HUMAN DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

The human digestive system is a complex physiological process that takes place in humans. It has a long
network of organs which are interdependent in function. The food ingested into the mouth goes through a
series of changes and is broken down from a complex mixture to simple sugars, which eventually is given
into the bloodstream. The undigested protein, carbohydrates, fats, fiber are eliminated through the anus.
The digestive system is supported by certain glands like salivary glands, digestive glands which help in
breaking down the food by secretion of enzymes and digestive juices.

The process of breaking complex substances into the simple substances, so that they can be used by the
body with the help of the enzymes is called digestion.

Types of Digestion in Human Digestive System

Digestion is a complex process involving multiple metabolic pathways where the complex food molecules
are broken down into simpler molecules and releasing energy required for the survival of humans.
Digestion is classified into two types:

1) Mechanical Digestion – Mechanical digestion primarily involves mastication in the mouth, a process by
which food is broken down and semi-digested through chewing, churning of food to form chyme in the
stomach, segmentation of chyme in the small intestine for bowel movement and absorption of nutrients.

2) Chemical Digestion – Chemical digestion is the digestion of food by the gastric juices, bile juices,
pancreatic juices and absorption of nutrients and water by the intestines.

The digestive system includes the alimentary canal and several associated organs. The functions of system
are as follows:

Ingestion: Taking of food into the body.

Digestion: Breaking up of complex food substances into simple substances so that they can be used by the
body which will be carried out by specific enzymes.

Absorption: The passage of directed food through the walls of alimentary canal into the circulatory system.

Defecation: The passage of undigested material from the body through the way of anus.

Many organs work together to digest food and absorb nutrients. The mouth is the point of ingestion and
the location where both mechanical and chemical breakdown of food begins. Saliva contains an enzyme
called amylase that breaks down carbohydrates. The food bolus travels through the esophagus by
peristaltic movements to the stomach. The stomach has an extremely acidic environment. An enzyme called
pepsin digests protein in the stomach. Further digestion and absorption take place in the small intestine.
The large intestine reabsorbs water from the undigested food and stores waste until elimination.

Human Digestive System Parts and Functions

The parts of human digestive system are mouth, buccal cavity, pharynx, oesophagus, stomach, small
intestine, large intestine, rectum and anus.

Mouth, Buccal Cavity

Food begins its journey through the digestive system in the mouth, also known as the oral cavity. Inside the
mouth are many accessory organs that aid in the digestion of food—the tongue, teeth, and salivary glands.
Here, ingestion, mastication, and swallowing of food occur.

Primary digestion takes place in the oral cavity, where the food is chewed by teeth and salivary gland
surrounding the oral cavity supplies the salivary juice and tongue helps in mixing of the salivary juice with
the food. There are three types of salivary glands, namely: Parotid gland, Submandibular gland ,Sublingual
gland .Saliva contains amylase enzyme, which breaks down complex carbohydrates such as starch in food
into simpler sugars like maltose and dextrins.The partially digested food is now passed down to throat or
pharynx.

Pharynx

The pharynx, or throat, is a funnel-shaped tube connected to the posterior end of the mouth. The pharynx
is responsible for the passing of masses of chewed food from the mouth to the esophagus. It contains a
flap of tissue known as the epiglottis that acts as a switch to route food to the esophagus and air to the
larynx.

Esophagus

The esophagus is a tubular organ that connects the mouth to the stomach. The chewed and softened food
passes through the esophagus after being swallowed. The smooth muscles of the esophagus undergo a
series of wave like movements called peristalsis that push the food toward the stomach .

No digestion takes place in this organ. The esophagus has upper esophageal sphincter and a lower
esophageal sphincter. A bolus (ball-like) of food moves down through upper esophageal sphincter by
contraction and relaxation of esophageal muscles creating a wave-like movement called peristalsis. The
esophagus opens to the stomach via lower esophageal sphincter and trap food in the stomach.

Stomach

The esophagus leads to a sac-like organ called the stomach. It is a muscular, hollow organ, having a
capacity of 1 litre. It is located on the left side of the abdominal cavity, just inferior to the diaphragm. Cells
in the lining of the stomach secrete a strong acid and powerful enzymes that are responsible for the
breakdown process. It has digestive juices or acids like Hydrochloric acid (HCl), Potassium Chloride (KCl)
and Sodium Chloride (NaCl). The enzymes present in the stomach includes gastric lipase and pepsinogen
(inactive form) to pepsin in the presence of HCl. Gastric Lipase digests the fats to glycerol and fatty acids.
Pepsin breaks down complex proteins into small polypeptides, thus initiating the process of protein
digestion. The partially digested food and gastric juice mixture is called chyme. Chyme passes from the
stomach to the small intestine. Only a small amount of chyme is released into the small intestine at a time.
The movement of chyme from the stomach into the small intestine is regulated by the pyloric sphincter.

Stomach has four parts:

1) Cardia: It is located towards the esophagus and conducts food into the stomach through the lower
esophageal sphincter. It contains mucous secreting or cardiac glands.

2) Fundus: It is a dome-shaped structure, present next to and above cardia.

3) Body: It is present next to the fundus, and is the major part of the stomach, where the gastric juices
are present. The pyloric antrum is connected to the body of the stomach. Fundus and body contain gastric
glands.

4) Pylorus: it is funnel-shaped and connects the stomach to the small intestine. It narrows down to the
pyloric canal, the pyloric sphincter is present below this canal, which controls the opening and closing of
the stomach. It produces two types of mucus and gastrin hormone.

Small intestine

It is the longest part of alimentary canal. It is located just inferior to the stomach and takes up most of the
space in the abdominal cavity. The small intestine is the organ where the digestion of protein, fats, and
carbohydrates is completed. The small intestine has three divisions: duodenum, jejunum and ileum.

The duodenum is separated from the stomach by the pyloric sphincter which opens to allow chyme to
move from the stomach to the duodenum In the duodenum, chyme is mixed with pancreatic juices in an
alkaline solution rich in bicarbonate that neutralizes the acidity of chyme and acts as a buffer. Pancreatic
juices also contain several digestive enzymes. Digestive juices from the pancreas, liver, and gallbladder, as
well as from gland cells of the intestinal wall itself, enter the duodenum. Thus digestion gets completed in
the duodenum of the small intestine.

The second part of the small intestine is called the jejunum, Here, hydrolysis of nutrients is continued
while most of the carbohydrates and amino acids are absorbed through the intestinal lining. The bulk of
chemical digestion and nutrient absorption occurs in the jejunum.

The ileum, is the last part of the small intestine and here the bile salts and vitamins are absorbed into
blood stream.

Thus the jejunum and ileum areas of the small intestine are responsible for the absorption of food into the
blood, though their villi.

The leftover-food residue liquid has passed through the small intestine, it then moves on to the large
intestine, or colon.

Pancreas

The pancreas is another important gland that secretes digestive juices. Situated below the stomach
towards the left side of the body and above the small intestine. The pancreas secretes digestive enzymes
into the duodenum, the first segment of the small intestine. These enzymes break down protein, fats, and
carbohydrates. The pancreas is chiefly involved in the synthesis of insulin and glucagon hormones; insulin
acts to reduce the blood sugar level and glucagon acts to increase the blood sugar level.

Liver

It is the largest organ in body.The liver is a roughly triangular accessory organ of the digestive system
located to the right of the stomach, just inferior to the diaphragm and superior to the small intestine. It
plays a very important role in digestion of fats and detoxifying blood. The liver produces bile, a digestive
juice that is required for the breakdown of fatty components of the food in the duodenum. This process is
called emulsification.The liver also processes the vitamins and fats and synthesizes many plasma proteins.

Gallbladder

It is a small organ which is connected to the liver.it stores the bile that the liver produces.it is used to
store and recycle excess bile from the small intestine so that it can be reused for the digestion of
subsequent meals.

Large Intestine

The large intestine is a long muscular tube that has different parts, which are caecum, colon, and rectum. It
is located just inferior to the stomach and wraps around the superior and lateral border of the small
intestine. The human large intestine is much smaller in length compared to the small intestine but larger in
diameter.

Cecum connects to the small intestine and its primary function includes the reabsorption of water and salts
through its highly mucous membrane, also lubricating the fecal matter using mucus.

The colon is home to many bacteria or “intestinal flora” that aid in the digestive processes. It is divided into
three parts: ascending colon, transverse colon and descending colon. The ascending colon and transverse
colon complete the absorption of water, electrolytes, and other remaining salts causing feces to dehydrate
and lubricate the feces to be eliminated out of the body. Descending colon becomes full of stool, or feces,
it empties its contents into the rectum to begin the process of elimination.The waste that is left over after
digestion of food, reaches the rectum through the peristaltic movements of the colon.

The rectum is the terminal end of the large intestine, The primary role of the rectum is to store the feces
until defecation. The feces are propelled using peristaltic movements during elimination.

Anus

Anus is that the terminal of the digestive tract, through which feces is removed from the body. Two
sphincters between the rectum and anus control elimination: the inner sphincter is involuntary and the
outer sphincter is voluntary.
Introduction

Respiration is an oxidation process which involves degradation of a complex organic compound, hence
carbon dioxide and water and energy are produced. Respiration process can be divided into two phases –

External Respiration or Breathing

In this process, animals intake oxygen and release carbon dioxide. It is also known as breathing. This is
mainly two phases.

Inspiration: It is the process by means of which oxygen is taken to the lungs.

Expiration: During expiration, carbon dioxide is expelled out from the respiratory organs into the
environment.

Internal Respiration or Cellular Respiration

In this process, oxygen is used in chemical reactions within the cells. These reactions release energy from
food substances and produced carbon dioxide and water as waste products.

Sugar+O2⟶CO2+H2O+Energy

Respiration in Animals

The mode of external respiration varies greatly from organism to organism. The basic process of
respiration (cellular respiration) is similar in all living organisms. The process of exchange gases varies in
different animals.

1. Through Plasma Membrane

In unicellular animals, such as amoeba, exchange of gases takes place through cell surface. They absorb
oxygen from the surrounding air or water and give out carbon dioxide through plasma membrane by
diffusion.

2. Through Body Wall or Skin

Tapeworms, earthworms, and leeches use their skin for the exchange of gases. The skin of Earthworms is
very thin and moistened. Many blood cells are spread on this skin. These blood cells are known as
capillaries. The exchange of gases occurs at capillaries. They die of suffocation if their skin is dried up.

Amphibians such as frogs use more than one organ of respiration during their life. They breathe through
gills while they are tadpoles. Mature frogs breathe mainly with lungs and also exchange gas with the
environment through skin.

3. Through Tracheal System

In insects like cockroaches, grasshopper, transportation of gas or gaseous exchange take place by a special
type of fine tubes is called tracheae.

Air containing oxygen enters through spiracles into the tracheal tubes. It then diffuses into the body tissue
and reaches every cell in the body. Carbon dioxide released from the cells goes into the tracheal tubes and
comes out through spiracles.

4. Through Gills

A majority of aquatic animals like fish and prawns breathe through special organs called gills. Gilla are
projections of the skin that help in using oxygen dissolved in water. Gills contain blood vessels which help
in exchange of gases.

Fish live in water. To get oxygen dissolved in water, fish gulp water through the mouth and pump it over
the gills. Water passes into the gill chamber through gill slits. In each chamber, the water passes over the
filaments. They absorb oxygen from the water and replace it with carbon dioxide formed. The water then
passes out through the gill opening and this process is repeated again and again.

5. Through lungs

Amphibians, mammals, and birds exchange gases through special respiratory organs called lungs. Lungs are
air-filled sac-like structures in the chest cavity. They are connected to the outside by a series of tubes and
small opening.

When we breathe, we inhale oxygen and exhale carbon dioxide. The so-called exchange of gases is
necessary for metabolic activities and can be considered a chemical process.

Every organism, from an individual bacteria cell to a mighty blue whale, undergoes respiration. This
respiration is carried out by a system of organs known as the Respiratory System and the respiration in
humans is carried out by the human respiratory system.

Respiratory System
Definition

“Human Respiratory System is the organ system that involves inhaling of oxygen and exhaling of carbon
dioxide to meet the energy requirements.”

What is the Respiratory System?

The human respiratory system consists of a group of organs and tissues that help us to breathe. Lungs are
the primary organs of the respiratory system which help in the exchange of gases. The other main parts of
this system include a series of airways for air passages, blood vessels, and the muscles that facilitate
breathing.

Human Respiratory System Diagram

The diagram of the human respiratory system shows different parts involved in the exchange of gases.

Human Respiratory System

Human Respiratory System Diagram showing different parts of the Respiratory Tract

Features of the human respiratory system

The respiratory system in humans has the following important features.

The energy is generated by the breakdown of glucose molecules in all living cells of the human body.

Oxygen is inhaled and is transported to various parts and are used in the process of burning food particles
(breaking down of glucose molecules) at the cellular level in a series of chemical reactions.

The obtained glucose molecules are used for discharging energy in the form of ATP- adenosine
triphosphate molecules by the human body to fulfil essential life processes.

Respiratory System Parts

Let us have a detailed look at the different parts of the respiratory system.
Nose

The nose possesses a couple of exterior nostrils which are divided by a framework of cartilaginous
structure termed as the septum. This is the structure that evenly separates the right nostril from the left
nostril. Tiny hair follicles that cover the interior lining of nostrils acts as the body’s first line of defence
against foreign pathogens. Furthermore, they provide additional humidity for inhaled air.

Larynx

Two cartilaginous chords lay the framework for the larynx. They are situated at the point of joining the
pharynx and trachea. It is also termed as Adam’s apple or the voice box. It is the portion which rises and
falls during swallowing of food particles. It generates sound as air passes through the hollow in the middle.

Pharynx

The nasal chambers open up into a wide hollow space termed as the pharynx. It is a common path for both
air and food. It functions by preventing the entry of food particles into the windpipe. The epiglottis is
elastic cartilage which serves as a switch between the larynx and the oesophagus by allowing the passage
of air into the airway to the lungs, and food into the gastrointestinal tract.

Have you ever wondered why we cough when we eat or swallow?

Talking while we eat or swallow results in incessant coughing. The reason behind this reaction is the
epiglottis. It is forced to open for the air to exit outwards and the food to enter into the windpipe,
triggering a cough.

Trachea

The trachea or the windpipe rises below the larynx and moves down to the neck. The walls of trachea
comprise C-shaped cartilaginous rings which give hardness to the trachea and maintain it by completely
expanding. The trachea extends further down into the breastbone and splits into two bronchi, one for each
lung.

Bronchi

The trachea splits into two tubes termed as bronchi, which enter each lung individually. The bronchi are
divided into secondary, tertiary, and to bronchioles which is again further divided into small air-sacs called
the alveoli. The alveoli are minute sacs of air with thin walls, and single-celled manner. It enables the
exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide molecules into or away from the bloodstream.

Lungs

Lungs are the chief centres of the respiration in humans and other vertebrates. They are located in the
thoracic cavity of the chest near the backbone and on either side of the heart. They are the pair of large,
spongy organs mainly involved in the exchange of gases between the blood and the air. Compared to the
left lung, the right lung is quite bigger and heavier.

Respiratory Tract
The respiratory tract in humans is made up of the following parts:
External nostrils – For the intake of air.

Nasal chamber – which is lined with hair and mucus to filter the air and remove dust and dirt.

Pharynx – It is a passage behind the nasal chamber and serves as the common passageway for both air and
food.

Larynx – Also known as the soundbox as it helps in the generation of sound and thus helps us in
communicating.

Epiglottis – It is a flap-like structure that covers the glottis and prevents the entry of food into the
windpipe.

Trachea – It is a long tube passing through the mid-thoracic cavity.

Bronchi – The trachea divides into left and right bronchi.

Bronchioles – Each bronchus is further divided into finer channels known as bronchioles

Alveoli – The bronchioles end up into the balloon-like structures known as the alveoli

Lungs – We have a pair of lungs, which are sac-like structures and covered by a double-layered membrane
known as pleura.

The air that we inhale has the following composition:

Nitrogen – 78%

Oxygen – 21%

Carbon dioxide – 0.03 – 0.04%

Traces of Hydrogen and Noble gases

From the above list, the air contains more oxygen than carbon dioxide. The air is inhaled with the help of
nostrils, and in the nasal cavity, the air is cleansed by the fine hair follicles present within them. The cavity
also has a collective group of blood vessels that keep the air warm. This air then passes to the pharynx,
then to the larynx and into the trachea.

The trachea and the bronchi are coated with ciliated epithelial cells and goblet cells (secretory cells) which
discharge mucus to moisten the air as it passes through the respiratory tract and also traps the fine bits of
dust or bacteria that have been escaped from the hairs of the nasal openings. The motile cilia strike in an
ascending motion such that the mucus and other foreign particles are carried back to the buccal cavity
where it might be either cough out or swallowed.

Once the air reaches bronchus, it moves into the bronchioles, and then into the alveoli. From the alveoli,
the formation of respiratory surfaces occurs in humans.

Respiratory System Functions

The human respiratory system functions are mentioned below:

Inhalation and Exhalation

The respiratory system helps in breathing, known as pulmonary ventilation. The air inhaled through the
nose moves through the pharynx, larynx, and trachea into the lungs. The air is exhaled back through the
same pathway. Changes in the volume and pressure in the lungs aid in pulmonary ventilation.

Exchange of Gases between Lungs and Bloodstream

Inside the lungs, the oxygen is exchanged for carbon dioxide waste through millions of microscopic sacs
called alveoli. The inhaled oxygen diffuses into the pulmonary capillaries, binds to haemoglobin and is
pumped through the bloodstream. The carbon dioxide from the blood diffuses into the alveoli and is
expelled through exhalation.

Exchange of Gases between Bloodstream and Body Tissues

The blood carries the oxygen from the lungs around the body and releases the oxygen when it reaches the
capillaries. The oxygen is diffused through the capillary walls into the body tissues. The carbon dioxide also
diffuses into the blood and is carried back to the lungs for release.

The vibration of the Vocal Cords

While speaking, the muscles in the larynx move the arytenoid cartilage. These cartilages push the vocal
cords together. During exhalation, when the air passes through the vocal cords, it makes them vibrate and
creates sound.

Olfaction or Smelling

During inhalation, when the air enters the nasal cavities, some chemicals present in the air bind to it and
activate the receptors of the nervous system on the cilia. The signals are sent to the olfactory bulbs via the
brain.

Respiration is one of the metabolic processes which play an essential role in all living organisms.

Breathing is the first step in respiration for almost all organisms. The inhaling and exhaling of gas and its
mechanism depend on the environment in which the organisms live.

For instance, the lower organisms like the unicellular take up oxygen and release carbon dioxide by the
process of diffusion across their membrane. Annelids like earthworms have a moist cuticle which helps
them in gaseous exchange. Respiration in fish and other aquatic organisms have special organs called gills,
which help them in respiration. Most of the higher organisms possess a pair of lungs for breathing.
Respiration in humans is carried out through the lungs..

..what is the main difference between breathing and respiration in humans?

Breathing is the physical process of inhaling oxygen and exhaling carbon dioxide in and out of our lungs. On
the contrary, respiration is the chemical process where oxygen is utilized to breakdown glucose to
generate energy to carry out different cellular processes.
Mechanism of Respiration

Mechanism of respiration involves the breathing mechanism and exchange of gases.

The gaseous exchange occurs by diffusion in the alveoli. It depends upon the pressure differences between
blood and tissues, or atmospheric air and blood. The exchange of gases takes place at the surface of the
alveolus.

The mechanism of breathing has already been explained above. Let us have a look at the steps involved in
the exchange of gases.

Exchange of Gases

The exchange of gases takes place in the following manner:

Transport Of Oxygen

Oxygen in the blood is carried to the tissue in two forms- Oxyhaemoglobin- chemical composition of
oxygen with haemoglobin, and solution of oxygen in blood plasma.

The oxygen in the blood combines with haemoglobin when the concentration of oxygen is high in the
blood.

Oxyhemoglobin, being unstable, dissociates to release oxygen. Low oxygen, low pH and high temperatures
stimulate the dissociation process.

Internal Respiration

The gaseous exchange taking place in the tissues is called internal respiration. Here, the oxygen carried in
the form of oxyhemoglobin gets dissociated to release oxygen.

This oxygen breaks down the glucose to release carbon dioxide, water, and energy. The energy is utilized
by the body, while the carbon dioxide is diffused from the tissues.

Transport Of Carbon dioxide From Tissues To Lungs

Carbon dioxide is transported by three mechanisms:

Some carbon dioxide dissolves with the water of plasma to form carbonic acid.

Carbonic acid ionizes to form bicarbonate ions. The hydrogen ions are catalyzed by the enzyme carbonic
anhydrase. Bicarbonate ions combine with sodium and potassium to form sodium bicarbonate and
potassium bicarbonate.

Some carbon dioxide combines with haemoglobin for the formation of carbaminohemoglobin.

It is finally carried to the lungs and released out of the body through expiration.