Works, the European “commune” was tans- formed Into a traditional Japanese tarming village (Crump, p. xii), But this process also occurred partially through the conduit of Westom anarchists, and through the migration and inmnigration of people and ideas, This is of course. is ine way in which these essays became translated info Japanese. Kropatkin comespanded dirsety with Koloky several tes and agreed to allow him to transtate several of his major works, while his travels to San Francisco resulted in dramatic changes in Japan's anarchist moverwent as well. So this global connection of anarchists was extremely Important, but a3 | have demonstrated, i was made retevant to people an the bocal fevel. Anather local condition that shaped the development of East Asian anarchism ‘was that Japan had Its. own "Monroe Doctrine* of sorts. over most of region. As has ‘often been the case elsewhere, Japanese anarchists used their relative Gagree of priviege as a means to spread anarchism throughout the region. These efforts ‘throughout Asia led to the formation of the Easter Anarchist Federation, which included anarchists from China, Vietnam, Tabwan and Japan. This is in fact, how anarchism first reached Korea after Japan's 1894 Invasion in order bo “peatact” it fromNon-Western Anarchisms - Page 12 ‘China. Korean migrants living in Tokyo came under the influence of Japanese anar- chism and engaged heartily in the ant-imparialist movement. As a result, ovar 6,000 -chists were prominent, refugees migrated into Ching, which was at the haight of anarchist influence as a rosult of the New Cultura movement. At the same time, Japanese anarchists at the time continued thelr solidarity work with the Korean li- stration movement By 1924, the Korean Anarchist Communist Federation (KACF) in China had formed with an explicitly antimperialist focus and helped to erganise expieily anar- ‘hist labour unions as well, At the same tine, anarchist tendencies ware devalop- ing within Korea itself. For instance the Revolutionists League is recorded to have ‘organised around this ime and to have maintained extensive communications with the Black Youth League in Tokyo. By 1929, their activity had materialized fully in Koroa itself, primarily around the urban cantres of Seoul, Pyonyang and Taegu. The apex of Korean anarchism however came later that same year outside the actual borders of the country, in Manchuria. Over two milion Korean immigrants lived with- in Manchuria at the time when the KACF declared the Shinmin province autonomous and under the administration of ine Korean People’s Association. The dacentralized, federative structure the association adopted consisted of village councls, district councils and rea councis, all of which operated in a cooperative manner to deal with agriculture, edueaon, finance and other vital issues. KACF sections in China, fiempts region Japan's imperialist atiempts to claim tha region for iteall, Koroan anarchists by 1931 had beon crushed (MacSimion, 1991) Throughout East Asia, anarchists demonstrated a strong commitment to interna fionalism, supporting each othar and reinforcing each others movements rather than Minking simply in terms of their own nation-stales, The “nationalism’ of Chinese and up in nationalist clothing for political convenience. in bath of tase countries, the ‘Snarchist movement sought to reinforce nationalist struggles insofar as they cast aff imperial domination; but thay wore decidedly inlemationalist in that the long tern goal was to abolish both the Chinese and Korean nation-state sysiems as well. The same can be sad for Japanese anarchists who lent their solidarity to the ant-impe- ‘ilist movements in Japan, Korea and other parts of East Asia, As noted earlier, the ‘ise of ie Easter Anarchist Federation and its paper “The East” (Dang Bang) is tes- fament to the global nature and focus of anarchism during tha early 20th century. Though India is located on the Westem border of China, connection and com- munication between the anarehigms of both are: relatively unknewn since in India ‘anarchism never really took on much of @ formally named “anarchist” nature. inJason Adams - Page 13 India, the relevance of anarchism is primarily in the deep influence major aspects of had on important movernents for national and social liberation. In order to under- ‘stand the development of the heavily anarchistic Satyagraha movement in india, one must first conskler the objective local conditions in which it developed. India is the ‘second most populated country in the world, weighing in at over 1 billon people. ‘Geing back into ancient Hindu thought, one can indeed find predecessors to tha con- ‘copt of a stateless society; the Satya Yuga for instance, is essentially a description ‘of.a possible anarchist society in which peaple govern themselves based on the unl ‘versal natural law of dharma (Doctor, 1864, p. 16), Butat the same time that a state. less sociely is seen as a possibility. much of Hindu political thought Is focused an the inherently evil nature of man and the therefore “divine right of kings to gover, so ong 28 they maintain protection from harm for the people. Hf they do not gover on the basis of dharma, however, the Chanakyasuiras allow that “it is better to not to. have a king then havi ona who is wanting in discipline” {p. 26). This of course is a ‘Major contraat with the Western nation of a universal divina right of kings regardless: of the Anarchism finds its fel and most woll-known expression in India with Mahatma Gandhi's statement “the stats evl is not the cause BUt ihe eéinct of social evil, just as. the sea-waves are the affect mot the cause of the storm. The only way of curing the disease 's by removing the cause Itself (p. 36). In other words, Gandhi saw violenca as the rat of all social problems, and the state asa clear maniiestation of this vig- lance since its authority depends on a monopoly of its lagitimata use, Therefore ha hold that “that state is perfect and nonviolent where tha people ara governed the loast. Tha nearest approach to purest anarchy would be a democracy based on fon-violenoa" (p. 37). For Gandhi, the process of attaining such a stale of total non- Violence (ahimsa) involved a changing af the hearts and minds of people rather than princh but actualy, just the opposite. Instead, swaraj starts firet from the individual, then moves outward te the vilage Inval, cutward further to the national level; the basic Principal is that of the meral autonomy of the individual abave all einer considera- ons (p. 38), ‘So overall, Gandhi's passion for collective liberation sprang first and foremost from a wery anarchlstic notion of individualism; in his view, the conscience of the indl- \Vidual is truty the only legitimate form of gavernmont. As he put It,"swaraj will be an Sbeurdity if individuals have to surrender their judpement to a majority." While this flies in the face of Westem notions of govemance, Gandhi reasoned that a single sound opinion i far more waeful than that of 84.8% of the population if the majority ‘opinion Is unsound. It was alsa this swara| incvidualism that caused him to reject bath parliamentary politics and their instrument of legitinisation, political partes; he fell that those who tuly wanted a better word for avaryone should need to join a (particular party in order to. do so. This is the difference between Raj-Nit (politics of ‘the state) and Lo&-Niii (politics of the peopte), Swaraj individualism meant thatNon-Western Anarchisms - Page 14 ‘everything had to be rethought anew: for instance, the notion that the individual exists for the good of the larger organisation had to ba discarded in favour of the notion that the larger ceganisalion exists for the good of the individual, and ane must ahways be tree to leave and to dissent (p. 44). However, Gandhi's notions of a pacifist path to swaraj were not without oppasi- Gon, even within the ranks of those influenced by anarchism. Before 1920 a paral- by an array of Wosiem anarchiams and communisms and became a vocal atheist in a country where Such altitudes were extremely unpopular. Interestingly, he studied ‘Bakunin intensely but though he was markedly loss inforested in Mare, he was very interested in the writings of Lenin and Trotsky who “had succeeded in bringing about ‘2 revolution in their courttry." So overall, Singh can be remembered as something of an Anarchist-Leninist, if such a term merts use. in the history of indian politics, Singh is today remembered as fitting somewhere between Gandhian pactism and terrorism, as he actively engaged in the organisation of popular anti-colonial ergan- isations with which fo fight for the freedom of India from British rule. However, he ‘was 280 part of a milieu that Gandhi referred ta as "the cult of the bomb" - which of Colead ba decir ne teed tpn Weston coli of ood velanca as a rane viibs lives Sets Meee] tema route eerie: va Lae Wecrra ere fore not authentically Indian elther (Rao, 2002). I is in fact Ekely that Singh was: infuenced by Wester notions of social change: like his Japanese counterpart Kotoku Shusul, Singh's comrade and mentor Kantar Singh Sarabha organised South Asian workers in San Francisco, leading bath of them to eventually comenit their lives to the liberation of Indians the world over, Notable amongst this milieu was the Hindustan Republican Assodalion as well ‘83 the youth organisation Naujawan Bharat Sabha; both of which Singh wes involved in, Despite his earlier reluctance, by the mid-1920s Singh began to embrace the Strategy of arming tha general Indian population in order to drive the British out of the country. In service to this mission he travelled throughout the country organising Peopia's militias, gaining a largo following in the process. In 1928 this strategy of Organised armed revolt gave way to an open support for individual acts of martyrdom ‘and terrorism in an article Singh published in the pro-independence paper Kirti. In other issues of this same paper he published his famous essay on “Why | am an Athoist" 5s well as several articles on anarchism. In the anarchist articles, Singh ‘equ the taclional incon ioe of unheesal rabvecvood tthe marci gre ple of "no rulers,” focusing largely on the primary importance of attaining indepand- ence from any outside authority whatever, Though he had been influenced ty the writings of Lenin and Trotsky, Singh never did join the Communist Party of India even though he lived fcr six years after its original founding. (Fao, 2002). Perhaps this was dua to the anarchist influance in his ideas; either way anarchist ideas (if not keeology a3 a whole) played a major role in both Gandhian and Singhian mavements for swears.Jason Adams - Page i5 * African Anarchisms: Igbo, Egypt, Lybia, Nigeria and South Africa Early African anarchism developed along the extrema continental margins, pei ‘raarily in the context of ethnically diverse North African and South Aftican port cithes. ‘Other than the small amount of literature available on these movements, very lite has been published en the subject, As in the Indian conte, this Is partially because ‘there is less of a history of anarchism here as 9 coherent ideclagioally based move- ment. But & is also partially dus io the hegemony of elther capitalist-lmperialist nation-state systems or post-colonial “Affican socialist” sysems mroughaut the region. ‘The largest anarchist movement ca the continent in tha first quarter of the 201h century was that of Sout Arica. indeed, recent studies conducted by Nigerian anarchists such as Sam Mbah have noted that anarchist thought as an ideology did not inany substantial way reach mush of tie Alrican continent until the enid-20th cen- ‘tury (1997, p. 1. Hawaver, whila acknowledging the lack of an ideologically cohwr. ‘ent form of anarchism, throughout their study anarchistic social elements found ‘amongst many African tribes: are greatly emphasized. In this way tribal “communal- tem" is understood as a non-Westem form of anarchism, uniquely and specifically within an African context. In their own words “all,,.traditional African societies man- ifesied “anarchistic elements’...the ideals underfying anarchism may not bi so new in the Airican context. What is new is. the concept af anarchism as 8 social move- ment ar ideology" (p, 28). In this usage, the term communalism is used somewhat simBarty to Marx's con- ception of “primkive communism” - a stateless society that 8 post-hunter gatherer and pro-foudal - though such grand narratives are not taken seriously. This is because this “historical stage" is one that most of Africa never “advanced" beyond, ‘especially in the rural areas of the continent In this context, elders in the tribal com- munity are recognised as leaders on the basis of experience, but not as. authorities industrialization and urbanization of the consent. This began wih the Bertin Conference of 1884-1885. in which Europe carved Africa up into nation-states,Non-Western Anarchisms - Page 16 placed over and between the stateless societies that had formed the basis of decen- ‘walized continental social administration in the past. These colonial nation-states facilitated the extraction of natural resources to the beneS of European elites, destroying, displacing, dhiding and undermining staleiess socieses, In many African nation-states, the ané-cstonial movamant was led by "Affican socialists’ such as Muamenar Gadhafi of Libya, Gamel Abdel Nasser of Egypt and "nogritude socialists” such as Senghot. The one thing most of these had in common was thal they were ‘very quickly co-opied and subjugated to the interests of Wester capital. But while ‘such African sociallsms were largely controlled by & Mandst orientation, shaped and guided by autland capitalist interests, not all wero, ‘Alter Nigeria gained independence in 1960, it implemented @ nationwide collec- tive farming system based on a synthesis of elements of tradiianal African commu- nralism and the Israeli Kibbutzim system. Likewise it can be seen that Gadhaif's well- known "Greon Book" was as influenced by his reading of Bakunin as it was by his reading of Marx. His concept of jamamhiriyah was aiso quite similar to that of the Nigerian collective farming systam. Bul far more exemplary than either of these Is ‘the theory and practice of Julius Myerre’s Ujamaa system. in this system, where ‘capitaligm is Opposed as much as “doctrinalre socialism," a renewed form of African communaisé became the basis of postcolonial Tanzanian socisly. Unfoctunately ‘the Wjaama system ultimately failed as a result of a rapid degeneration into state ‘control over the peasaniry under the watchful tuielage of the Woeld Bank (p. 77). On the Alrican continent, Tanzania was by no means alone in this development, which ‘awiously occured as often in the “socialist” nation-stalgs as it did in the capitalist As mentioned earlier, one country that did have a significantly large organised anarchist movement in the carly 20th Cantury was South Africa. A white Afrikanoe by the name of Henry Gtasse had helped to organise the sarliest rumblings of an anarchist mavement in the country inthe late 19th Century, Shortly after the bum of the caritury, the Social Democratic Federation was founded in Cape Town by a coalie tion of anarchists and other anti-state socialists, followed by the emergence ol the short lived South African IWW, The one thing that stood out about these formations at the time was that they were overwhelmingly made up of whines, in a nation-state inwhich tho vast majarity was nat, Most of the higher paying skilled labour jobs went : ee a cael tu APT ent neratiof re ornate beck Laages toe i cipeen hn neh ta alist organisation, the Industrial Workers of Aiica. While heavily infuenced by the IW, it retained the early pro-palitical DaLeonist elements that had beon abandoned in te TW afer the split batween syndicalists and DaLeanists in 1908 (Mbah, p.68). When some began fo question the efficacy of engaging in electoral politics the Industrial Socialist League was bom with an explicitly directaction, anti-alectoral orientation. From 1918 to 1920, the African National Congress had seweral anarchist syndicalistsJason Adams - Page i7 amongst its leadership. But by 1921 first wave anarchism was on is bast feet in South Arica, a3 leading activists abandoned anarchism in the servico of building the ‘Communist Partly of South Africa. As has been shown already, anarchists in many countries became important communist leaders in China, and as we will $600 S65, such was 8iso Ihe case in Brazil and other Latin American countries as well. ‘As in South Africa, North African port cities on the Mediteranean played a major role in the spread of anarchist ideas a8 well, The Egyptian anarchist movement is a goed example of this tend, for here anarchism was almost entiraly an phenemenon. As early as 1877, the Egyptian anarchist movement began to put out tha Malian language anarchist joumal i! Lavoratore, which was followed shortly by La Question Sociale, lis primary audience was Egypts thriving Italian immigrant ‘community eancentrated primarily in the Mediterranean port city of Alexandria. As Alexandria was a port city, it was quite diverge and woukd act as a reservoir not only for anarchist activity but for anarchist exiles from around the Mediterranean region as well, In the tate 19th Century Malatesta sought refuge hare after the attempted assassination of King Umberto |, as did Luigi Galleani in the year 1900. Soon, the: ‘anarchist ideas of the Malian community would spread to Greek immigrant workers, who wouk! then 96 on to organise an anarchist-oriented labour union for shosmak- ors in Alexandria. However, here is litis avidence that anarchist ideas spread in any Significant wary out of the immigrant communities and into the indigenous Egyptian communities themselves ($tobhard). Tunisia and Algeria were the two other countries where anarchism gained a foothold. The port city of Tunis in northem Tunisia featured an anarchist movement amongst talian immigrants, and as in Egypt, they engaged in publishing several jounals including £'Oparaie and Le Protesta Umane. The latter was published by the wallinaun penptieleer Lug Fabio, ho waa ining tn Tare the oe. in addition, the port city of Aigiors in northem Algeria was a major repository for anar- chist activity featuring saveral anarchist newspapers including L'Action Revolutionnaire, Le Tocsin, Le Libertaire, and La Marmite Sociale. Though there is Inte information available about the interim period, it is well documented that after the failure of the Spanish Chl War in 1939, many anarchists relocated to Algeria around tho port city of Gran (Stobhard),Non-Western Anarchisms - Page 18 * Latin American Anarchism: Argentina, Uruguay, Brazil, Chile, Mexico and Cuba ‘The development of anarchism in Latin America was a process shaped by the unique nature of each country within the region, as well as by those factors that many af them had in common. One thing they all had in commen was thelr subor- dinate relation to the 1823 Menroe Doctrine that hal “the Americas" under the tuie- lage of the one country that amogantly refers to itself as the only “America” - that is, ihe Lisi SUM ne ach, ast, net ecipanieste wee senleved Hoi wea movements in Latin America arose, all too often under the iron fist of dictators imposed from above, in EI Norte. In addition, it Is important to note that the Latin American governmental context was far more influenced by the thinking of Aristote and St. Thomas Aquinas than it was by liberalism, the largest philosophical influence: in the Anglo-Saxon democracies (Erickson, 1977, p. 3). Mere, comporatiem was the major phiosophical force, espousing a view of tne state as “organically” refecting the moral will of the people, rather than a3 a "relerea" for different pailtical foroas in society as in North America, The Ironic result of this was that all oppositional forces. would be seen by much of society 2s essentially antiiberatory, The ideological process of corporatism involved a sly combination of officialistic co-optation of revor lutonary mavements and vioient repression of those who would nat accept such moves, The prevalent role of the Roman Catholic Church in society combined with i cet mr renee ees er pet ecier al oe Lan American sociates apart from much of the North. This meant of course, that the snarchisms that developed there wore qualitatively diferent as they arose in a sig- nificantly different political errviranment. In Latin America, the anarchist movement was without a doubt strongestin South America; and in South America, anarchism was without 8 doubt strongest in the: “southem cone” counties of Argentina, Uruguay and Brazil. It wars the largost social movement in Argentina from around 1885 until around 1917 when state-socialists tok control of the large union federations (Jol, 1971, p, 218). The movement was extremely contentious due to the prevalence of the dalifundia system in which a very fow families controlled almost all of the land. This extreme social stratification sot the stage for Peronism, a system in which the old elite families ruled with impunity aver the masses of nowy arived immigrants in an extreme: aristocratic fashion. ‘Since the only legal means of affecting change In this society was voting, the fact ‘that up to 70% af the urban population was legally disenfranchised did not endear many to the sytem In fact, it created a social situation ripe for the development of anarchism. Anarchism was most popular amongst Argentina's working class sectors: it real-Jason Adams - Page 19 ly never attained a high degree of organisation amongst the peasantry. However, there were some attempts lo organise anarchist student unions in addition to anar- chist labour unions (Joll, p. 222). Stimerist individualist anarchism never found much audience here and so as in many countries around the world, the mavemant wos a Balance between anarchist-communists in the tradition of Kropotkin and anagchist- ‘collectivists in te traditicn af Bakunin; however thare was very litte conflict batwonn the two streams. The lallan anarchest-communist Errico Malatesta immigrated in 41885 and within tee years had anganised the county's first Baker's Union in 1887. ‘This mave helped to set the stage for the organising of the Resistance Societies, an _affiity-group form of worker organisation that was the backbone of the FOA, whlch in 1904 became the FORA, From 1905 - 1810 the anarchist mavement exploded in popularity, generalising inte the popular movements and pulling off genoral strikes in Buenos Aires and other places. Society became so unstable thal martial law was routinely imposed for short periods of time. Workers were shat at Mayday demonstrations, atners imprisoned at ‘Thora Del Fuego, and torture was rampant. Simon Radowitsky, a youth who threw a bomb al the Chief of Police’ car quickly became a well-known martyr when he was sontenced to life in prisen. in tact he was so popular that eventually determined comrades organised to a plan to successtully break him out of jail (p. 219). La Samana Tragica - the Tragic Week - was an impertant event that occurred in 1919 when a general strike was doctared but was brutally pul down by Colonel \Varela, resulting quickly in his assassination. By 1931, the military had taken over and the anarchist moverent was suppressed through a combination of death ‘squads, prison sentences and general intimidation. When martial law was finally lift- od nearty two years later, all te anarchist newspapers and organisalons that had previously beon at odds discarded with the past and published a joint dectaration called Eighteen Months of Miltary Terror. The intense repression in Argentina had resulted in a great deal of solidarity and mutual aid amongst different types of anar- ‘chists, leading to a number of joint publications and actions that transcended diverse: ideologies. It was from this new solidarity that both the FORA and other anarchist ‘crganisations sent delegations to the intemational Brigades for the Spanish Civil War against Franca. But soon Argentina would have it's own fascist govemment to con- tend with, General Peron officially seized power in 1943, forcing the FORA to go underground again, along with La Profesta Humana, When the Peron regime final- ty fell, another joint publication involving all anarchist tendencies was issued called Agtacion, Other a viable idea. The eventual falure of the Spanish Civil War didn't help matiers either, ‘and eventually anarchism became of marginal influence (p. 230), AAs in Asgentina, Uruguay's anarchist movement was largely composed af immi- grant European workers who had come from industrialized soclates, this meant thatNon-Western Anarchisms - Page 20 anarchism was in the early years primary a working class rather than a peasant movement. Here too, it was the langest revolutionary movement in the first quarter ‘of ne 20m Century. The movement was largely based on affinity group based Resistance Socloties affiliated to the FORU, which formed in 1805. Malatesta soon became involved in the FORU as wal, Influencing i away from Bakuninist collectivist anarchism and towards Kropotkinist communist anarchism. The FORU worked on a wide variety of issues, well outside the scope of the business unions. For instance, a major campaign against alcoholism was initiated, as well as initiatives to set up ‘cooperative schools and libraries. These developments came largely due to the anarchist focus on the importance of ereating a parallel anarchist cultura. While much of thit came out of tho FORU, most anarchist eulture, including plays, poetry readings and other events of the timo, came out of those afflialed with the Center for Intemational Social Studios (CIES) in Montevideo (p. 224). The CIES was heav. lly Involved as well in the enarchist press, with such publications as La Batalla - pre- sumably named after the earllar Argentine paper of fe same name - which was put lished continuously for over fifteen years. (Dynamic: in many ways that other anarchist mavements were nat, the Uruguayan anarchists were very internationalist In scope a8 woll; some would Say too much $0. ‘When the Mexican revolution erupted onto the global stage In 1910, Uruguay’s anar- chist movement sent delegations to help the Magonistas: they likewise alded the (CNT-FAI with Intemational Brigade: sokiiers in the thick of the Spanish Civil War (p. 220), The eventual decline of anarchism in Uruguay sterumed priarty from the successful Bolthavik revolution and the enommous ‘splits, ‘that emerged In the movement between the FORU and the USU as a result The final anarchist movement of the southem cone countries we will examine that which developed within the massive nation-state of Brazil, Within the context of Brazilian latitundia, corporatism and authoritarianism in which large landhokiers held great sway over the destiny of the vast majority of the population with the backing of the military and the state, mubual aid societies and cooperatives were the only recog RE Re ee eee am unionism, protecting anarchists from repression. However, this anarchist unionism wr Inte arpely 1 sklied arieans ne other workers, leaving me majority of ether types of workers such as immigrants and women without union representation, ‘As in China and South Africa, the Grazilian communist party, the PCB, grew out of the mins of the once-volatie anarchist movement (Chicote, p. 11, 1974). However, anarchism had the greatest influence in Brazil primarity from 106 to 1920, Mostly amongst urban immigrant workers. It was in this context that it became the predominant stream within the labour movement by 1908, far more important in fact, than stato-socialism (p. 19). Anarchist labour militants, active: in the Congresso ‘Operario do Brasil (COB) are remembered for helping the Brazilian working class to win the eight-hour day as well as significant wage increases across the board. The ‘See Paolo General Strike of 1917 marked the firstof three years of militant anarenist activity within the labour movement. During these years, a strategy of repressionJason Adams - Page 21 combined with co-optation became ihe stralegy of the corporative state. Anarchists did not initially call the General Strike, rather it was initiated by tose masses. of female textile workers whom anarchist organisers had ignored. Al first this self-activ- ty of working women and other sections of the industrial working class put male anarchist leaders on the defansive. But ultimalely the anarchists accepted female leadership ang chose to work with them rather than against them (Walle, 1993, p. 25) nn anatcist mavement in Brazi began Is decline for several reasons: one was. that it often failed to adequately seach out to the rural majority population. Another is that the success of the Bolshevik revolution spelt the beginning of the end! of anar- hist ideological hegemony. As in Argentina and Uruguay, the anarchist movement split evenly inio two camps: pro-Bolshevik and antiBolshevik. Many of the most ‘active anarchists would soon move on to become heavily involved In the activities of the PCB as a result of this split. The party shunned those who did not do so, and internal purges eventually ousted those who retained some anarchist sympathies (p. 33). The fal ail in Bravilan anaretis' cof was the Renvlusion of 1850, Which marked the beginning of a new era of the officialistic, paternalistic, co-optative sys- tem of “comporatism.” \Whilo anarchism in the southern cane countries: impacted on the global move- Ment to an extent, the anarchist movement nat most affected and influenced the ‘rection of anarchism throughout Latin America and much of the rest of tho word as well was that which developed in Maxico. This began In 1863, when a Mexico City Philosophy professor of Greek descent namad Plotino Rhodakanaty formed the first ‘anarchist organisation in the country, a coalition of students and professors called the Club Socialista de Estudiantes (CSE). The CSE proceeded to spread their ideas through erganising anarchist labour unions amongst the urban working class; short- ly this load to the first strike in Mexscan history, to organising amongst Indian popu- latans in southom Mexico and eventually to a now orpanisabon called La Secial, which featured acthrists from the Paris Commune in exile, eventually reaching a peak Jewel of 62 member organisations nationwide (p. 9}. For all of this considerable activ. i essary anc maar cf 1 ecreadee were ayaa) cee eed st Bee ts seme a Latin Areca, tho past-colonial period had been marked by dic- ‘atorship after dictatorship andi then finally a major social revolutan in 1910. In this revolution, the causa of the Mexican worker and passant was taken up by a tempo- rary alliance between Ricardo Flores Magon, Emiliano Zapata, Pancho Vilia and Pascal Orozco. Of these. Magon can be characterised mos! accurately as being an ‘anarchist; his brother Enrique and himself published a popular anarchist newspaper called Regereracion beginning in 1900, Of Zapotec indian background, the two: were driven largely by @ determination fo ensure the autonomy of Indian pooples in whatever social arrangement would arise cut of the revolution (Pooks, 1977, ps. 5), By 1905, they had formed the anarchist-communist orienied Mexican Liberal Party. (PLM); named as such in order to not drive people away, while still remaining thor- ‘oughly anarchist in demands. This stalegy worked wall eventually leading to baoNon-Western Anarchisms - Page 22 armed uprisings that invetved members af the WW as well as anarchists tom Italy (p. 22). ‘Activists with the PLM crossed borders treely to relocate to Los Angeles, San Antonio and St. Louis, several cities in Canada, as well as numerous cities through: ‘gut Mexico. Im doing so, 2 loose network of anarchists from all over the word par- ‘Ucipated Jin the project of building an anarchist contingent within tha Mexican Revolution. Yet this relationship was not always healthy: at one point Magon was even forced to write an angry art-racist easay in response toa stalement by Eugene Des that Mexicans were “too ignorant fo fight for freedom” and that they would sure- ly lose any attempt to risa up (p. 88). The essay pleaded with North American anas- chists to take the PLM seriously; “Throughout the world the Latin races are sparing Re ERE er rte Cee ae Re VR Come cause. We are satisfied that the great Anglo-Saxon and Teutonic branches of tha army of tabour wal not lag behind; we are satistied ignorance due to language diff- ‘culties alone is causing a temporary delay” (p. 90) Then in 1910, Francisco Madera published his “Plan de San Luls Potosi" which called for an uprising starting Navenber 20 of that year, the uprising spread quickiy unl it became a nationwide revolt lod by Magon, Zapata, Villa and Orozco. Amidst the uprising, one of the few honest elections ever to occur in Mexico took place, which Madero won easily, Before the election occured, however, Magon, Zapata and their followers had already beoken sharply with Madero aver the issue of and reform and indian autonomy and a3 a resuft had published their own Plan do Aloya, The Zapatistas and Magonistas took up orms tagemer, bound by a cammon southem Mexican tribal background that within a fow years had lead to the suc- eessful encirclement of Mexico City, Huerta's dictatorship continued as the revolu- Bon continued to grow, then, when Huerta resigned and Venustiano Carranza became president in 1917, the Mexican Constitution also came into elfect. Due to the influence of Zapata and Magon, many extremely progressive features were Included such as the right fo an education free of charge, the right of Indians to col lectively run farms (efides), and other social and land reforms. Camanza exploited the divisions between anarchisl-syndkcalists and anarchist-com- munisis and successtully bribed the anarchist-syndicalist Gasa daf Obare Murcia to organise "Red Battalions" to fight against Zapata and Villa. By 1919, Mexican Cal. Jesus Guajardo had ambushed and murdered Zapata, ridding the Carranza regima ff thelr main populist enemy. But once Carranza had been overthrown, Obregon, ‘Callas, a3 wall es a long fine of other centists came to power, opposing the domi- nation of the clergy but supporting foreign investment into Mexico: this development marked the beginnings of the PR dictatorship and the end af first wave anarchism, ‘Cuban anarchism developed in the mid-19% Century due to the early intetectu- ‘al influence of Proudhonian mutualism in the workers movernent. By the late 1800s iithad reached a higher level of maturity with tha rise-of the anarchist leader Roig San ‘Martin, the paper he edited £! Productor, and the national anarchist organisation Allgaza Obrera (Femandez, 2001, p. 20). As with Chinese, Indian and Mexican anarchism however, Cuban anarchism cannot be properly understood solely withinJason Adams - Page 23 the confines of the Cuban nation-state; much important activity occurred in Cuban icnmigrant communities in Key West, Marida (Moxico) and Tampa. as well. In fact, in ‘October 1689 a general strike broke oul in Key West with solidarity and support fram ‘Cuban workers in Havana, Tampa and Ybor ity, Just months before this historic suike, San Martin had died of 2 diabetic coma, with over 10,000 Cubans coming from ail over the island to attend the funeral. By tha tum of the contury, the fight lor Cuban independence had become a major source of division within the anarchist movement; tho working class anarchists accused the independentistas of “taking money from inbacco capitalism” (p. 30). Eventually however, most anarchists rallied around Jose Marti and his Partido movement. But shortly after independence the United States oocupled the island; (Erica Malatesta decided to move from New Jersey to Havana te help the anarchist mavement there. The Mexicen Revolution deeply impacted Cuba's anarchist mova ‘Ment, and the Magon brothers found their way over to Cuba several timos both in the pages of Regengracion and in person, Butthe Guban anarchist movement final- |y fell into a period of steep decline wat the rise of the Ccctober Revolution (p. 81). tt ts remembered however, that it was the anarchists who paved the way in Guba for both the trade union mawement and the socialist revolution that occurred later. % Middle Eastern Anarchism: Armenia, Lebanon, Turkey, Palestine 'n light of beth historical and recent events, it could easily be argued that the Middle East is and has been of central importance t¢ many developments around ie ‘world, “As in Africa, this region saw first wave anarchism devolop primary along the margins of the region; Armenian anarchists, for instance, were already being brought under contol by the Ottoman Empire by the tate 19th Century due to their wide- ‘spread agtational activity. Of the Armanian anarchists, Alexandre Aiabekian main- ‘tained the highest inamational pragie and had the most connections to the intema- ‘tional anarchsst movement, belriending Petr Kropotkin, Elises Rocus and Jean ‘Grave while studying in Geneva. His friendship with Krepotkin was so great in fact ‘that ha was actually with him at his deathbed and subsequanily helped to organise the famous funeral procession through the streets of Moscow. Alabekian translated several anarchist works into Armenian and published and distributed an anarchist Journal called Commorwealth (Hamaink) that was translated into Persian as well, ‘Alabekign made 2 Serious altemp! to make the politics. of anarchism relevant to ‘the political situation of the Middle East, Throughout his writings there is a clear pat-Non-Western Anarchisms - Page 24 {een cf opposition to both the domination of the Ottoman Empire over Armenia and to European intervention and domination aver the region in general. These culm nated eventually in the development of the Revolutionary Armenian Federation (Dashnaktsouthian), which was a coalition of anarchists, nationalists, and saciniigts ‘who amongst other activities, publistied and distributed several anarchist tracts throughout Armenia, Though their manilesio was early en compared ta the fetoria ‘of the Russian nihiists, Dashnakisouthian anarchism seems to have been largely replaced by Marxism-Leninism within a few years, Howevar, even as Mandism- Loninésm rose 10 popularity in Armenia, anarchist ideals became popular amongst Armenian immigrants heading to the nation-states of the West, as i evidenced by {he publication of several anarchist joumals in the Armanian language In the United Slates around the same timo (Stiobhard), Apart from Armenia, Malatesta is known in have spent time in anarchist commu- nites In the port cities of Beil, Lebanon ua well as temi, Turkey (Stiebhard), Howover, very lite is known about the nature of these communities oF the extent to ‘which these communities were successful in building an anarchist moverant local Vy amongat the non-immigrant populations. As we have seen in me case of ‘Alexonditia and Tunis, Mediterranean port cities were often very diverse and chances ‘are that these anarchist communities were primarity composed of Italian immigrant workers. But there is one more county thal anarchism has ben present in that has nat been discussed: that is Palestina / Israel. Belore the creation of the Israell state, in the first quarter of the 20th century, an anarchist movement had already begun amongst both Palestinians and Jews which rosisted the creation af the Jewish state and worked insiead for a stateless, diréctly Gemocratic, pluralistic society of both Jews and Arabs. Anarchist sections of fhe “communitarian movement, inspired by te collabouration of notable Jewish anair= ‘chists such a3 Gustav Landauer and Rudolf Rocker, formed me basis for tha early Kibbutzim mevement In Palestina, and according io Noam Chomsky, was the origh inal meaning of the term “Zionist,” Tho original communitarian Zionists opposed the ‘creation of the state because it would "necessitate carving up the tenitory and mar- ginalising, en the basis of religion, a significant portion of its poor and oppressed Population, rather than uniting them on the basis of socialist principles* (Barsky, 1997. p. 48). Of the anarchist-communitarians at te tme, Joseph Trumpokior was ‘one af the most important, drawing members of the first Avutzaf over to the anarchist- ‘communist thought of Petr Kropatkin, By 1923, Kropothin’s Mutual Ald had become ‘one of the first books ever to be transiated into Hebrew and distributed throughout Palestine; this early anarchist groundwork by activists like Trumpeldor became a major Infuence in the thought of Yitzhak Tabenkin, a leader in the seminal Kibbutz Hameuhed movement. The anarchistccenmunitarian newspaper, Problemen was laraoll state. This movernent began to die out after 1925, with the ereation of the \sraell state and the solidification of (Qvad, 2000. p. 45)Jason Adams - Page 25 % Conclusion: Implications for the 2ist Century High Tide of Anarchism ‘Through this work it has been demonstrated that one of the most fundamental factors in the development of anarchist kieas and movements has been that of glab- ‘il migration of peoples, which is of course the result of the develapment of a capi- alist and imperialist werid-system. Throughout East Asia, it was Gamonstrated that global anarchist networks between San Francisco, Tokyo and Paris were of prime importance in the development of both anarchist syndicaliem as well as “pure anar- chism* forms of anarchist communism. In the South Asian context, we know that Gandh first became involved in his lifelong struggle against British rule while living in South Africa: this was at a time whon the anarchist-syndicalist Industrial Workers Of Africa were at thelr prime. The development of African anarchism iteelf arose orig- inally from imported movements of European immigrant workers in the country, bath in South Africa and in the Mediterranean port cities of North Arica. What litte anar- his movernents there were in the Middle East were largely te result of Italian imm- grant workers whe had been attracted to anaechist thought primarily within thelr own ‘community, Throughout Latin America, migrations of peoples were especially impor ‘ant a8 wail with Malatosta’s residence and agitation in Brazil, Uruguay, Argentina, Mexico and Cuba being the prime example. thas bean further demonstrated that in the non-Western context, first wave ‘anarchism arose both as part of the “package” of the modemity project and ag a reaction against it, ironically providing subject countries with a "modem™ weapon with which to fight macarnity and Westemisation itself. A similar dialectic is present with- in second and third wave anarchism, both of which arose largely around te global courtereuttures of the lale 1900s and again in the late 1990s. in the 1960s the United States was busy securing its position as the only superpower an the plana: (brutal interventions in Soulheast Asia and several other regions demonstrates the Importance this goal had for the United States at the tima. ‘Yel, rot contant with sim- (ple military operations to secure this power, the promotion of American cullure as universal - also understood as ine activation of "the spectacie" - became a centrally important part of this strategy. As ln tha first wave, tucked In along with the society of the spectacle was ils antidale; spectacular counteroulture. This counterculture had arisen as part and parcel of the broader rise of spectacular cufure: but as with the rise of modamity, It also was understood thal i was a reaction against i. For example, in Middle Eastem counties like Israel, anarchist organisations such as the “Black Front arose out the youth counterculture, and published journals ka Freaky. These journals, while ostensibly part of the general spectacular culture of Pax ‘Americana, weee also some of the only publications in the country to aciivaly oppese and critique wars such as the Yom Kippur War (Do or Die, 18%),Non-Western Anarchisms - Page 26 Third wave anarchism is largely regarded as having roots as a cultural phenom- ‘enon as- wall Its gestation period beginning in the dacline of the 1960s with the glob- ally networked independent punk counterculture, Unlike second wave anarchism, this counterculture prized independence from corporations at least as much as: it cid internationalism and worked to buld independent networks between punks, Danas, “zines and local scenes the word over. Small sait-pyroduced fanzines became the ‘medium for exchanging ideas and nen-comporata macord labels, record stores and ‘distribution services. In countries like Brazi, Israel! and South Alrica the purik coun terculture was instrumental in the rebuilding of the anarchist movement While the rect social activism and organising. This meant not only a poliicisation of punk, bul aso @ concomitant ‘punkification’ of radical activism as well as bath played off against each other, ‘The Zapaiista rebellion in January 1994 solidified this tend 35 decentralised, kiartabtesed sxpport peters wore ouned thal uated Ei g6Da, fag ensure tho otherwise unlikely success of a largoly non-violent audanomist movement in southern Mexico. By the late 1990s many anarchist punks had diversified their cultural affiliations and began to kientify more with activism and anarchism itself than with Ihe independent punk counterculture, which was Largely dying. Many engaged themselves with tke Zapatista struggle, travelling to Chiapas and working as inler- national observers, or attending the Intemational Encuentros held In Mexico and Spain. The new anti-politcal tradition of Zapatismo, with its rejection of the univer salsen of both socialism and anarchism, had a largo influence on anarchists the ‘world over, By the tine the 1999 WTO uprising in Seattle occurred, many anarchists ‘were already entering the post-Wastern anarchist paradigen. refesing to label themn- ‘solves 88 anarchists per $8 bul stil strongly kdenlifying with ils basic ideas. Many ‘began to rotor to thamsetves as “autonomist" rather than as specifically "anarchist" per 80. The real change brought about by this develapment was that counter=cul- In conclusion then, | would like 69 briefly assess the resulls of the synthesis betwoen the social nests which first wave anarchism has formed and the rise of soc- ‘ond and third wave onarehism as a counter-spectacie amongst non-Weatam anar- chisms, Despite the common dismissal of almest all anarchism from the early 20¢h (Century @3 & monolithic "classical anarchism” and therefore worthless and ouldaledJason Adams - Page 27 in the context of anarchism's current third wave, this study of early non-Western anarchism demonstrates thal in fact anarchism at the tina was 10 less diverse ite- piogically than itis today in the early 21st Gentury. The “pure anarchism" of Japan for instance, in many ways prafigured the current development of a mora groan aniit- chism, etaments. of which are present in anarchist currents within both deep ecology: and social aeciogy, Indeed, John Crimp remarked on the remarkable similarities to. pure anarchism between Bookchin’s balance of economic self-sufficiency and inter- ‘communal trade ip, 203). Early Japanese anarchism also helped to set tre stage for the in the late 1960's of Zengakuren, a mitant student organisation prefigured ‘Gaui Frevahsion Gi even (Tors av the Dermocracy Movement cf the 100s, test it may Nave Nelped to inapire the Tlananmen Square inckent. Certainly the reassessment of the socialist history of China has bean informed by a renewal of biaeat ie maiaet evan lary Fe country Korea's early anarchist movement can be seen as a precursor to the Kwangju Rebellion of 1980. As George Katsiaicas has remarkad, “i tho Paris Commune, the peop of Kwrangiu sponta- neously rose up and govemed thomselves untl they were brutally suppressed by Indigenous military forces abeted by an outskle power (2001), That miltary power, ‘was, 85 one might quess, the United States. The anarchist influence on Gandhi's ‘Satyagraha movement in India carried through into Vincba Bhawe's and Narayan's Sarvodaya movement in the 1860's and can be seen in more recent movements as well, In the late 1960's Argentina experienced 2 resurgence of its ongoing anarchist wadition through the student movement. The split between the FORU and the SU in Argentina after the Bolshevik revolution moant thal not unk the 1960's would anar- chism regain somewhat of a constituency. This time around however, it was not based primarily in the working class movements, Rather itwas in the student move- ments 2s @ result of the 1956 formation of the Uruguayan Anarchist Federation (FAL). Some of those originally Involved with the FAU, which would eventually move: towards. more deterministic Mandst tendencies, would go on to form anarchist-orl- ‘ented student organisations. These activists later helped to build the Center for Poputar Action (CAP) as @ means lo engage wider sectors of the population in anti- sathortarien eruncoe wits per se. This tendency shied away from ideological universalism and in favour of a more subjective pluralism or “panarchy" - which would interestingly foreshadow the directon of antiauthoritarian movements at the dawn of the 21st Century all over the ‘world, One of CAP's pamphlets stated" in place of hypocritical ‘unity’ we provide an ‘Open arena far everyone to da whal they feel is nesess.ary...let positions be defined and each work his own way (p. 232)." ne other change in tha 1960's was the branching out of anarchists into nonworking class seclors auch as the peasant movement. All the anarchist groups, indeed all of the left, were involved in building the Movement for tha Land (MT) thus uniting bath working class and peasant move- ments in alliance for the first time. Unfortunately, the vision that these new tenden-Non-Western Anarchisms - Page 28 ties displayed would ultimately Ibe shorlived due to the Imposition of a long series of military dictatorships, meant io serve U.S, corporate interests, But it is only recently, since December 2001, that these ideas have been seri. /emnment destroyed the lives of millions thraughout the country by accepting several ssuocessive austerity measures handed down from the IMF and World Bank, And on top of state employees not being jpald for months in a raw, many workers were only allowed ta withdraw a limited amount of money from thelr bank accaunts, But ther ‘camo the final straw: the goverment took away the full freedom of people to protest by dediaring a stale of siege. It was at this point that the movement took the radical {urn of calling for al politicians to be ousted, and not to be simply replaced by a “more acceptable" set of suits, This is also tha point at which people began to take Power into thelr own hands by ereating self-gaveming, horizontally structured neigh- bourhood assembties, as well a5 Giy-wide, regional and national networks of these Neighbournond assemblies, Whenever various ideological factions would attempt to ‘seize control of the assemblies, they would be fold that no one wariied bo follow their idenlogy, thay just wanted direct control of thelr country (Fadormcion Libertaria Argentina). in the Middie East today, anarchism has grown especially in those countries where relatively small movements had emerged in the early 20th Century, largely ‘omonget immigrants, italian anarchist communites in Turkish and Lebanese port cities have spread since the 1980's to the local poputations, often through the con- duit of punk cuture. For instance, since the mid-1990's a Lebanese group called Amemative Liberty (Al Gadi al Tharir) has been sending delegates to intemnational anarchist meatings, a3 well as composing reports on the local anarchist movement sand translating anarchist works into Arabic. From arsund tha same time period, ‘anarchism has become a recognised foroe in Turkish polities as well with the appear. ‘ance of anarchist contingents at May Day oslebrations, and ineir appearance amongst intemational anarchist maetings a well, Anarchist ltaian and Greek immi- ‘African countries of Tunisia and Egypt, mostly inthe port cles. Though thelr nctiv- ity at that point seems not to have had a major effect on the local populations, by the: mid-1960'S it seems that at least some Tunisian national was open to anarchist ideas. In 1966, a Tunisian Situationist by the name of Mustapha Khayati helped to ‘write the seminal text On the Poverty of Student Life while studying in Paris. The Algerian section af the Situationist Intemational was represented by Abdedhafd Khatib at its 1958 conference (Stiobhard), African anarchism has but on first wave anarchism as well as on the traditional ‘society. In Nigeria, the communalist nature of certain traditional tibal societies formed a social environment that would provide a framework for the transformation ‘of tha once-Mandst Awareness League in 1900 into a 1,000-member strong anar- ‘cho-syndicalist branch of the Intemational Workers Association based primarity in ‘the southern part af the country. In addition to indigongus coMmmunalim, the fall of Manis also formed an important basis for the rise of the Awareness League,Jason Adams - Page 29 Interestingly, Awareness League members have expressed interest not only in the anarchist-syndicalism of the MWA but also in the newer ecological anarchism as ‘expressed by beth Murray Bookchin and Graham Purchase, The Awareness League was preceded by an anarchistic coalition in the 180s that went by the nar ‘of "The Aug" (Mbah, p. 52). In 1897, amidst majar social upheaval, over 3,200 work= ‘ere in Sierra Leone ara said to have joined the IWW, according to local delegate (Bright Chikezie who had come into contact with British IWW member Kevin \Brandstatier, A military coup tater the same year resulted in mass exile of these IW members to the neighbouring country of Guinea where Bright immediately set about attempting to organisa motal workers inta the union, After arrival in Guinea, ‘the General Secretary Treasurer of the IWW travelled to Guinea to meet with him ‘and discuss the situation (Brandstatter, 1997). “The strong South African anarchist mavement in the earty 20h century lead also po oa curren pesaraen of are lee 6 er of aac maa eee bookstores and Bikishe Madla Cotective is an example of fs, te is fe S0uh Alcan Workerr Soldanly Federation Much of this came aut of ‘white and Indian members of the urban punk scana who wantad to put their ideas: into practice. The high point of this renewal was the year 1966, which saw the llorpest general strike in the history of tha country when over 1.5 milion workers and ‘students struck, demanding recognition of Mayday os a puibiic holiday (Mbah, p. 64). ‘Throughout Aca in gener Saplaliem fs becoming mors anc more unworkable downward development from which “African socialism" already has largely tallon from as a result, Beyond the crises of capitalism and socialism, the post-colonial nabon-stale system further threatens to give way under the weight of imminent pres- ‘sure from below; the stateless gociolies thay were propped on top of in order to faci itata imperialism ared capitalism cannot function in the context such a foreign body. indeed, Moah has stated quite Geary that the ethnic violence and riots that are seen: throughout the continent spell "the beginning of the collapse of fe modem nation state system." Ho goes on to say “the rise of a new angry generation during this ‘chaos i an important actor in determining how and In wich drecion tne prestnt cfisis is resolved" (p. 104). Such a situation is ripe for the (re) introduction of the decentralised, democratic, setf-determined nature of an anarchist system syntie- ne ie Manca ican Syeeam of atlononecia Pm Mroacted ae An the final judgement, the relevance of this work to the future of social move- mans may not be so complex but allemativaly, It might be simply to "keep the maps that show the roads not taken" as Edward Krebs has put it (1888, p. xl. Academics ‘ofien have a tendency to s0e everything they develop as being new and unprece- denied; | belleve this work has demonstrated that while there are several new cur- rents within anarchism today, many of them wore pracaded by othar roads that wore inot taken or hat were conveniently forgotien in the constuction of what has become the phenomenon of Wester anarchism. In league with the other more specific @Rempts at such a project in the recent past, | say “int the deconstruction begin.” ‘White we may not know exactly where this project will utimately lead us, we do knowNon-Western Anarchisms - Page 30 ‘hat it wil be a place radically more holistic, global, and aligned with the snarchism a8 a counte-hegemonic force than what Mas develaped in the tradition of Wester anarchism in the past several decades.Jason Adams - Page 31 *& Bibliography ++ Baku, H, (2001) Anarchism in Turkey (Online) Available: (htipuwww.epunk-org/texte/ places turkey !sp001840.htmt ‘ Brandstatter, K. (1997) Update on the Sierra Leane IWW [Online] Available: hhtipaiwwwrgeocities.com/CapitolHil'7017/s!_hww_update.him! © Chiloate, R. (1974) The Braziion Communist Party: Conilict and integration 1922-4972 New York: Oxford University Press. +f Dink, A, (1997) Dimensions af Chinosa Anarchism: An interviow With Arif Dirt: [Onling) Available: NipyMfag blackened nevias/2dimensio.Atm & Dirik, A. (1801) Anarchisrn in the Chinese Revetution. Berkeley: University of ‘Califoria Pross: + Do oF Die (1999) Direct Action tn Janae! [Online] Available: htip-lweweco- action orp'dodinofiisraal. him Erickson, K. (1977) The Brazilian Comporstive State and Working-Class Potties Berkeley: University of California Press 1 Federacion Libertaria Argentina (2002) Argentina: Betwoen Poverty and Protest [beattet) ‘Held, ID. (1980) Intredustion to Crtical Theary, Berkeley: University of California Press. 1 Joil, J. (1970) Anarchism Today. New York: Anchor Books 1 Kalsiaficas, G (2001) Myth and impilcations of the Kwangju People’s Uprising [Online| Avaitable: wwe. wit edwacademics/nssm/contexivoH/katsiaficas 1 Katslaficas, G. (1097) The Imagination of the New Loft: A Glabal Analysis of 1968. Boston: South End Press % Poole, D. (1977) Land and Liberty: Anarchist Influonces in the Moxican Revolution - Ricardo Flores Magon. Montreal: Black Rose Books + MacSimion (1961) The Korean Anarchist Movennent [Leciure in Dublin, ireland] % Meltzer, A. (1988) Tho Flosogates of Anarchy (Online) Availatia: bitpestveww-atmitd.domon.co.ukieraltzes! + Munck, R (1987) Argentina; From Anarchism to Peronism; Workers, Union andNon-Western Anarchisms - Page 32 Politics 1885-1985. London: Zed Books +k Oved, ¥. (2009) Kibbute Trands (Jourall No.8, pg. 45 % Rao. N, (2002) Bhagat Singh and the Revolutionary Movement [Online] ‘Available: htpsfrevalubonarydemocracy.orgidyan bsingh.him + Stiabhard, (2001) Liberterians, tho Left and the Middle East [Oriino) Avakabie: hitpyimembers.tripod.conmy~stiothardinast. him! 1 Van dor Wall, L. (2002) (Personal Communication) 1 Welle, J. (1893) Working Women: Working Mon: Sao Paulo and the Rise of Brazits Industria! Working Class 1900-1955. Durham: Duke University Press ® Zarrow, P. (1990) Anarchism and Chinese Political Culture. Now York: Columbia University Press The text of this pamphlet was downloaded from: http: //www.geocities.com/ringfingers/nonwesternweb.htm! The Author can be contacted at: ringfingers@yahoo.comFront Gover: de Rio Bianco textile strike under Magonista influence (Mexico, date unknown)