Академический Документы
Профессиональный Документы
Культура Документы
3
• Measurements of CO2 evolved is often used to
gauge progression of the deterioration reaction
• The living organism can include
1. Viable grain kernels
2. Insects
3. Fungi
4. Micro-organisms (Bacteria, moulds, and yeasts)
5. Mites
6. Rodents and birds etc
4
Insects and rodents can cause a lot of damage. Not only by eating the
products, but also by passing on micro-organisms through their
hair.
Micro-organisms are very small, one-celled animals and are of three
types: bacteria, moulds and yeasts.
Bacteria and yeasts cannot be seen with the naked eye, but moulds
are often visible because they form visible thin threads (filaments)
or a solid cluster. Just like humans, micro-organisms require
certain minimum living conditions.
Micro-organisms cannot survive without:
1. sufficient water
2. oxygen
3. the right degree of acidity
4. nutrients
5. the right temperature
5
Reasons of deterioration
1. At the time of harvest or sometimes before, these living organisms begin
to compete to maximize their share for grain nutrients
2. As the living organisms succeed, the grain deteriorates
3. Preservation slows the reaction of living organisms
Effectiveness of preservation
Preservation cannot:
i. Improve upon the agricultural products or grains as it was at the
time of Harvest
ii. Stop the deterioration completely
However, it can slow the deterioration to an acceptable rate
6
Basic Preservation methods
A. Drying
B. Mechanical isolation
C. Refrigeration
D. Chemical treatment
E. Ionizing Radiations
7
A - Drying or dehydration
8
• Water is necessary for maintaining many physical processes. Where there
is a shortage or lack of water micro-organisms cannot grow.
• Drying is therefore one way to prevent spoilage.
• Most micro-organisms need oxygen. If there is a shortage of oxygen, it is
difficult for bacteria to survive, let alone multiply. As soon as the oxygen
supply is increased, these remaining bacteria will again grow and
multiply.
• Bacteria grow best in an environment that is not too acidic. Less acidic
products are therefore especially susceptible to bacterial spoil-age.
Examples of such products are meat, eggs, milk and various types of
vegetables. Beer, yoghurt, wine, vinegar and fruit are less sensitive
because they are more acidic. Adding acidity to products slows down
the process of microbial spoilage.
• To thrive, micro-organisms need a temperature of between 5 and 65°C. At
temperatures above 65°C it becomes very difficult for them to survive.
9
• Fungus - The greatest cause of deterioration of
grains/agricultural products require at least 65-68% RH for
growth
10
B - Mechanical isolation
Mechanical isolation preserves grains by fencing out
threatening organisms or something they need to survive
Examples-Metal cans and rodent proof grain bins
Canning
Process of heating a product to a temperature where
contained organisms are killed or inactivated, then sealing to
prevent entry of oxygen or micro-organisms
The material in the can is kept in an aseptic state
Nikolas Appert, a Paris confectioner, discovered that food
heated in sealed container would not be spoiled if the seal was
retained
11
• Discovery was made without any understanding of the micro-
organisms involved.
12
C - Refrigeration- An effective preservation method
14
D - Chemical treatment
Presence of certain chemicals retards or prevents deterioration
by living organisms
Precautions
1. The chemical in the concentration retained in the products
should be at worst harmless and at best beneficial to the end
use of the products.
16
Chapter-2
Moisture in Grain
2
Moisture content relationships
Moisture content (wb) =Mw Relationship between
Md & Mw
Moisture content (db) =Md
Water in grain at Mw =w
Wet weight of grain =Wo
Weight of dry mass = Wd
Wo = w +Wd
Mw =w/Wo
Md = w/Wd
3
Moisture content conversion-wet
basis to dry basis
Prove that Md = Mw/(1-0.01Mw)
We know that
Md = 100 Mw/(100-Mw)
4
Moisture content conversion-dry
basis to wet basis
Prove that Mw = Md / (1+0.01Md)
We know that
Md = Mw / (1-0.01Mw)
(1-0.01Mw) Md = Mw
Md - 0.01Mw Md = Mw
Mw + 0.01Mw Md = Md
Mw (1 + 0.01 Md ) = Md
Mw = Md/ (1 + 0.01 Md ) Hence proved
5
One Bushel- A standard weight at a
standard moisture content
(col-1) (col-2) (col-3) col2 x (100-col3) Dry
Grain Standard weight Standard Matter
(Ibs) moisture content (%) (Ibs)
corn 56 15.5 47.32
1-bushel=1.245 ft3
6
Weight of corn at various grain moisture levels
75
Corn weight per bushel (Ib/bu)
2 2
70 y = 0.008x + 0.42x + 47.4, R = 0.9
65
60
55
50
45
0 10 20 30 40
Grain moisture content (% wb)
7
• Q. Why moisture content of agricultural products is measured
on wet weight basis?
• Ans. Due to easy calculation during crop drying
MC % Water Dry matter Sample weight
(wb) (kg) (kg) (kg)
Let, mc= 20% w1 = 20 DM = 80 Let, W1=100
0.20 W1 + DM = W1 or 0.20 (100) + 80 = 100
After drying to 0.10 W2+DM = W2 Then,
10% Or W2(1.0 – 0.10) = DM W2=88.89
Or W2 = DM/0.9 =80/0.90 = 88.89
and w2=0.10W2=0.10(88.9)=8.89
After drying to 0.05W3 + DM = W3 W3 = 84.21
5% Or W3(1.0-0.05)= DM
Or W3=DM/0.95 = 80/0.95= 84.21
and w3= 0.05(84.21) = 4.21
After drying to 0.0W4 + DM = W4 W4 = 80
0% Or W4(1.0-0.0)= DM
Or W4=DM/1.0 = 80/1.0= 80
and w4= 0.0(84.21) = 0
8
• We know that dry matter, DM1=DM2
• Let wet weight of grain, W1 = 100 kg at mc=20%
[w1=0.2W1=20 kg and DM1=0.8W1=80 kg]
• If grain are dried to 10% mc, then DM2=0.9W2
• Where, W2=W1-w w=water to be removed
• Since, DM1=DM2
• 0.8W1=0.9W2=0.9(W1-w)
• 0.8(100)=0.9(100-w)
• arranging, 0.9w=0.9(100) -0.8(100)=10
• therefore, w=10/0.9=11.11 kg
• and W2=W1-w=100-11.11=88.89 kg
9
Problem - 1
2000 kg of freshly harvested paddy with a moisture content of
25% (wb) is dried to a moisture content of 14% (wb). Determine
the final weight of grain after drying.
10
Problem - 2
8000 kg of paddy at a mc of 0.12(wb) is required to be stored in a
grain storage. It was decided that the available freshly harvested
paddy with mc= 0.20 (wb) should be procured and then be dried
to a mc=0.12 % (wb). How many kg of freshly harvested paddy
are to be procured?
Solution: DM1=DM2
0.8W1=0.88W2=0.88(8000)=7040
W1=7040/0.8=8800 kg
Water to be dried?
w=W2-W1=8800-7040=1760 kg
11
Determination of moisture contents
1. Direct method
2. Indirect method
12
Classification of air oven method
One stage method
• Used for grains…… less than 13%
Procedure
• Grind duplicate samples of 2-3 gm and weigh accurately
• Heat for one hour in oven at 130 °C
• Remove from oven and place in a desicater and then re-weigh
• M.C (wb) = (Initial weight of sample – final weight of
sample)/Initial weight of sample
13
Two stage method
• used for grains for moisture content over 13 %
Procedure
• Weigh accurately 25-30 gm sample of whole grain
• Place in an oven for 14-16 hours
• Remove from the oven and place in a desicater and
then re-weigh
• Grind a sample of the grain and proceed for stage
one method
14
Water oven method
15
Indirect method
1. Resistance method
2. Capacitance method
3. Chemical method
16
Resistance method
• V=IR
17
Capacitance method
• C = kKA/h
• C = 0.225 εA/h
• ε = Dielectric constant
= specific inductance constant
• Dielectric properties depend upon mc
• Wetter the material, higher will be the dielectric constant
• Low mc…..low D.E.C
• Water has dielectric constant =80 and grains have less than 5
• High frequency current is passed in this process
• Useful for 8-40% mc determination
18
Chemical Method
19
Moisture measurement- unground grain and seeds
Seed Oven temp, oC Time (hr : min) Sample size, g
Barley 130 20 10
Corn 103 72 15
Oats 130 22 10
Onion 130 0:50 10
Radish 130 1:10 10
Rye 130 16 10
Sorghum 130 18 10
Soybeans 130 72 15
Turnip 130 4 10
Wheat 130 19 10
Reference: ASAE Standards, 2011 20
Chapter-3
2
Equilibrium moisture contents
Example
Temperature lines
A grain bin is loaded with
corn having 25% moisture
40 F
content (wb). To what
moisture content will the 16 55 F
3
Equilibrium moisture contents
Example Temperature lines
40 oF line corresponds to 90
% RH by extending a vertical 14
70 F
line from x-axis
MC (wb)
Draw a horizontal line from 12
this point to cut the y-axis to
find the MC
The corn will absorb
moisture from air and will
reach to EMC90%rh,40oF=21.5%
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Relative humidity
4
Three conditions of moisture contents
• At low moisture content, water is held very tightly, very dry air
is required to dry grains
More warmer air will dry more moisture contents for the
same level of R.H
5
Equilibrium moisture contents (cont,d)
Example
Compare EMC at 40 F and 65 % RH with EMC at 85 F and 65 %
RH
Solution
From EMC plot EMC40F, 65% rh = 15.0 %
EMC85 F, 65 % rh = 12.3 %
6
Temperature lines
• Draw horizontal line
from 20%MC and
intersect 55oF 20
40 F
temperature curve 55 F
• Move vertically
70 F
downward and read
MC (wb)
12
RH as
RH 55oF,20 %EMC =89 %
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Relative humidity
7
Profile of curves-EMC
8
Problem - 1
100 kg of wheat at a moisture content of 14 % (w.b) was mixed
with 2000 kg of wheat at a moisture content of 16 % (w.b). Then
it was again dried to a moisture content of 12 % (w.b). What will
be the final moisture weight of the grain
Solution
MC Wi w DM
(% wb)
14 W1=100 w1=0.14(100)=14 DM1=0.86(100)=86
16 W2=2000 w2=0.16(2000) DM2=0.82(2000)
=320 =1680
Total W3=W1+W2 w3=w1+w2=334 DM3=DM1+DM2
=2100 =1766
MC3 after mixing = 100(w/W)=100(334/2100)=15.9%
9
DM3=DM4
(1-0.159)W3=(1-0.12)(W3-w4)
0.841(2100)=0.88(2100-w4)
0.88w4=2100(0.88-0.841)=81.9
w4=81.9/0.88=93.07 kg
W4=2006.93 kg
Problem - 2
What weight of 12 % moisture must be mixed with
25000 lb of 25 % grain to obtain 15 % moisture grain
Solution:
Remember the total wet weight Wt=W1+W2
Amount of water,
0.15(W1+W2)=0.12W1+0.25W2
(0.15-0.12)W1=(0.25-0.15)W2
W1=(0.10/0.03)W2=3.33*25000=83333.33 lb
11
Sample W w DM
Psychrometery
2
Psychrometric chart Specific volume
m3/kg DA
ft3/lb DA
Relative humidity
Saturation line
Enthalpy Absolute
Wet bulb
BTU per lb Humidity
Or
kJ per kg
100% (lb of water
enthalpy 90%
/lb of DA)
lines
Or kg per kg
Wet bulb
Or dew point
Or saturation
temperature
(C or F)
Argon=0.93 % = 0.0093
5
Dry bulb temperature lines
Dry bulb temperature is the most
common measure of temperature as
measured by a thermometer with a
dry bulb. On the graph, the vertical
lines represent dry bulb
temperature. As you go towards the
right side, it means that there is
more sensible heat, and as you go
towards the left side, it means that
there is less sensible heat. This
passage is reinforced by the
highlighted vertical lines and
an animated thermometer
which illustrates the increase
and decrease in temperature
levels for changing point
positions.
Absolute Humidity lines
Absolute humidity is the
amount of moisture in the
air as measured in pounds
of water per pound of dry
air. This concept
highlights the horizontal
lines which represent the
absolute humidity. The
points higher up on the
chart mean that there is
more moisture, and those
on the lower part mean
that there is less moisture.
Saturation Line
The saturation line represents
the maximum amount of
humidity that air can hold.
The saturation line, shows
that air can hold more
moisture as the temperature
increases (upwards
movement and orange
highlighting of curve), and
less moisture as the
temperature decreases
(downwards movement and
blue highlighting of curve).
Relative
humidity
The percentage of
humidity relative
to the saturation
humidity of air at
the given
temperature.
Wet-bulb Temperature
Wet-bulb temperature is defined as “the
temperature as measured by a thermometer
whose bulb is surrounded by a damp wick”
in the tutorial. It is used to show adiabatic
changes on the Psychrometric Chart -that is
a change that does not result in a change of
total-heat content of the air. The visual
animation shows that lines of constant wet
bulb temperatures run diagonally up and to
the left on the chart (yellow), and the audio
explains that wet bulb temperature is always
lower than the corresponding dry bulb
temperature (orange) because evaporation
makes it cooler. Wet bulb temperature is
introduced beforehand, because is important
in illustrating the functions of an
evaporative cooler, which will be explained
later in the tutorial correlated with several
other concepts.
Dew point
temperature
Dew point temperature
is the temperature at
which the air becomes
completely saturated
and the water starts to
precipitate out of the air
at saturation line. As air
gets cool at constant
absolute humidity lines
(horizontal lines) and
intersect saturation line
at left, the water starts
dripping out and that
temperature is Tdp.
Precipitation
The precipitation
is the amount of
water that is
taken out of the
air by a surface
that is below the
current dew-point
temperature.
Comfort zone
Thermal comfort is defined by
environmental conditions that are
comfortable and acceptable outside or
inside buildings. This is essentially
determined by the elimination of thermal
(heat/cold) „discomfort‟. The human body
involuntarily regulates its production of
internal heat to compensate for the
thermal conditions of the environment.
Eventually the metabolic generation of
heat offsets the heat losses so the
individual experiences only very small
variations (discomfort) in the feeling of
thermal comfort and thereby feels at ease.
The ASHRAE (American Society of
Heating , Refrigeration and Air
Conditioning Engineers) comfort zone is
developed on this basis, and it specifies
boundaries of air temperature and
humidity for sedentary people. The
comfort zone on the Psychrometric Chart
explains that “different temperature
ranges are given for winter (orange) and
summer (yellow), to take into account
changes in „seasonal
clothing habits‟.”
Mechanical Systems
This final screen brings together all concepts
to explain the effects of HVAC (heating,
ventilating, and air conditioning) systems on
indoor air conditions, and how this can
describe the mechanisms for causing a shift
in indoor conditions on the Psychrometric
Chart. Distinguished by the separate colors,
the functions of furnaces, air conditioners,
and evaporative coolers are explained
through different color lines. The four
common ways a building‟s HVAC system
can change indoor air conditions are
introduced in the following sequence:
increase in dry bulb temperature; decrease in
dry bulb temperature; decrease in dry bulb
temperature while increase in humidity
level; dehumidification of air by
precipitation and reheating to a resulting
lower absolute humidity.
Psychrometery-Terminologies
Humidity ratio (H)
H = Ww/Wa
where
H = Humidity ratio (kg/kg)
Ww = weight of water (kg)
Wa = weight of dry air (kg)
15
Prove that
H =0.622 Pw/(P-Pw)
Where
Tab = temperature in K
Pa and Pw = Partial pressure of air and water
Mw and Ma = Molar mass of water and dry air (kg / mole)
Ro = Universal gas constant (N-m/(kg.mole.K) 16
According to Daltons law of partial pressure
P = Pa + Pw
Pa = P- Pw
H= Pw/(P-Pw) * Mw/Ma
H= 0.622 Pw / (P-Pw)
Hence proved
18
Relative humidity
Relative humidity of moist air is defined as
i.e.,
(partial water vapor pressure/saturated water vapor pressure)
19
Prove that
RH =HP/(0.622+H)Ps
Proof
We know that
RH = Pw/Ps Eq.(1)
H= 0.622 Pw/(P-Pw) Eq.(2)
From Eq.(1)
Pw= Ps * RH
Put in 2
H= 0.622 Ps*RH/(P-Ps*RH)
Re-arranging
RH= HP/((0.622 + H)Ps) Hence proved
20
Specific volume
The specific volume of moist air is defined as
Total volume of 1 kg of dry air and its accompanying water
vapors
The specific weight of moist air is reciprocal of specific volume
Using Amalgat,s law, the specific volume (v) of moist air (m3)is
given as
Where
Td = Dry bulb temperature 21
Vapor Pressure
Vapor pressure (Pw) is defined as, the partial pressure exerted by
the water vapor present in the moist air
where
Tab= absolute temperature, K
22
Dry bulb temperature
The temperature indicated by thermometer unaffected by
moisture or radiation (Ta)
The enthalpy of moist air is the heat constant of the moist air per
unit weight of the dry air above a certain reference point
h = ha + H*hv
where
h= enthalpy of moist air, kJ/kg
ha = enthalpy of moist dry air, kJ/kg
hv =enthalpy of water vapor, kJ/kg
24
Practice problems
Q1. Air temperature in a room ia measured as Tdb=75oF,
Twb=60 oF. Find %RH, W, h, Tdp, and v. [Ans: 42 %RH,
0.0072 Lb water/Lb DA, 26.5 Btu/Lb DA, 50 oF, 13.65 Lb DA]
Q9. Air at a temp of 30°C and 70% relative humidly air is heated
to 50°C and this air enters a bed of wheat. The mass flow
rate of air is 1.2 kg/sec. the air leaves a drier under saturated
condition. Determine the moisture removal rate.
27
Key points
• Total energy remains constant in evaporation
(Adiabatic Process)
• The evaporation process takes place up to
saturation line
• Energy is required to evaporate water.
Therefore, any increase in moisture content of
air must be accompanied by a decrease in
temperature, the total energy level of the air
remains the same (Law of conservation of
energy)
28
Chapter-5
Drying and Storage of Cereal Grains-
Fundamentals of Psychrometry
RH = 80% RH = 27.51%
RH = 80% RH = 13.57%
T1 T2
T1 Tw
Fuel Efficiency
WH 2O h fg
100%
W h tfuel c
Mass Balance & Energy Balance
Heater Dryer
Wet Grain
Dry Grain
Fuel
Thermal Energy
Heat of Combustion, hc
Gasoline ----- kcal/kg
n-Octane 10,618 kcal/kg
Diesel 8,326 kcal/liter 10,330 kcal/kg
Kerosene 8,146 kcal/liter 10,390 kcal/kg
No.6 Heavy Oil 10,328 kcal/kg
Wood 4,785 kcal/kg
Rice Husk 3,600 kcal/kg
1 kcal = 4.1868 kJ
• Reference: Bala, B.K.. 1997. Drying and Storage of Cereal Grains. New
Hampshire: Science Publishers, Inc..
Chapter-6
2
Drying Process---steps
1. Moisture removed from one point to another at a
rate dependant on the difference in relative
humidity between the two locations
2. Air passed through the bed of grain will either gain
or loose moisture
3. Airflow rate
– Too fast/too slow air –does remove the required water
– An optimum air flow rate be calculated for required water
removel
5. Hot air at a temperature Ti and humidity Hi is
passed from bottom side of grain bed
6. The bottom portion will be dried first (called as
dried zone)
7. The intermediate portion will be drying zone as it
has evaporated all the moisture content from
bottom side and the top portion is still un-dried
8. The drying order will shift from bottom to top till all
the grain layer is dried
9. The leaving air will have temperature Tf and
humidity Hf
4
Deep bed drying
Wet cold air out
When the grains are dried in
deep beds, three distinct
zones are developed Un-dried zone
1. Un-dried zone
Drying zone
2. Drying zone
Dried zone
3. Dried zone
Where,
V=air specific volume (m3/kg DA) from psychrometric chart
w1 and w2 =the absolute humidity (kg H20/kg DA) before and after drying
respectively
qm= mass flow rate of air (kg/sec)
15
Chapter-7a
2
Table-1. Typical grain aeration rates
Application Grain aeration rate
cfm/bu*
Quality maintenance 1/50 to 1
Aeration rate
With the fan delivering 10,000 cfm, the aeration rate is:
Figure-1. Deep-bed, natural-air grain drying
Cylindrical
50,000 lbs of
500,000
Grain Bin
20% moisture corn
Fan
Given:
• Twb = Wet bulb temperature = 47 °F
• Twbd= wet bulb depression = 6 °F
6
Figure-2. Natural-air drying example plotted on
psychrometric chart
100% rh
88% rh
Point A
65% rh
TDB = 53ºF
TWB= 47ºF
RH = 65%
w = 0.0054 lb H2O/lb da
V = 13.05 ft3/lb da
47º Point B
wB
B TDB = 49.5ºF
wA TWB= 47ºF
A
RH = 88%
w = 0.0064 lb H2O/lb da
49.5º 53º
Figure-3 Air conditions
MC (wb)
Now referring to
Temperature lines
equilibrium moisture
diagram, this air state
is in equilibrium with 40 F
55 F
corn at about
MC65%rh,55oF =14.2% (65%,53 oF)
EMC=14.2 %
70 F
Since 14.2 % is less than
20 %, this air is
capable of removing
moisture from the
corn mass
Air will dry grain to 14.2
% moisture contents 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Relative humidity
8
Adiabatic absorption
• As air moves up through the grain, it gives up heat
which evaporates water from kernel surfaces.
• This water vapor is picked up and carried out
(absorbed) by the airstream. This process is adiabatic
(no heat loss or gain) since it uses no other heat but
the heat which is carried in by the airstream.
• This process of adiabatic absorption is traced as a line
of constant wet bulb temperature on the
psychrometric chart (from state A to state B) as
sketched in previous Figure-2 (next slide).
9
Figure-2. Natural-air drying example plotted on
psychrometric chart
100% rh
88% rh
Point A
65% rh
TDB = 53ºF
TWB= 47ºF
RH = 65%
w = 0.0054 lb H2O/lb da
V = 13.05 ft3/lb da
47º Point B
wB
B TDB = 49.5ºF
wA TWB= 47ºF
A
RH = 88%
w = 0.0064 lb H2O/lb da
49.5º 53º
Starting from the state point ‘A’ (Tdb=53 oF,
Twb=47 oF), air simultaneously decreases in
temperature and increases in absolute
humidity and follows a line of constant wet-
bulb temperature. This also approximates a
line of constant enthalpy. Sensible heat from
the air evaporates water, which raises the
absolute humidity of the air as it is picked up
in vapor form.
But how do we determine where point B is
located?
11
Equilibrium point
As air moves up through the grain, it continues to
cool and pick up moisture until it reaches a state
of equilibrium with the corn where the net
transfer of water between corn and air is zero.
This state can be defined on the psychrometric
chart as the intersection of the process line and
the equilibrium moisture line for 20% moisture
corn.
Next slide shows how to draw the equilibrium
moisture line.
Equilibrium point
As air moves up through the grain, it continues to cool
and pick up moisture until it reaches a state of
equilibrium with the corn where the net transfer of
water between corn and air is zero. This state can be
defined on the psychrometric chart as the intersection
of the process line and the equilibrium moisture line
for 20% moisture corn.
The equilibrium line can be drawn from EMC curve for
corn by moving horizontally from y-axis at 20 % MC line
as it crosses the curves of constant temperature (40oF,
55oF, 70oF) and record relative humidity at these
intersections along x-axis (Next slide)
13
Equilibrium point determination
Temperature lines
MC (wb)
Move horizontally from
20
y-axis along the 20%
40 F
moisture line ans as it 18
55 F
crosses the lines of 16
70oF temperature
12
curves record 86%,
90%, & 92% rh
respectively moving
vertically down on the
x-axis
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 86 90 92 100
Relative humidity (%)
14
Equilibrium point
MC %wb T, oF %RH
20 40 86
20 55 90
20 70 92
15
Equilibrium point
20 % Moisture
The three equilibrium line
combinations 92 % RH
P3
P1(86% RH, 40 oF),
P2(90% RH,55 oF) & Saturation 100% Absolute
P3(92% RH,70 oF) line humidity
have been plotted 90 % RH
on the chart. The P2
smooth curve
though these 86 % RH
points defined the P1
condition where
20% MC of corn is
in equilibrium with
the air.
40 oF 55 oF 70 oF
Tdb=Dry bulb temperature
16
Figure-4. Corn equilibrium moisture line for the
natural-air bin drying example.
92% RH
Saturation Line
20% Moisture
Equilibrium Line
90% RH
86% RH
49.5 °F 53 °F
Dry bulb temperature V=13 ft3/kg DA
Sp. Vol. 19
• Equilibrium lines for other corn moistures can also be
drawn on the psychrometric chart.
• Lines for moistures higher than 20% will be closer to
the saturation line.
• For corn moistures above 25%, the equilibrium line
can be assumed to be the saturation line. This
means that air moving through corn at 25% moisture
or above will come to saturation if the grain is deep
enough.
• Figure (next slide) shows equilibrium lines for
different corn moisture contents.
(Note that the equilibrium moisture lines are not the same as
the relative humidity lines on the psychrometric chart)
Grain drying rate
Q 60
DR (Qm ) (w) ( ) (w)
V
where: DR = drying rate, lbs H2O / hr
Qm = mass airflow rate, lbs DA/hr
w = change in absolute humidity, lbs H2O / lb DA
Q = airflow rate, ft3/min or cfm
V = specific volume of air entering the fan, ft3/lb DA
60 = conversion factor, minutes to hours
In this example:
(10,000)(60)
DR (0.0064 0.0054) 45.98 lbs H2O / hr
13.05
22
Grain drying time
20 % Moisture
Grain drying time
equilibrium line
t= W/DR
t = drying time, h
W = weight of water
removed, lb/h
DR = Dying rate, lb/h 100% Ab.
For W 90% humidity
Equating dry 88 % RH
matter before 0.0064
B 65 %RH
and after drying
0.8(50,000)= A 0.0054
0.858(50,000-W)
W= 3380 lb
49.5 °F 53 °F
Dry bulb temperature V=13 ft3/kg DA
Sp. Vol. 23
Grain drying time
20 % Moisture
Drying time equilibrium line
t= W/DR
t = drying time, h
W = weight of water
removed, lb/h
DR = Dying rate, lb/h 100% Ab.
W= 3380 lb 90% humidity
t = 3380/45.98 88 % RH
= 73.24 hours 0.0064
B 65 %RH
Assuming that drying
rate stays constant until A 0.0054
all water is removed
Drying will take 73 hours
or 3.1 days
49.5 °F 53 °F
Dry bulb temperature V=13 ft3/kg DA
Sp. Vol. 24
Grain
Depth 20% 88% 49.5º F
Wet Corn
20% moisture
Drying Zone
14.0% moisture
Q 14.0%
moisture
65%
RH
53º F
Grain Temperature
Psychometric analysis of deep bed drying
20% 88% 49.5 °F
Warm moist air MC RH air temp.
Corn
Drying front 50,000 lbZONE
DRYING
20% mc
400
350 20%MC
300
250 22% MC
200
150 24% MC
100 26% MC
66.2 28% MC
50 30% MC
0 49.5
20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85
Temperature, F
Minimum air flow rate?
• If we set t = AST, we can find the minimum air
flow rate necessary to dry the corn and yet avoid
the spoilage
• For t=66.2 days = 1589 hours
DR= W/t= 3380/1589=2.13 lb of water/h
•For Qv from DR=60.Qv[WB-WA]/vo
Qv =vo.DR/[60(WB-WA)]
=13*2.13/[60 x 0.001]=461 ft3/min
Therefore a fan of 10,000 cfm can be replaced
with a fan of 461 cfm and still complete drying
within AST
Small fan would require less total energy to
complete drying 31
Remarks on deep-bed
natural-air bin drying
• Note, however, that it is unlikely that the
ambient air conditions would remain, on
average, the same for the entire 67 days.
Thus, the drying rate would not be constant.
The SCST would also change, because the
temperature of the grain would decrease as
well. A more detailed analysis is necessary to
account for these changes.
Lab exercise problems
Q1. A bin contains 150,000 lb of 26% moisture corn. Outside air is at
81oF dry bulb and 58oF wet bulb. The fan delivers 8,800 cfm.
a. Sketch a psychrometric chart and on it show process lines,
temperatures, relative humidity and absolute humidity.
b. To what moisture will this corn eventually come if the fan is
left on?
c. How much total weight of water will be removed in this drying
process?
d. How long can drying take in order to avoid spoiled corn
(days)?
e. How many days will it take to dry the corn?
Q1. Solution Hints:
Assume the saturation (100%RH) as EMCgrain 26% line.
Air at fan entry: TA=81oF, Qv=8800 CFM
Conditions At fan entrance
(air ambient condition)
Air Dry bulb, Tdb 81oF
Air Wet bulb, Twb 58 oF (EMC curve overlaps saturation line)
Air % RH 22% at intersection of Tdb=81oF and Twb=58oF
Air Specific volume, V 13.75 ft3/Ib DA at intersection of Tdb=81oF and
Twb=58oF
Air Abs humidity at state point, w1 0.005 Ib H2O/Ib DA
Air Abs humidity at grain exit point, w2 0.0102 Ib H2O/Ib DA at saturation line
∆w 0.0052
Grain EMC 81oF, 22% 6.8% ambient air can dry corn to this moisture
Water removed DM1=DM2 or 0.74(150000)=0.932(150000-W)
W=30901.3 Ib water will be removed
AST58oF,26%MC OF GRAIN 7 days
DR = 60 Qv(∆w)/V=60 x 8800 x 0.0052 /13.75= 199.6 Ib H2O/hr 7 days
Drying time, t = W/DR=30901.3/199.6 = 154.82 hr = 6.5 days ˂ AST58oF,26%MC OF GRAIN 7 days
Chapter-7b
Tdb 53 °F 64 °F
Twb 47 °F -
RH 65 % RH = 44 %
Qv 10,000 CFM -
In the drying process, the air comes in equilibrium with the corn at 20 %,
so refer moisture equilibrium diagram and plot on Psychometric chart
the 20 % moisture equilibrium line
Extend the process line from point ‘B’ parallel to wet bulb temperature
(enthalpy line) until it cuts the point at EMC=20 % line and locate end of
new process line as point C.
Absolute
Air 91 %RH point on C humidity
20%EMC grain curve
0.0079
A.
B
0.0054
65 % 44 %
RH RH
53 °F 54 °F 64 °F
Dry bulb
Prof.temperature
Dr. Muhammad Iqbal, Deptt Farm
Machinery & Power, University of Agri 6
Faisalabad
Air conditions
MC (wb)
Now referring to
Temperature lines
equilibrium moisture
diagram, the air state 64 F
‘B’ is in equilibrium 40 F
55 F
with corn at about
EMC44%rh64oF =11%
EMC=11 %
70 F
Since EMC=11 % is less
than EMC=20 %, the
air is capable of (44%,64oF)
removing moisture
from the corn mass
Air will dry grain to 11 %
moisture contents 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Relative
Prof. Dr. Muhammad Iqbal, Deptt Farm humidity
Machinery & Power, University of Agri 7
Faisalabad
Drying rate
Therefore, drying rate:
DR = Q(wC-wB)*60/Vo
= 10,000(0.0079-0-0054)60/13
= 115.4 lb/h
53 °F 54 °F 64 °F
Dry bulb
Prof.temperature
Dr. Muhammad Iqbal, Deptt Farm
Machinery & Power, University of Agri 9
Faisalabad
Comparison-natural vs dry air
Air Final Wet grain AST Drying Drying
conditions moisture, storage (days) rate, (lb/h) time,
% temperature
oF
h
47 °F 53 °F
Dry bulb
Prof. temperature
Dr. Muhammad Iqbal, Deptt Farm
Machinery & Power, University of Agri 14
Faisalabad
Lab exercise-case 2 (Natural drying case)
Given data
Diameter of bin (d)= 30 ft
Warm moist air
Height of bin (h) = 18 ft
Corn MC (wb) =20%
Qv =10000 CFM
Tdb = 53 °F ; Twb = 47 °F
Volume of bin = (π d2/4)*h
= 12723.45 ft3 Cylindrical Corn
No. of bushels = 12723.45/1.245 bin 551860 lb
= 10220 bu 20% mc
Weight of corn = 10220 bu* 54 Ib/bu
(@ Ib=54 Ib) = 551860 lb corn
VA (sp. Vol) =13 ft3/Ib DA Perforated steel
floor
1.
48 °F 53 °F
Dry bulb
Prof.temperature
Dr. Muhammad Iqbal, Deptt Farm
Machinery & Power, University of Agri 17
Faisalabad
Lab exercise-case 3 (Heated air drying)
Cylindrical Corn
bin 551860 lb
25% mc
Perforated steel
floor
Point B:
• From point ‘A’, move horizontally up to Tdb= 53 +10= 63 °F to locate the
point ‘B’ such that the absolute humidity should remain the same. This
point will become the start of process line
• Observations at ‘B’ are:
• Tdb = 63 °F Twb = 52 °F RH = 42 %
• wB = wA = 0.0054 lb of water/ lb DA
From moisture equilibrium line against EMC25%MC,63oF=11.3%
1.
Perforated steel
floor
52 °F 53 °F 63 °F
Dry bulb
Prof.temperature
Dr. Muhammad Iqbal, Deptt Farm
Machinery & Power, University of Agri 24
Faisalabad
Lab exercise problems
Q2. A bin contains 150,000 lb of 26% moisture corn. Outside air is at
81oF dry bulb and 58oF wet bulb. This air is heated 4oF before
reaching the corn. The fan delivers 8,800 cfm.
a. Sketch a psychrometric chart and on it show process lines,
temperatures, relative humidity and absolute humidity.
b. To what moisture will this corn eventually come if the fan is
left on?
c. How much total weight of water will be removed in this drying
process?
d. How long can drying take in order to avoid spoiled corn
(days)?
e. How many days will it take to dry the corn?
Prof. Dr. Muhammad Iqbal, Deptt Farm
Machinery & Power, University of Agri 25
Faisalabad
Q2. Solution Hints:
Assume the saturation as EMC 26% line.
Air at fan entry: TA=85oF, Qv=8800 CFM
Conditions At fan entrance After heating air
(ambient air condition) (entering into grain)
Air Dry bulb, Tdb 81oF 81+4=85 oF
Air Wet bulb, Twb 58 oF 59.5 oF (EMC curve overlaps
saturation line)
Air % RH 22% 20%
Air Specific volume, V 13.75 ft3/Ib DA
Air Abs humidity at state 0.005 Ib H2O/Ib DA 0.005 Ib H2O/Ib DA
point, w1
Air Abs humidity at grain 0.0102 Ib H2O/Ib DA 0.0106 Ib H2O/Ib DA
exit point, w2
Δw 0.0052 0.0106 - 0.005 = 0.0056 Ib H2O/Ib DA
Grain EMC Grain EMC81oF, 22%RH =6.8% Grain EMC 85 oF, 20%RH = 6.5%
Water removed DM1=DM2 or 0.74(150000)=0.935(150000-W)
W=31283 Ib water will be removed
AST59oF,26%MC OF GRAIN 7.9 days
DR = 60 Qv(∆w)/V=60 x 8800 x 0.0056
Prof./ Dr.
13.75=215
MuhammadIb H2O/hr
Iqbal, Deptt Farm
Drying time, t = W/DR=31283/215=145.5 hr = 6 days ˂ AST59
Machinery & Power, University ofoAgri
F,26%MC 7.9 days
26
Faisalabad
Q3.A bin contains 600,000 lb of corn at 18% moisture. A fan delivers
20,000 cfm to this bin. Ambient air is at 52oF dry bulb and 30%
relative humidity. Power input to the fan causes an 8oF
temperature rise to the air.
a. To what moisture content will the system dry the corn?
b. How long can be allowed to dry corn without spoilage?
c. Assuming air conditions stay the same, what is the minimum
airflow rate (cfm) which would complete drying within the AST?
d. How many days of the AST were lost due to the 8oF temperature?
Given:
– Grain wet weight= 600000 Ib (wb)
– Initial grain MC=18%;
– Air Qv= 20000 cfm; Ambient air TA= 52oF, RHA=30% and
– Hot Air entering condition, TB=52+8=60oF
Prof. Dr. Muhammad Iqbal, Deptt Farm
Machinery & Power, University of Agri 27
Faisalabad
Step-1. From EMC curve Grain EMC T oF % RH
18 40 80
Step-2. Using points from
18 55 84
table draw grain draw 18 75 86
18% EMC curve on psychometric chart.
Step-3. On psychometric chart From state point ‘A’ of
Ambient air TA= 52oF, RHA=30%
wA=0.0025 Ib H2O/Ib DA
v=12.9 ft3/Ib DA
Now Sensible Heat added from fan raised air temperature
to 60 oF but abs humidity ‘w’ remained same
At State point ‘B’ air enters into bin with TB=60oF and
RHB=24%
Prof. Dr. Muhammad Iqbal, Deptt Farm
Machinery & Power, University of Agri 28
Faisalabad
Step-4. Draw process line ‘BC’ from point ‘B’ to intersect
18% EMC of grain curve on psychometric chart and
find
wB=0.0055 Ib H2O/Ib DA
TC= 45 oF at the intersection of grain 18% EMC curve
and ‘BC’ process line
Step-5. From EMC curve, trace the grain EMC which the
drying air entering from point ‘B’ (TB=60oF and
RHB=24% ) will bring about. So Grain EMC= 8%
Step-6. Determine water to be removed
DM1=DM2
0.82(600,000)=0.92(600,000-W)
W=(0.92-0.82) * 600,000/0.92=65217.39
Prof. Dr. Muhammad Iqbal, Deptt Farm
Ib Ib H2O
Machinery & Power, University of Agri 29
Faisalabad
Step-7. Find Δw=wc-wb=0.0055-0.0025=0.003 Ib H2O/Ib DA
Step-8. Determine Drying rate
DR=60 Qv. Δw/V=60*20000*0.003/12.9=279.1 Ib H2O/hr
Step-9. Drying time, t=W/DR=65217.39/279.1=233.6703 hr = 9.7 days
Step-10. Determine Allowable storage time,
Since air is leaving from top of bin at 45oF through 18% MC of
grain,
Therefore, AST45oF,18% MC of grain=192 days (from AST table)
9.7 days ˂192 days
Step-11. Since t ˂ AST (i.e 9.7 days ˂192 days or 4608 hr)
Therefore, new possible and safe DR=W/AST=W/4608
hr=65217.39 Ib H2O/4608 hr=14.153 hr
Step-12. New fan flow rate, Qv=(DR*V)/(60*
Δw)=(14.153*12.9)/(60*0.003)= 1014.298 CFM
Prof. Dr. Muhammad Iqbal, Deptt Farm
Machinery & Power, University of Agri 30
Faisalabad
Q4. Corn at 26% moisture is placed in
a 24-ft bin to a depth of 12 ft. This
corn weighs 260,576 lbs. It is to be
dried using air at a constant
condition of 55oF, 75% RH. Compute
the minimum airflow (cfm) required
to complete drying without grain
spoilage.
RH 35 % RH = 25 %
vo 13.05 ft3/lb of dry air -
Qv 15,000 CFM -
Qm=60Qv/vo 68965.52 CFH 68965.52 CFH
wA 0.0032 lb of water/ lb of 0.0032 lb of water/
DA lb of DA
Absolute
Air 80 %RH point on C humidity
18%EMC grain curve
0.0064
. A B
0.0032
35 % RH 25 %RH
80%rh
46oF 51 °F 55 °F 65 °F
Dry bulb
Prof.temperature
Dr. Muhammad Iqbal, Deptt Farm
Machinery & Power, University of Agri 37
Faisalabad
Air conditions
MC (wb)
Now referring to Temperature lines
equilibrium moisture
diagram, the air state 65 F
‘B’ is in equilibrium 40 F
55 F
with corn at about
EMC25%rh65oF =7.8%
EMC=7.8 %
70 F
Since EMC=7.8 % is
less than EMC=18 %,
the air is capable of (25%,65oF)
removing moisture
from the corn mass
Air will dry grain to 7.8
10 20 30 40 50
% moisture contents 60 70 80 90 100
Relative
Prof. Dr. Muhammad Iqbal, Deptt Farm humidity
Machinery & Power, University of Agri 38
Faisalabad
Drying rate
Fans Pumps
Dr. C. L. Jones
Prof. Dr. Muhammad Iqbal, Deptt. Farm Biosystems and Ag. Engineering
Machinery & Power, University of Agri 2
Faisalabad
Pumps, Fans, Compressors
• Differences between pumps, fans,
compressors
– Pumps: move liquids
– Fans: move gases with little increase in
pressure
– Compressors: move gases with greater
increase in pressure
Dr. C. L. Jones
Prof. Dr. Muhammad Iqbal, Deptt. Farm Biosystems and Ag. Engineering
Machinery & Power, University of Agri 3
Faisalabad
Fan Standards
• ASHRAE: American Society of Heating,
Refrigeration, and Air conditioning
Engineering…research and standards
• AMCA: Air Movement and Control
Association…standards
Dr. C. L. Jones
Prof. Dr. Muhammad Iqbal, Deptt. Farm Biosystems and Ag. Engineering
Machinery & Power, University of Agri 4
Faisalabad
Fan Operation
• Fans cause pressure increase by:
– Force created by rotation of the column of air
trapped between two blades
– Kinetic energy is supplied to the air through
the impeller
– Total pressure = velocity head + static
pressure
Dr. C. L. Jones
Prof. Dr. Muhammad Iqbal, Deptt. Farm Biosystems and Ag. Engineering
Machinery & Power, University of Agri 5
Faisalabad
Selection Considerations
• Quantity of air to be moved per unit time
• Estimated system resistance and
expected variations
• Amount of noise permitted
• Space available for fan
• Economic implications
Dr. C. L. Jones
Prof. Dr. Muhammad Iqbal, Deptt. Farm Biosystems and Ag. Engineering
Machinery & Power, University of Agri 6
Faisalabad
Fan Classification
Designated as dynamic pumps
Axial flow
Propeller
Tube-Axial
Vane-Axial
Centrifugal
Forward-curved-tip
Backward-curved-tip
Straight or radial tip
Dr. C. L. Jones
Prof. Dr. Muhammad Iqbal, Deptt. Farm Biosystems and Ag. Engineering
Machinery & Power, University of Agri 7
Faisalabad
Axial_Propeller Fans
Used in many
agricultural ventilation
applications with free
delivery or low
pressure conditions
Propeller has a pitch
(twist). Distance of air
travel depends on
pitch and # of blades
Warping the blades
prevents back flow of
air.
Dr. C. L. Jones
Prof. Dr. Muhammad Iqbal, Deptt. Farm Biosystems and Ag. Engineering
Machinery & Power, University of Agri 8
Faisalabad
Axial_Tube-Axial Fans
• Wheel or
impeller within
a tube
• Blades are
warped for
efficiency
• Operates at
higher
pressures and
higher ME than
propeller fans
Dr. C. L. Jones
Prof. Dr. Muhammad Iqbal, Deptt. Farm Biosystems and Ag. Engineering
Machinery & Power, University of Agri 9
Faisalabad
Axial_Vane-Axial Fans
• Like a tube axial with
guide vanes before or
after the impeller
• Higher pressures and
efficiencies ( up to 2200
psi and 85% +)
because…
• Vanes direct air flow
through a gradual turn
until tangential velocity
component Dr. C.is eliminated
L. Jones
Prof. Dr. Muhammad Iqbal, Deptt. Farm Biosystems and Ag. Engineering
Machinery & Power, University of Agri 10
Faisalabad
Centrifugal Fans
Consists of wheel or
rotor within a spiral
housing. Air makes a
90 degree turn.
1.Forward-curved-tip
2.Backward-curved-tip
3.Straight or radial tip
Dr. C. L. Jones
Prof. Dr. Muhammad Iqbal, Deptt. Farm Biosystems and Ag. Engineering
Machinery & Power, University of Agri 11
Faisalabad
Radial_Straight or Radial-Tip Fans
• 6 – 20 blades
• Blades are 2 to 3 x as long as they are wide
• Larger housing, more expensive
• Can handle dirty air and higher pressures
Dr. C. L. Jones
Prof. Dr. Muhammad Iqbal, Deptt. Farm Biosystems and Ag. Engineering
Machinery & Power, University of Agri 12
Faisalabad
Backward-Curved-Tip Fans
• Approx. 12 blades
• Flat and tilted backwards
• High speed fan with self-limiting power
– If sized correctly, motor won’t overheat if conditions change
• Most efficient
Dr. C. L. Jones
• Cannot handle dirty air
Prof. Dr. Muhammad Iqbal, Deptt. Farm Biosystems and Ag. Engineering
Machinery & Power, University of Agri 13
Faisalabad
Forward-Curved-Tip Fans
Dr. C. L. Jones
Prof. Dr. Muhammad Iqbal, Deptt. Farm Biosystems and Ag. Engineering
Machinery & Power, University of Agri 15
Faisalabad
Fan Curves
• Fans follow the following laws (ASHRAE)
Dr. C. L. Jones
Prof. Dr. Muhammad Iqbal, Deptt. Farm Biosystems and Ag. Engineering
Machinery & Power, University of Agri 16
Faisalabad
Fan Law Example
Dr. C. L. Jones
Prof. Dr. Muhammad Iqbal, Deptt. Farm Biosystems and Ag. Engineering
Machinery & Power, University of Agri 17
Faisalabad
More Fans…
Fans in parallel:
Fans in series:
moves curve to the right…
moves curve up…
pressure stays the same,
flow rate stays the same,
flow rate is the sum
pressure is the sum
Dr. C. L. Jones
Prof. Dr. Muhammad Iqbal, Deptt. Farm Biosystems and Ag. Engineering
Machinery & Power, University of Agri 18
Faisalabad
Chapter-8b
ELECTRICAL
ENERGY,
kW GRAIN
Manometer
Fan increases air pressure from 0 inches of water to “h” inches water. The air at a
pressure of “h” inches of water in the plenum flows toward a region where the
pressure is less. In so doing itProf.
Farm
Dr. Muhammad Iqbal, Department
passes up&through
Machinery theof grain in the bin.
Power, University 4
Agriculture, Faisalabad
• An inch of water is a relatively small unit of
pressure in comparison to the lb/in2 unit, for
example.
– Air moving machines which operate at
pressures below about 25 inch water are
commonly called fans.
– Those operating at higher and much higher
pressures are called blowers and
compressors, respectively.
• where: KE=kinetic energy, ft lb; W=weight, lb ; V=velocity, ft/min; g=acceleration due to gravity, 32.2 ft/sec 2
TP = VP + SP
1. The left manometer registers the fan air static pressure (SP).
2. The center manometer registers the total fan air pressure (TP).
3. The RHS manometer is aimed directly into the airstream, and the other end is exposed to the
atmosphere. The pressure registered on this manometer is the static pressure and also the pressure
which is developed as the air molecules from the fan move into and stop within the tube. The pressure
developed from this occurrence is called velocity pressure (VP). The right-angle tube used to take this
measurement is called a pitot (peetoe) tube. The right manometer has a pitot tube, but the other end is
open to the fan duct and registers only the velocity pressure Since both of its ends are subjected to SP.
Prof. Dr. Muhammad Iqbal, Department
Farm Machinery & Power, University of 11
Agriculture, Faisalabad
B-Air Horsepower
• Power into the fan can be designated in units of
hp or kW. Note that 1 hp is equivalent to 0.746
kW.
• Air horsepower can be computed in terms of flow
rate and pressure:
SHP
SE 100%
BHP
where: SE = static efficiency, %
Free delivery condition: If the static pressure developed by the fan is near zero, the fan
delivers its maximum possible airflow.
The cutoff point: If resistance to flow is increased, the static pressure developed by the fan
increases and airflow decreases. Moving up the fan characteristics line, eventually the
point is reached where airflow is zero. Even though airflow is zero, the fan still develops a
static pressure. Prof. Dr. Muhammad Iqbal, Department
Farm Machinery & Power, University of 16
Agriculture, Faisalabad
Figure-4. Sukup axial fan curves (Sukup, 2004).
13500
Q SP (13,500)(3)
• SHP 6.38 hp
6350 6350
Q VP (13,500)(0.62)
• VHP 1.32 hp
6350 6350
THP 7.7
ME 100% 100% 63.8 %
BHP 12.06
1.50 values for pressures above 4 in. Between 3 and 4 in. of water cfm/watt values are
nearly the same. =13500 CFM/12000 W = 1.13 CFM/W
1.25
1.00
Centrifugal
0.75
0.50
Axial
0.25
0.00
1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0 5.5 6.0 6.5 7.0
Static Pressure, inches H2O
Figure-8 illustrates fluid flow through a granular material. The fluid in the plenum
at a pressure of P, flows toward a region of lower pressure. The granular
material offers resistance to flow. Power in the form of pressure, is dissipated
as the fluid flows through the material. The graph on the right side of Figure-8
shows that the pressure drops linearly up through the granular material and is
zero at the top surface of the granular material.
Prof. Dr. Muhammad Iqbal, Department
Farm Machinery & Power, University of 36
Agriculture, Faisalabad
Variables influencing airflow resistance
• In order to predict the performance of a fan
installed on a bin containing granular material
(such as grain), it is necessary to predict the
airflow resistance (usually expressed as P/L) for
the granular material. The equation below shows
the variables and indicates P/L is a function of 9
variables:
p
l
= f (v, f, f, E,D,d,,e,ß)
3 2
l E d E 3d
• The Ergun equation is applicable to all granular materials and
all fluids. Its accuracy, however, is usually poorer than the
empirical graphs.
• Note the form of the right side of the Ergun equation. The two
terms can be thought of as predictors of energy loss due to
fluid flowing through the granular material. The first term
(containing f and V) accounts for viscous or frictional losses
as the fluid flows over the granules. The second term
(containing f and V2) accounts for dynamic losses in the
system. In grain drying applications, the two terms are of the
same order of magnitude.Prof. Dr. Muhammad Iqbal, Department
Farm Machinery & Power, University of 39
Agriculture, Faisalabad
Shedd's Curves
If the fluid is only air, the above equation simplifies to:
p
f V , E , d
l
This says that pressure drop per unit bed depth is a
function of V, E, and d. A relationship among the
variables, expressed graphically in Shedd's Curves
(Figure-9), is used to predict airflow resistance of seeds
and grain. Shedd's Curves are empirical relationships
plotted on logarithmic scales. The vertical axis is V
(expressed as cfm/ft2) and the horizontal axis is p/l.
This accounts for two of the fan variables in the above
equation . To account for d, a different curve is drawn
for each different seed and grain.
Prof. Dr. Muhammad Iqbal, Department
Farm Machinery & Power, University of 40
Agriculture, Faisalabad
Figure-9. Shedd’s Curves of Airflow Resistance Through
Grains (ASAE Standard D272).
Using Shedd’s Curves is the widely accepted method for determining airflow resistance in grain.
• Open to atmosphere
– moisture uptake,
– pest problems
• Store in batches
• Clear headways and walkways
• Relatively easy to fumigate
Commercial Bulk Storage
25
20
Oxygen Content (%)
15 Normal plastic
Vacuum pouch
10
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
Days
Moisture levels in stored grain
15
14
% Moisture content
13
control
12
Hermetic
11
cooled
10
9
0 10 20 30 40 50
Storage period (weeks)
Live Insect Counts
(Insects/ kg)
90.0
Hermetic
control
80.0
Cooled
Chilled
70.0
0 10 20 30 40 50
Storage period (weeks)
On farm Storage Bangladesh
(7 months)
Germination (%)
Head Rice Yields
(whole kernel)
Grain Whiteness Index
54
52
50
Whiteness index
48
46
44 Start
3 months
42 6 months
15 months
40 18 months
Open Hermetic A/C Cold Room
Storage treatment
Storage at IRRI
Seed
Air conditioned room
Grain
Hermetic storage
(longer than 1 month)
Open pallets (less than
1 month)
50kg woven plastic bags
Storage Hygiene
1
“Farmer” vs. “commercial” storage
2
“Farmer” vs. “commercial” storage
3
“Farmer” vs. “commercial” storage
4
“Farmer” vs. “commercial” storage
Interior of a “paddle” or
chain “drag” conveyor
5
“Farmer” vs. “commercial” storage
Screw conveyor
Harvesting Drying
Handling and Storing
Preserved Grains and Oilseeds
Grain Quality and
the paradox of value and risk
15.00%
14.00%
13.00%
Soybean
12.00%
Corn
11.00%
10.00%
9.00%
8.00%
50% 60% 70% 80%
Relative Humidity
Drying Practices
• Dry grain and oilseeds immediately
–Storage life is reduced quickly
until grain is dried
–Remaining storage life is a
function of the percent of storage
life already used.
Drying Practices
• Dry grain immediately
• Maximize airflow
• Dry shallow depths of grain
• Use heat carefully
• Do not over-dry grain
• Aerate stored grain seasonally to minimize
moisture migration.
Inspect Grain Often
• Inspect grain weekly
– musty odors
– warming
– crusted grain at the surface
• Aerate immediately if a problem is detected
• Continue aeration until the problem is
resolved.
Respect the Hazards of
Spoiled Grain
• Dust and Mold Spores
– damages delicate lung tissues
– favors growth of tuberculosis and bronchitis
– dust can ignite and explode
• Ventilate the work area
• Wear a dust mask
• Use the services of a professional fumigator
Respect the Hazards of
Spoiled Grain
• Watch for crusted grain
– know the history of the bin
– bridged grain is like a trap
– vertical masses of caked grain crush victims
• Break up grain with a long wooden pole
• Work from the top of the bin
• Avoid overhead power lines.
Respect the Hazards of
Spoiled Grain
Respect the Hazards of
Spoiled Grain
Respect for Flowing Grain
• An 8-inch auger can move 52 cubic feet/min
• An average person is only 7 cubic feet
• You’re covered in 8 seconds
Respect the Hazards of
Flowing Grain
Grain Management Summary
• Store only high quality grain
• Clean and sanitize grain handling equipment
• Harvest in a timely manner !< 28% MC
• Optimize combine settings
• Clean the grain - distribute evenly
• Start drying quickly with lots of air
• Use heat carefully and dry in shallow layers
• Inspect and aerate as needed.
Packaging Functions
Packaging Functions
Introduction
The Contain Function
The Protect/Preserve Function
Food Preservation
The Transport Function
The Inform/Sell Function
1. The four main functions of a package
Contain
Protect/Preserve
Transport
Inform/Sell
2. Definitions of different packaging levels
Primary package: The first wrap or containment of the product
that directly holds the product for sale.
Secondary package: A wrap or containment of the primary
package.
Distribution package(shipper): A wrap or containment
whose prime purpose is to protect the product during distribution and
to provide for efficient handling.
Unit load: A number of distribution packages bound together and
unitized into a single entity for purposes of mechanical handling,
storage, and shipping.
Figure 2.1 Packaging can have many levels. 动画
All levels of the system must work together
3. Packages are often defined by their intended
destination
Consumer package: A package that will ultimately
reach the consumer as a unit of sale from a
merchandising outlet.
Industrial package: A package for delivering goods from
manufacturer to manufacturer. Industrial packaging usually, but
not always, contains goods or materials for further processing.
Considerations pertaining to thecontain function
of packaging
The product’s physical form:
mobile fluid viscous fluid solid/fluid
mixture
gas/fluid mixture granular material paste
free-flowing non-free-flowing powder solid unit
discrete items multicomponent mix
The product’s nature:
corrosive corrodible flammable
volatile perishable fragile
aseptic toxic abrasive
odorous subject to odor transfer easily marked
sticky hygroscopic under pressure
irregular in shape
1. Considerations related to the protect/preserve
function
“Protect” refers to the prevention of physical damage.
Specifics on what will cause loss of value (damage) must
be known.
“Preserve” refers to stopping or inhibiting chemical and
biological change and to the extension of food shelf life
beyond the product’s natural life or the maintenance of
sterility in food or medical products.
2. Examples of protective packaging problems
Table 2.1 Examples of protective packaging problems
and concerns
Condition Quantification or DesignRequirement
Vibration Determine resonant frequencies
Mechanical shock Determine fragility factor (drop height)
Abrasion Eliminate or isolate relative movement
Deformation Determine safe compressive load
Temperature Determine critical values
Relative humidity Determine critical values
Water Design liquid barrier
Tampering Design appropriate systems
3. Examples of preservation packaging problems
Table 2.2 Typical preservation packaging problems
and concerns
Condition Quantification or Design Requirement
Oxygen Determine required barrier level
Carbon dioxide Determine required barrier level
Other volatiles Determine nature and barrier level
Light Design opaque package
Spoilage Determine nature/chemistry
Incompatibility Determine material incompatibilities
Loss of sterility Determine mechanism
Biological deterioration Determine nature
Deterioration over time Determine required shelf life
The Nature of Food
1. The nature of food
Food is derived from animal or vegetable sources. Its
organic nature makes it an unstable commodity in its
natural form.
Various means can increase the natural shelf life of
foods, thus reducing dependence on season and
location.
2. Spoilage mechanisms
Food spoilage can occur by three means:
a) Internal biological deterioration
b) External biological deterioration
c) Abiotic deterioration
“Taste” refers only to the sweet, sour, salty, and bitter
sensations by the taste sensors located on our tongue
Essential oils or “sensory active agents” and sense of smell
by sensors located in our nasal passages
What we perceive as a food product’s flavor is a
combination of what we detect with our sense of taste
combined with what we detect with our sense of smell.
Preservation of essential oils retains the food’s full flavor
at retail.
Essential oils are volatile.Volatiles can permeate
packaging materials and making the problem of
contamination or isolation even more difficult.
Water vapor is similar to an essential oil in that it
readily permeates many packaging materials.
The creation of high-barrier packaging systems is
partly in response to the need for packaging that will
either hold desirable gases and volatiles in the package
or prevent undesirable volatiles from entering the
package.
Temperature can promote undesirable changes that are
abiotic in nature.
Meat products
- Meats are an ideal medium for microorganisms
because they contain all the necessary nutrients to
sustain growth. In addition to biological action, fatty
tissue is susceptible to oxidation, and the entire mass
can lose water.
- Reduced temperature retards microorganism
activity, slows evaporation and slows chemical reactions
such as those associated with oxidation.
Fish
- The preservation of fish is a difficult challenge
because of three main factors:
Psychrophilic bacteria may be present.
Many fish oils are unsaturated and are easily oxidized.
Typical fish proteins are not as stable as red meat proteins.
- Chilling does not affect the activity of psychrophilic
bacteria. Frozen fish is typically kept at much lower
temperatures (-300C/) than other frozen foods in order
to ensure the control of psychrophilic bacteria.
Produce
- Harvested fruits and vegetables continue to respire and
mature.
- They contain large amounts of water and will wither if
water loss is excessive.
- Peas, green beans, and leafy vegetables have high
respiration rates compared with those of apples oranges,
and pears.
- Potatoes, turnips and pumpkins respire slowly and are
easy to store. Moisture loss is more rapid with lettuce
than with a turnip because of the large available surface
area.
- Most fruits have an optimum ripening
temperature, usually about 200C. Few fruits will
ripen below 50C.
- Freezing of many produce items will damage cell
structure, and breakdown is very rapid after thawing.
- Modified atmosphere packaging used(CO2, O2)
- Bananas can remain in a mature but green state
for up to six months in atmospheres of 92%
nitrogen, 5% oxygen, 3% carbon dioxide and no
ethylene.
- Atmosphere and temperature control are key
requirements for extending the shelf life of fresh
produce.
Trade-offs for many produce items:
90%RH+perforated plastic wrap; or
Selecting packaging films with high gas-
transmission rates.
i.e. precut salad bags(the shelf life of about ten
days): excellent moisture barrier and very low oxygen
barrier.
Barrier Packaging
1
2005 Dietary Guidelines for
2
Health Benefits of Whole Grains
3
Health Benefits of Whole Grains
6
The 3-Parts of a Whole Grain
Three parts of Nutrients in Whole Grains Refined Grains
a grain each part
7
Whole Grains vs. Refined Grains
8
Whole vs. Refined cont….
• When the bran and the germ
are removed from the grain
to make white or enriched
grains, the nutrients of the
bran and the germ are also
removed. Whole grains have
more fiber, B vitamins,
minerals, and healthy oils
than enriched grains. The
extra nutrients found in whole
grains provide many health
benefits.
9
List of Whole Grains
•Amaranth
Tiny kernels, resembles brown caviar when
cooked. Actually a pseudo-grain, like
quinoa and buckwheat, listed with other
grains because of a similar nutritional
profile. Higher protein level (16%) than
most other grains. Popular in cereals,
breads, muffins, crackers and pancakes.
•Barley
Very tough outer hull, difficult to remove
without also removing the bran. Pearled
barley not technically a whole grain
(missing the bran). Hulled barley, available
at health food stores, retains more of the
10
whole-grain nutrients.
More Whole Grains….
• Wheat
Dominates other edible grains in food
supply because of large gluten content,
which enables bakers to make a variety of
risen breads. Referred to as “hard or “soft”
according to protein content, and “red” or
“white” according to the color of the kernels.
• Corn
Fresh corn on the cob. Popcorn. Corn
cakes. Polenta. Tortillas. Eating corn with
beans creates a complementary mix of
amino acids that raises the available protein
value.
11
More Whole Grains….
• Millet
Rarely served as human food in U.S.—
most often found in bird feeders.
However, it’s the leading staple grain in
India, and is common in China, South
America and Russia. Tiny grain can
be white, gray, yellow or red, it is often
mixed with other grains for cooking.
• Oats
Slightly- sweet flavor makes oats a
favorite for breakfast cereals. Unique
among grains, oats almost never have
their bran and germ removed in
processing. 12
More Whole Grains….
• Quinoa (pronounced Keen-wah)
Also a high-protein pseudo-grain like amaranth,
quinoa is a small, round, often light-colored grain,
similar to sesame seeds. Is also found in other
colors—red, purple, black. Most quinoa must be
rinsed before cooking to remove bitter residue of
saponins—a plant-defense that keeps away
insects.
• Rye
High level of fiber in the bran and endosperm.
Traditional grain in Northern European and
Russian cuisine, due to its ability to grow in
very wet and cold climates.
14
Chapter 14
Grain Storage
What is Storage?
• Duration of Storage
• Principle of Storage
Storage Types Classification Based on
Duration of Storage
1. Physical Storage
2. Chemical Storage
3. Biological Storage
1. Physical Storage
Physical storage utilizes physical principles to
achieve storage and preservation the quality of
stored products
a. Micro organisms
c. Rodents
d. Environmental factors
a. Crop Storage Micro organisms
• Fungi
• Bacterial
• Yeast
The activities of micro organism result in:
• Color degradation
• Off flavor
• Temperature
• Relative humidity
1) Rhombus
2) Crib
3) Barn
4) Shelf
5) Pit/ Underground Storage
6) Plastic Containers
7) Guard
8) Polythene bag
9) Earthen pot
Rhombus and Crib
2. Material of construction
4. Structural stability
1. Silo classification based on the aeration method
i. Conventional silo
b) Shallow silo
Controlled Atmosphere (CA) Storage System
Cereal Grains 14 13 13
Canola 10 8 8
Corn 15 14 13
Soybeans 13 12 11
Sunflowers (oil type) 10 8 8
Edible Beans 16 14 13
Buckwheat 16 13 13
Figure-1 Movement of Cooling
Zones During Aeration
Warm
Cool
Measure exhaust
temperature Cooling zone
Cooling zone
Cool Warm
Fan Fan
Cable
Temperature sensor
Temperature indicator
Fan
Figure-3 Measuring Grain Temperature
Fines Management
• Fines are pieces of broken grain, weed seeds,
soil, and chaff that are smaller than whole
kernels.
• Fines are undesirable in stored grain because
they:
– Are easier for molds and insects to feed on.
– Often have a higher moisture content than the
whole grain.
– Tend to accumulate in pockets.
(more)
Fines Management (cont.)
– Have a higher airflow resistance than whole grain.
– If present in large enough quantities, they can
lead to price discounts.
• Clean grain before drying and storage.
• Or use a grain spreader to distribute fines
throughout the grain mass. Or don’t distribute
fines and core bins to remove fines.
Table -5. Safe grain storage moistures
recommended for aerated good quality grain.*
Grain Maximum safe moisture
content
Shelled corn and sorghum
To be sold as #2 grain or equivalent 15%
To be stored up to 1 year 14%
To be stored more than 1 year 13%
Soybeans
To be sold by mid-June 14%
To be stored up to 1 year 13%
Wheat 13%
Small grain (oats, barley, etc.) 13%
Sunflowers 9%
* Safe storable moistures should be reduced 1 percentage point for poor quality grain due to
drouth, frost, blight, harvest damage or other quality degrading factors.
Incomplete Drying
• Average moisture content does not guarantee the storability of
grain. Even if you dry to recommended safe moisture contents
(Table-1), spoilage can occur in isolated areas, wet pockets, where
moisture content is higher than the average indicates.
• Wet pockets often result from incomplete or non-uniform drying.
Some dryers do not dry uniformly because of their design.
• Wet pockets also result from plant parts, insect parts, foreign
material, and broken grain that are not removed in cleaning.
• A common spoilage pattern--column spoilage--results from wet
pockets in a bin. Mold attacks areas with higher moisture contents.
The warm air generated by mold growth rises, carrying moisture
with it, and makes a layer of grain directly above the initial wet
pocket suitable for mold growth.
Moisture Migration
• Moisture migration is the reason why many grain men say the top center of
a bin is the most likely place for spoilage.
• Moisture migration occurs when outside temperature differs significantly
from the temperature of the grain. As the average outside temperature
drops in the fall, grain at the bin wall cools. The grain in the center,
however, is insulated and the temperature in the middle of the bin changes
very little without forced aeration.
• Because warm air rises to the ceiling and cold air settles to the floor, the air
in the center of the bin rises out of the grain. At the same time, the air in
the grain near the outside wall cools and moves toward the floor. The
result is a continuous, but very slow, air circulation within the grain. See
Figure-1.
• Moisture movement accompanies air movement within the bin because the
moisture holding capacity of air increases as it warms. Cool air near the bin
wall warms as it nears the center of the bin. It also picks up some moisture
from the grain as it rises through the center. The air cools as it nears the top
of the bin, again reducing its moisture holding capacity, and the water
condenses in the upper grain surface. As this moisture accumulates, it
promotes mold growth, insect activity and eventually spoilage in the spring.
Figure-4 Moisture Migration
Crusted grain
Moisture accumulation
Cold grain
ds
φ dy
W=m.g φ Figure-1 shows forces
dx
mg.sin Φ moving a particle during
conveying from point 1 to
point 2 along a frictionless
surface.
Summing forces tangentially, we obtain:
F cos ϴ = mg sin Φ (1)
where F = conveying force on particle
m = particle mass
g = acceleration of gravity
ϴ=tangential angle of ‘F’ on curvilinear path
Φ=phi-angle of particle weight (W=m.g) with normal to path
Prof. Dr. Muhammad Iqbal, Deptt. Farm
Machinery & Power, University of 6
Agriculture, Faisalabad
In order to move the particle from point 1 to
point 2, the work required is W=Force x distance:
• 2
(2)
W Fcosds
1
y 1
(5)
where
– Ec = energy efficiency,
– hp = power from conveyor motor, hp
– Lh = lift height, ft
– Q = mass flow rate, lb/h
The factor 33 000 converts hp to ft lb/min; the factor 60 converts hours to
minutes. For the example,
(32)(140000)(100)
Ec 100%
(2.26)(33000)(60)
Conveyor types fall into a high energy requirement group and a low
energy requirement group. Those types which slide grain on a surface
as it is conveyed will be in the high group because of friction losses.
Conveyors which carry material on anti-friction bearings will be in the
low group.
Prof. Dr. Muhammad Iqbal, Deptt. Farm
Machinery & Power, University of 11
Agriculture, Faisalabad
Gravity
• Flow of grain by gravity can be utilized where
slopes are adequate for reliable flow of
material. Table 12-1 lists spout or flow slopes
for material flow.
(Material) Spout angle or floor slopes, degrees
Table 12-1.
Minimum angles grain, dry 37
for material flow
grain, wet 45 (minimum)
(MWPS 1983).
pellets 45
meal 60
Prof. Dr. Muhammad Iqbal, Deptt. Farm
Machinery & Power, University of 12
Agriculture, Faisalabad
Tube Flow rate, bu/h
diameter,
inches Corn Soybeans Wheat
Table-2 Grain flow rates
6 1,686 2,023 2,580
through tubes
(Ditzenberger, 1980.) 8 3,000 3,600 4,590
These are the grain 10 4,679 5,615 7,159
flow rates for clean, dry 12 6,741 8,089 10,313
grain flowing through a
round tube from a 14 9,178 11,014 14,042
dead stop. This would 16 11,907 14,396 18,355
be the condition 18 15,168 18,202 23,207
existing when the tube
discharges through a 20 18,632 22,356 28,507
gate from a bin 22 22,654 27,185 34,660
opening.
24 26,963 32,356 41,534
26 31,641 37,969 48,411
Tail pulley
Example-2
Compute the capacity (bu/h) of a 36-in. belt conveyor running at
285 ft/min and carrying wheat (1 bu = 1.245 ft3).
Solution:
Wheat has a code of 47C25N. The fourth character (2) indicates a
10 degree surcharge angle (Table A-1, Table 1204).
From Table-5, and capacity at 100 ft/min is 3579 ft3/h. load cross
section is 0.596 ft2
0° 5° 10° 15° 20° 25° 30° 0° 5° 10° 15° 20° 25° 30°
18 .089 .108 .128 .147 .167 .188 .209 537 653 769 886 1005 1128 1254
24 .173 .209 .246 .283 .320 .359 .399 1041 1258 1477 1698 1924 2155 2394
30 .284 .343 .402 .462 .522 .585 .649 1708 2060 2414 2772 3137 3511 3897
36 .423 .509 .596 .684 .774 .866 .960 2538 3057 3579 4107 4645 5196 5765
42 .588 .708 .828 .950 1.074 1.201 1.332 3533 4250 4972 5703 6447 7210 7997
48 .781 .940 1.099 1.260 1.424 1.592 1.765 4691 5640 6594 7560 8544 9552 10592
54 1.002 1.204 1.407 1.613 1.822 2.037 2.258 6013 7225 8444 9678 10935 12223 13552
60 1.249 1.501 1.753 2.009 2.270 2.537 2.812 7498 9006 10552 12057 13621 15223 16876
72 1.826 2.192 2.560 2.933 3.312 3.701 4.102 10961 13155 15364 17599 19876 22210 24617
84 2.513 3.014 3.519 4.030 4.551 5.085 5.635 15079 18089 21119 24186 27309 30511 33813
0 115
20 77
30 55
40 33
The effective force on the grain is the resultant of the grain force,
W which always acts down and C, the centrifugal force which
always acts out along a radius from the head pulley centerline.
When the resultant force on a kernel points out through the
bucket opening, the kernel will leave the bucket. Centrifugal
force on a mass is given by Equation-15.
Prof. Dr. Muhammad Iqbal, Deptt. Farm
Machinery & Power, University of 50
Agriculture, Faisalabad
W(Vt)2
C (15)
g r (3600)
where
C = centrifugal force, lb
W = weight, lb
Vt = tangential velocity, ft/min
g = acceleration of gravity = 32.2 ft/s2
r = effective radius of mass, ft (usually measured to
a point halfway across the bucket
projection)
Vb = 2 ∏.rp.N (19)
Example-6.
•
• A bucket conveyor is designed for centrifugal
•
discharge and the head pulley is to operate at
critical speed. The head pulley is 18 in. in
diameter, with a 0.5-in. belt thickness and a 6-
in. bucket projection. Compute the correct
head pulley speed and belt speed.
(9 0.5 3)
r 1.042ft
12
54.19 2π(9) (53.09)
N 53.09rev/min Vb 250.18 ft/min
1.041 12
5.8 Super-critical
Will begin to discharge before it reaches
the top
One design in use (not recommended for grain) uses a belt speed of
1000 ft/min and C/W = 17.1. The discharge chute extends horizontally from the
top of the head section.
If the head pulley speed is much slower or faster than the head section is
designed for, grain will miss the discharge chute and fall down the down leg
causing a condition known as "back legging." Back legging damages grain, cuts
capacity, and wastes power.
= 8.3 in/bucket
6.17
motorpower = 7.13 hp
(0.93) (0.93)
Prof. Dr. Muhammad Iqbal, Deptt. Farm
Machinery & Power, University of 63
Agriculture, Faisalabad
Bucket conveyor applications
1. Bucket conveyors are well suited for high-rate vertical
conveyance applications which find heavy use.
Maximum operating angle: The angle included between the auger tube and
the ground when the unit is in the highest recommended operating position,
and with the hitch on the ground (dimension D).
Auger Size: The outside diameter of the auger Tub (dimension E).
Prof. Dr. Muhammad Iqbal, Deptt. Farm
Machinery & Power, University of 67
Agriculture, Faisalabad
Reach at maximum height: The horizontal distance from the foremost
part of the under carriage to the center of the discharge end when
the unit is at the maximum recommended operating angle with
hitch on ground (dimension F).
Maximum lift height: The vertical distance form the ground to the
lowest point of the discharge (excluding down spout attachments)
when the unit is raised to the maximum recommended operating
angle and with the hitch on the ground (dimension G).
Transport height: The vertical distance from the ground to the
uppermost portion with the unit in the lowest transport position
and with the hitch on the ground (dimension H).
Eave clearance: The vertical distance from the ground to the foremost
component of the undercarriage when the unit is at the maximum
raised height (dimension J)
Discharge length: The total length of conveying from the outer end of
the exposed flighting assembly at the intake to the centerline of the
discharge (dimension K).Prof. Dr. Muhammad Iqbal, Deptt. Farm
Machinery & Power, University of 68
Agriculture, Faisalabad
Figure-17. Pitch and flighting terminology of screw conveyor
tan ρ = Fh (21)
30 g tan ( )
Nc
ro Ft
(24) where Nc = critical speed, rev/min
Equation indicates that critical speed will be lowered by increasing Ft and/or decreasing Fh.
(25)
(Dh Ds ) PN
2 2
Ct
2200
where Ct= theoretical capacity, ft3/min; Dh= diameter of helicoid, in.
Ds = diameter of shaft, in; P= pitch length, in; N= rotational speed, rev/min.
The equation neglects helicoid thickness and assumes no leakage
of material around the edges of the helicoid. (helicoid diameter
rather than tube insideProf.Machinery
diameter is used).
Dr. Muhammad Iqbal, Deptt. Farm
& Power, University of 77
Agriculture, Faisalabad
Important operating parameters of a screw conveyor
Many grain and conveyor parameters have important influences on
the operation of screw conveyors. Parameters having important
influences on screw conveyor power and capacity include (not in
order of importance):
400 14 18.1 .56 16.8 .82 14.2 .88 11.5 .83 8.6 .70
25 11.6 1.84 10.3 1.89 8.5 1.78 6.7 1.45 5.0 .70
600 14 25.2 .84 23.4 1.22 19.4 1.28 15.1 1.16 12.4 1.05
25 15.8 2.32 13.7 2.34 11.3 2.27 8.6 1.92 6.8 1.09
800 14 29.4 1.07 27.6 1.54 22.8 1.62 18.0 1.46 14.8 1.32
25 18.3 2.80 15.8 2.85 12.9 2.75 9.7 2.44 7.9 1.55
aHorsepower is that required at auger drive shaft. Horsepower loss in drive train
must be added to determine theProf.total horsepower
Dr. Muhammad requirement
Iqbal, Deptt. Farm of the conveyor.
Machinery & Power, University of 85
Agriculture, Faisalabad
PROBLEMS
Q.3 Specify belt width and speed needed to carry dry navy beans at 10 000 lb/min.
(Use the smallest belt possible).
Size Reduction
0.20
Probability
0.15
0.10
0.05
0.00
2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5 5.5
0.8
cum p
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5 5.5
6 σ1 < 6 σ2
More uniform less uniform
(Low range) (More range)
0.0029
0.0029 * √2 = 0.0041
0.0029 * 2 = 0.0058
3.General equation
Put E=5 hp, L1=0.25, L2=0.065, find Put E=5 hp, L1=0.25, L2=0.065, find
C=8.65, C=0.438
Then using C=8.65, L1=0.25 and new Then using C=0.438, L1=0.25 and new
L2=0.038, for above equation, find L2=0.038, for above equation, find
E=7.55 hp E=11.64 hp
Put E=18, L1=20, L2=5, find C=12.987 Put E=18, L1=20, L2=5, find C=120
Then using C=12.987, L1=20 and new Then using C=120, L1=20 and new
L2=3, for above equation, find
Prof. E=?
Dr. Muhammad L2=3, for Farm
Iqbal, Deptt. above equation, find E=?
Machinery & Power, University of 30
Agriculture, Faisalabad
4.Bond, 1952 proposed that sine both kiks 8
Rittinger hypothesis did not seen correct for
practical application, an exponent n=(1+2)/2=1.5
had been found more appropriate
2.000
2 2
GMD = 1.0006d-2.9992
R2 = 1 1.000
1 1
0 0.000
0.500 0.600 Prof.
0.700 Dr. Muhammad
0.800 Iqbal,
0.900Deptt. Farm
1.000 1.100
Machinery & Power,
Particle dia, mm University of 43
Agriculture, Faisalabad
Rectangle surface area calculations
L W D A1 PARTICLES T.Area
1 1 1.00 6.00 1 6.00
1 1 0.50 4.00 2 8.00
1 1 0.33 3.33 3 10.00
1 1 0.25 3.00 4 12.00
1 1 0.20 2.80 5 14.00
1 1 0.17 2.66 6 15.98
Surface are a, m m 2
18.00
16.00 y = 2x + 4
R2 = 1
14.00
12.00
10.00
8.00
6.00
4.00
2.00
0.00
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Particle , no
Prof. Dr. Muhammad Iqbal, Deptt. Farm
Machinery & Power, University of 44
Agriculture, Faisalabad
Chapter 18
Crop Drying/Dryers
where,
ϴ2= Time of drying during decreasing rate period, hr
Me = Equilibrium moisture content of grain (db)
M = Average moisture content (db) at the end of decreasing rate
period.
Mx = Average initial moisture content (db) at the beginning of
decreasing period.
K = Drying constant, 1/hr.
Prof. Dr. Muhammad Iqbal, Deptt. Farm
Machinery & Power, University of 22
Agriculture Faisalabad
Drying Efficiency
• The efficiency of the drying operation is an important factor in
the assessment and selection of the optimum dryer for a
particular task. There are three groups of factors affecting drying
efficiency:
– those related to the environment, in particular, ambient air
conditions;
– those specific to the crop;
– those specific to the design and operation of the dryer.
• There are several different ways of expressing the efficiency of
drying, of which the sensible heat utilization efficiency (SHUE),
the fuel efficiency, and the drying efficiency are the most useful.
• The SHUE takes into account the sensible heat attributable to the
condition of the ambient air and any heat added to the air by the
fan as well as the heat supplied by combustion of the fuel. It is
defined as: Prof. Dr. Muhammad Iqbal, Deptt. Farm
Machinery & Power, University of 23
Agriculture Faisalabad
• The SHUE takes into account the sensible heat
attributable to the condition of the ambient air and any
heat added to the air by the fan as well as the heat
supplied by combustion of the fuel. It is defined as:
Wd
W1, W2, W - Air absolute humidity,
RH1, RH2, RH3 –Air Relative humidity,
T1,T2, T3- Air temperature
X1, X2 - Grain moisture content
TG1, TG2 – Grain temperature
V1 – Initial air specific volume X2TG2
Wd – Grain DM
Prof. Dr. Muhammad Iqbal, Deptt. Farm
Machinery & Power, University of Agriculture 55
Faisalabad
Qv= volumetric air flow rate at inlet, m3/min.
w1 & w2= Absolute humidities of ambient and heated air, kg/kg
w3 = Absolute humidity of exhaust air, kg/kg.
RH, RH2 & RH3 = relative humidities of ambient, heated and exhaust air,
respectively, per cent.
T1, T2 & T3= dry bulb temperatures of ambient, heated and
exhaust air respectively, 0C.
Wd= total weight of bone dry grain in the dryer, kg, (DM)
X1, X2 = initial and final moisture contents of grain, kg H2O/kg DM
T G1, TG2 = initial and final grain temperatures, 0C
= specific volume (initial humid volume), m3/kg DA
v1
ϴ= total drying time, min.
Qm = mass flow rate of air supply at inlet, kg/min
Heat supplied by drying air, qa, kcals, (qa=c.m.∆T) :
qa= (0.24+0.45 w1) Qm (T2 - T3 ) ϴ ----- (1)
Prof. Dr. Muhammad Iqbal, Deptt. Farm
Machinery & Power, University of 56
Agriculture Faisalabad
Amount of heat required :
Heat required for evaporation of moisture from the grain, q1 , kcals :
q1 = Wd( X1 - X2 ) λ -------------- (2)
=[Kg DM.(kg H2O/kg DM).(kcals/kg H2O)]=kcals heat
where,
λ = average value of latent heat of vaporization of moisture from
the grain, kcals/kg H2O.
Sensible heat required to raise the temperature of the grain and its
moisture, q, kcals :
qs=Wd .Cg(TG 1– TG2) + (Wd. X1 ). Cw .(TG1 -TG2 ). --- (3)
where
Cg, Cw = specific heats of grain and water respectively, kcal/kg 0C
Qm=Qv.v1
or Qv=Qm/v1
Where, v1= air specific volume (initial), m3/kg DA
where
– f = fuel rate, kg/hr.
– q'a = total heat required to heat the drying air,
kcal/hr.
– Cn = Calorific value of fuel, kcal/kg of fuel.
– ρ = efficiency of the heating system.
– ρex = efficiency of the heat exchanger.
– ρb = efficiency of the boiler, if any.
A B C Ns Ψ Φ
1.7(d) 1.5(d) 1.25W+0.1d 13,000 1 0.15
20,000 2.0 0.5
40,000 1.0 0.75
(Fig I-3)
(Fig. I-2) Prof. Dr. Muhammad Iqbal, Deptt. Farm
Machinery & Power, University of 69
Agriculture Faisalabad
Prof. Dr. Muhammad Iqbal, Deptt. Farm
Machinery & Power, University of 70
Agriculture Faisalabad
E) Drying air temperature
• Correct choice of drying air temperature for a given
type of grain is very imp. as it has effects on the quality
of dried product.
• The highest allowable air temperature for drying of
grain depends on the type and condition of grain and
the usage of dried grain.
• The upper limit of drying air temperature for different
grain to be used for food, feed and seed purpose are
different and are given in following table.
Figure.
Figure.
Figure.
Fig. Four common floor layouts for Prof. Dr. Muhammad Iqbal, Deptt. Farm
Machinery & Power, University of 78
the main duct and lateral in bins Agriculture Faisalabad
DRYER PERFORMANCE & TESTING
Dryer performance can be expressed in terms of various
efficiency factors as following:
(a) Thermal efficiency :-
• Thermal efficiency is the ratio of the latent heat of
evaporation credited to the heat energy of the fuel
charged.
• Mathematically as follows :-
• where
• t2 = dry bulb temperature of exhaust air, 0C
• t0 = dry bulb temperature of ambient air, 0C
• t1 = dry bulb temperature of drying air, 0C
Prof. Dr. Muhammad Iqbal, Deptt. Farm
Machinery & Power, University of 81
Agriculture Faisalabad
(d) Relation Between HUF and COP
HUF = 1 - COP
LECTURER – IN – CHARGE
ENGR. DR. T.M.A. OLAYANJU
ASSOCIATE PROFESSOR
(CROP PROCESSING & STORAGE)
1
AGE 407: Engineering Properties and Processing of Agric. Materials (3 Units)
SUMMARISED NOTE
Cell wall
Middle lamella
Inter cellular
Chloroplast
Cytoplasm
Nucleus
Vacuoles
2
• Physical – Size and Shape – useful in handling, separation and storage
• Mechanical – Hardness, friction coefficient – useful in size reduction and
conveying operations
• Thermal - Thermal Conductivity and diffusivity – useful in heating and
cooling operations
• Electrical - Conductivity and resistivity - separation and determination
of moisture content
3
Determination of the physical and mechanical properties
The methods used for are those that have been established in literatures.
Bulk Density:
The bulk density of seed at different moisture content is determined by filling a
container of known self-weight and volume to the brim with seeds and weighing to
determine the net weight of the seeds. Uniform density is achieved by tapping the
container 10 times in the same manner in all measurements. The bulk density is
calculated as
Bulk Density (g/cm3) = Weight of sample (g) ……………3
Volume occupied (cm3)
True Density
The true or solid density defined as the ratio of a given mass of sample to its
volume is determined by the water displacement method. Accordingly, a known weight
(50g) of sample is poured into a 100cm3 fractionally graduated cylinder containing 50cm3
distilled water. The volume of water displaced by the seeds is observed. The true density
s calculated as
True Density (g/cm3) = Weight of the sample (g) ………… 4
Volume of distilled water displaced (cm3)
The representative values of bulk and true densities are taken as the average of 3
replications.
Porosity
The porosity of an unconsolidated agricultural material can either be determined
experimentally using the porosity tank method or theoretically from bulk and true
densities of the material. Results from both methods have been found to be in close
agreement (Waziri and Mittal, 1983). The porosity of seed determined using the
relationship presented by Mohsenin (1986) as follows;
Porosity = (1 – (Bulk Density/ True Density) )/100 ………………5
4
Laboratory Determination of the Porosity of granular materials
Steps
• Fill jar 2 with the product and set up the two jars as shown
• Close valves 2 and 3 and pump air into jar 1until a considerable pressure
P1 is recorded. Using the gas law
P1 V1 = m1 R1 T1
• Close valve 1 and open 3 with two remaining closed and draw out air from
jar two
• Close valve 3 and open 2. The air in jar 1 will be distributed into the two
jars. Pressure will drop. Record the pressure as P2
• In jar 1; P2 V1 = m1a R1 T1
• In jar 2; P2 V2 = m2 R2 T2
But m1 = m1a + m2,
Also since the same gas is used throughout under the same condition;
R1 = R2 and T1 = T2
Therefore from Equations 1,2,3 and 4
P1 V1 = P2 V1 + P2 V2
V2 P1 − P2
= = ratio of void in jar 2 to volume of jar2 (= Vol of jar1)
V1 P2
Coefficient of Friction
The static coefficient of friction was obtained on four structural surfaces namely
mildsteel, plywood, concrete and glass. In the case of plywood the direction of
movement was parallel to the grain. A tilting table (constructed by the Department of
Agricultural Engineering, UNAAB) can be used. The surface to be tested is fixed on the
tilting table and the seeds are poured into a cardboard paper ring of diameter 10cm by
2cm deep until the ring is full. Care is taken to raise the ring slightly so that it did not
touch the surface. The table is then slowly tilted by a gentle screwing device until
movement of the seeds down mounted against the edge of the tilting table. The tangent
of the angle of friction is the coefficient of friction
5
AERODYNAMICS PROPERTIES
The properties include particle diameter, frontal area, terminal velocity and drag
coefficients.
Before the introduction of the first set of machines, contaminants were removed from
seeds by hand. A mixture of grain and straw was spread in a thin layer on the threshing
floor and the large contaminant particles mostly pieces of straw, were removed with a
rake. The remaining contaminants larger than the grains were removed with broom or
goose wing. Light contaminants were removed by throwing the grain against the wind
which lifted the contaminants and ensured partial separation. This manual process is
usually time and energy consuming and the efficiency of separation is low. This led to the
invention of cleaning machines. The operation of those machines as reported by
Adegbulugbe (1983) consist almost solely of separating non-edible impurities such as
rubble, lumps, stick, straw, stringe and trapped irons which are obvious. The major
characteristics used in separation are size, shape, density, surface texture, terminal
velocity, electrical conductivity, colour and resilience (Koya and Adekoya, 1994; Lucas
and Olayanju, 2003). These determine what methods of cleaning can be used and their
level of efficiency. Most cleaning operations used physical and aerodynamics properties
of grain either singly or in some combination. This depends primarily on the grain being
cleaned, the quantity of weeds and other contaminants in the mixture and the purity
requirements that must be met.
Test Equipment
Terminal velocity of seed, the velocity at which the seed remains in suspension, is
measured by using a vertical air tunnel (Figure 1). It consists of the following
components: a frame, wind tunnel, plenum chamber, flow straightener, centrifugal
blower, electric motor, pitot tubes and inclined manometer filled with coloured water.
The centrifugal fan was mounted on a frame and it provides air current for the
equipment. A vertical tunnel which was coupled to the fan is 1200mm long with 100mm
x 100mm cross section. An adjustable flap at the top of the fan allows variation of
admission of air from the fan into the tunnel. The tunnel was built with mild steel sheet
but the front was covered with 2mm thick transparent plastic material for observation. A
window was cut at the front of the test section, and below it is a small screen braced to
cover the inside of the section. This was to break small eddies behind the vanes and to
keep the seed from falling into the chamber (Figure 2).
Air current was monitored in the tunnel with a pitot-static tube mounted inside the
tunnel below the product-holding screen. These were two in numbers; the total pressure
pitot tube and the static pressure pitot tube. The former is a right-angled bent tube with
long arm being 290mm and short arm being 95mm. The static tube is straight with
200mm2. The diameter of the glass tube is about 10mm.
The out ports of the pilot static tube were connected to the two arms of a -
coloured water filled manometer. It is made with a 10mm diameter glass tube inclined at
120 to the horizontal. It has a length of 440mm; longer limb 320mm and shorter limb
320mm. The manometer was installed on a – 700mm long, 400mm wide and 12mm thick
plywood. Two-holes were drilled at the top of the frame to hold the rubber corks through
which manometer limbs passed out. The manometer was connected to the pilot tubes by
Ǿ 10mm rubber tubes. A ruler was screwed to the frame below the manometer. This is to
aid the reading of the rise of the liquid.
6
C
B
D
7
G
A
E
8
Principle of Operation
From Bernoulli’s equation (Douglas et al), at two points 1 and 2 in a flowing fluid
(Figure 3):
P1 + V12 + m = P2 + V22 + h2
D 2g D 2g
where P is the pressure head
D
V2 is the velocity head and h is the elevation head.
2g
D is the density based on gravity.
Ps Ps + Pv
1 2
Bernoulli’s principle states that in a pipe where fluid flows under steady state
conditions without friction, total head is constant; if pressure head is lost, it appears as a
Ǿ = 120 gain in velocity head. In a flow of fluid through a level pipe as shown above,
applying Bernoullis equation to points 1 and 2 gives:
P1 + V2 = P2 + 0
D 2g D
The velocity at point 2 is zero as this is a stagnation point where only static pressure is
considered to be acting. Therefore,
P2 – P1 = V2
D 2g
The pressure heads measured by the manometer is h. Therefore,
V = √2gh
where h is the head measured by the manometer after it has been converted into head of
working fluid. In this, the range of different air velocities was obtained by adjustable
speed motor attached with blower.
9
Measurements of Terminal Velocity
The test equipment is initially run without any seed while response of the
measuring instrument: Pitot – static tube and manometer are observed. The seed sample
is placed on a mosquito wire netting within the duct and is blown upwards using a
centrifugal blower whose speed is controlled by a variable speed motor. The air velocity
at which the seed is lifted off the contacting surface is determined.
The value of CD is then used in an equation proposed by Kashayap and Pandya, 1986 for
calculation of terminal velocity as:
Vt = √2Mg
Ap Sf CD
where:
M = Weight of particle (kg)
AP = Projected area of seed, LW (m2)
CD = Drag Coefficient
δf = Density of fluid (air), (kg/m3) = 1.150
N.B - Density and Viscosity of air were assumed constant at the temp and pressure when
the experiment was carried out
g = Acceleration due to gravity, m/s2 = 9.81
Terminal Velocity
This is the main characteristic employed in the separation process and can be determined
by the suspension velocity test which as follows: A duct 1m long with a rectangular
section of 0.1m x 0.1m is used to suspend particles in an air stream. Air is supplied by a
centifugal fan driven by an electric motor. The fan delivered air through a converging
duct. Mmean air velocity is determined as a function of mid velocity, obtained from
computation using a pitot tube and manometer of trading up to less than 1m/s.
Suspension tests are carried out on all components or the grain mixture by placing
particles of the grain mixture on the duct until the particles, seen through the transparent
wall, floated in the central area of the air stream.
10
Mechanical Behaviour of Beniseed under Compression Loading
Compression tests are performed on seeds/kernels using the Monsanto Universal
Testing Machine (National Centre for Agricultural Mechanization, (NCAM) Ilorin,
Kwara State). Testing Conditions for the lnstron Machine were loading range: 0 - 500N;
chart speed – 50rpm/mm; Crosshead speed – 1.5mm/min. The procedure used by Braga
et. al. (1999) is followed.
Each seed is placed between the compression plates of the tensonometer (Plate
3). The seed is compressed at a constant deformation rate of 1.25mm/min. The applied
forces at bioyield and oil points and their corresponding deformations for each seed
sample is read directly from the force-deformation curve. The mechanical behaviour of
seed is expressed in terms of force required for maximum strength of the seed, energy
required to deform the seed to initial rupture and seed specific deformation. The rupture
force is determined as the force on the digital display when the seed under compression
makes a clicking sound. Each process is often completed whenever the break point of the
positioned seed is reached.
Beniseed
Kernel
11
Table 1: Measured Terminal Velocity of Beniseed at the Storage Moisture Content of
5.3% wb Using Vertical Tunnel
12
Moisture content
Moisture content is the amount of moisture per unit weight of the product.
Mdb is the weight of water in a product per unit weight of the dry matter, expressed in
percentage.
EXAMPLES
1a) You are supplied with two bags of maize each weighing 1.0tonne. One bag
has maize of 25% dry basis and the other contains maize of 25% wet basis. Which
bag contains more dry matter? Show your calculations.
Solution
a) 1tonne of maize = 1000kg
i) Mwb= Mw/ Mwp
Mw/1000 = 0.25
Mw = 250kg; Mdm= 750kg
b) For storage, two bags of maize in (b) are dried to moisture content of 13% wet
basis. How much water or moisture will each loose? Show all calculations.
For the first bag, Mw = 0.13
750 + Mw
Mw = 97.5 + 0.13M Mw;
Mw = 112.07kg
Water lost = 250 – 112.07 = 137.93kg
13
(2) A biscuit factory obtained maize from two sources (20 tonnes each), one has 12%
moisture content (mc) dry basis and the other 12% mc wet basis. Which one has more dry
matter? Justify your answer with calculations.
Both bags have same weight, hence wet weight (original weight) are same
MD = 0.12, MW = 0.12, WW = 20000Kg
DWw
WW = DWd(MD + 1) WW =
1 − MW
WW
DWd = DWw = WW(1-MW)
MD + 1
= 20000 (1.12)-1 = 20000(0.88)
= 17,860 kg = 17,600kg
Bag with MC dry basis is heavier in dry matter
(b) In (i) above, the company paid N60000.00 per tonne for the maize at 12% mc dry
basis. How much should a tonne cost at 12% mc wet basis. If the materials has to
be dried to 5% mc dry basis, what quantity of water will be lost from the material
from each source per tonne.
Since both will have the same dry matter content i.e. if material in the bag with dry basis
was to have been at wet basis
1 Tonne of dry basis costs N 60,000.00
WW
Dry weight for the MD bag = DWd = = 1000((1.12)-1 = 893kg
MD + 1
DWw
The actual wet weight of the MW bag will be WW = = 893(0.88)-1 =
1 − MW
1014kg
60,000(1000)
Therefore 1 Tonne of wet will cost ) = N59,171.59
1014
Drying to 5% mc for dry basis (This can be done for either 1 or 20 Tonnes)
WW = DW(MD + 1) = 17860(1.05) = 18753
Weight of water lost = 20,000 – 18753 = 1247kg
14
Forms in which water is found in food materials
- Pure form as surface water. In this case , it is not part of the product but comes
from external source
- Chemically bound to some salts either by its prime valence or as a hydrate. This is
not expelled by the common method of food processing.
- Adsorbed as a very thin mono or poly – molecular layer in the internal or external
surfaces of product by molecular forces or in fine pores by capillary condensation.
- Adsorbed by colloid substances and remain in a jell as of water of swelling due to
its dipolar character.
- Present as a continuous phase, in which 0ther substances may be dispersed
molecularly, colloid ally or as an emulsion.
From the diagram, during sorption, the path of the curve is as shown as curve 1. It is
expected that the curve will come back through the same path. However this doesn’t
happen in practice. Therefore curve 1a represent the desorption curve which shows that
there a lagging effect called hysteresis (shaded portion) representing a lost in energy!.
This effect is repeated with repeated sorprtion and desorption with the energy lost
reducing until the curve closes up and sorption and desorption follows the same path.
15
Fineness Modulus and Uniformity Index
Fineness modulus is the sum of the weight fractions retained in each of the seven sieves
divided by 100. It indicates the average distribution of fines and coarse in a feed.
From this result, calculate the Uniformity Index. How can you describe the feed?
16
RHEOLOGY
Normal stress (σ )
Young’s modulus – E =
Normal strain (ε )
Shear stress (τ )
Modulus of rigidity – G =
Shear strain (γ )
w+Δw
ΔL
Pr essure ( P )
Bulk modulus - K= Poisson’s ratio - μ = L
ΔW
Volumetric strain ( ΔVV ) W
17
VISCOSITY
Newtonian and Non-Newtonian Fluids
Viscosity is that property of a fluid that gives rise to forces that resist the relative
movement of adjacent layers in the fluid. Viscous forces are of the same character as
shear forces in solids and they arise from forces that exist between the molecules.
If two parallel plane elements in a fluid are moving relative to one another, it is found
that a steady force must be applied to maintain a constant relative speed. This force is
called the viscous drag because it arises from the action of viscous forces.
Consider the system shown in Fig 1.
If the plane elements are at a distance Z apart, and if their relative velocity is v, then the
force F required to maintain the motion has been found, experimentally, to be
proportional to v and inversely proportional to Z for many fluids. The coefficient of
proportionality is called the viscosity of the fluid, and it is denoted by the symbol m (mu).
18
Viscosity is very dependent on temperature decreasing sharply as the temperature
rises. For example, the viscosity of golden syrup is about 100 N s m-2 at 16°C, 40 at
22°C and 20 at 25°C. Care should be taken not to confuse viscosity m as defined in eqn.
(3.14) which strictly is called the dynamic or absolute viscosity, with m/r which is called
the kinematic viscosity and given another symbol. In technical literature, viscosities are
often given in terms of units that are derived from the equipment used to measure the
viscosities experimentally. The fluid is passed through some form of capillary tube or
constriction and the time for a given quantity to pass through is taken and can be related
to the viscosity of the fluid. Tables are available to convert these arbitrary units, such as
"Saybolt Seconds" or "Redwood Seconds", to poises.
The viscous properties of many of the fluids and plastic materials that must be handled in
food processing operations are more complex than can be expressed in terms of one
simple number such as a coefficient of viscosity.
t = k(dv/dz)n (3.15)
which can be called the power-law equation, and where k is a constant of proportionality.
Where n = 1 the fluids are called Newtonian because they conform to Newton's equation
(3.14) and k = m; and all other fluids may therefore be called non-Newtonian. Non-
Newtonian fluids are varied and are studied under the heading of rheology, which is a
substantial subject in itself and the subject of many books. Broadly, the non-Newtonian
fluids can be divided into:
(1) Those in which n < 1. As shown in Fig. 3.6 these produce a concave downward curve
and for them the viscosity is apparently high under low shear forces decreasing as the
shear force increases. Such fluids are called pseudoplastic, an example being tomato
puree. In more extreme cases where the shear forces are low there may be no flow at all
until a yield stress is reached after which flow occurs, and these fluids are called
thixotropic.
(2) Those in which n > 1. With a low apparent viscosity under low shear stresses, they
become more viscous as the shear rate rises. This is called dilatancy and examples are
gritty slurries such as crystallized sugar solutions. Again there is a more extreme
condition with a zero apparent viscosity under low shear and such materials are called
rheopectic. Bingham fluids have to exceed a particular shear stress level (a yield stress)
before they start to move.
19
Figure 3.6. Shear stress/shear rate relationships in liquids.
VISCOCITY
• Dilatant - Dynamic viscosity increases as the rate of shear increases (shear
thickening - )
• Pseudoplastic - Dynamic viscosity decreases as the rate of shear increases (shear
thining - milk)
• Rheopexy - Shear stress increases with time of shear at a given shear rate –
starch
• Thixotropix - Shear stress decreases with time of shear at a given shear rate –
honey, bread dough
20
Non-newtonian fluid
The relationship in a non-newtonian fluid between shear stress (τ) and velocity to
n
ΔP.D ⎛ 8V ⎞
diameter ratio ( D ) is given as
V = τ = K⎜ ⎟ . We can determine, graphically,
4L ⎝ D⎠
the viscous coefficient and the velocity index using a capillary viscometer?
n
ΔP.D ⎛ 8V ⎞
= τ = K⎜ ⎟
4L ⎝ D ⎠
Taking log of both sides
⎛ ΔP.D ⎞ ⎛ 8V ⎞
log⎜ ⎟ = log K + n log⎜ ⎟
⎝ 4L ⎠ ⎝ D⎠
⎛ ΔP.D ⎞ ⎛ 8V ⎞
log⎜ ⎟ = n log⎜ ⎟ + log K
⎝ 4L ⎠ ⎝ D⎠
This implies y = m x + c
Diagram
In a viscometer, varying the velocity and noting the pressure difference results in
a record useful for plotting a curve as shown below
From the graph
logK = the intercept on the y axis, hence
K = log-1(intercept on y-axis) = Viscous coefficient
n = the slope of the graph = velocity index
21
Behaviour of agricultural/food materials under stress
22
Laboratory method for determining creep in 4 element Burgers model.
The apparatus for use is as shown in figure a below. The product is mounted and the load
hang as shown. The deformation from time 0 is monitored on the dial guage for time t.
The deformation is then plotted against time and the parameters read as shown in figure b
and e(t) computed as in equation beneath figure b. etc
a.
b.
23
Drying of agricultural materials
• Grain drying is a process of simultaneous heat and moisture transfer.
• The study of relationships between air and its associated water is called
psychrometry.
• The relative humidity (RH) of air is the ratio of the vapor pressure of the water
molecules in the air to the saturated vapor pressure at the same temperature. The
relative humidity usually is expressed as a percentage.
• The specific volume (v) of moist air is the volume per unit mass of dry air and is
expressed in cubic meters per kilogram of dry air. The power required by the fan
on a drying system is affected by the specific volume of the drying air.
• The enthalpy (h) of moist air is the energy content per unit mass of dry air above
a certain reference temperature (usually 0±C). It is denoted in kilojoules per
kilogram of dry air.
24
EXAMPLE 1. Heat energy in air drying
A food containing 80% water is to be dried at 100oC down to moisture content of 10%. If
the initial temperature of the food is 21oC, calculate the quantity of heat energy required
per unit weight of the original material, for drying under atmospheric pressure. The latent
heat of vaporization of water at 100oC and at standard atmospheric pressure is
2257kJ/kg. The specific heat capacity of the food is 3.8kJ/kg/oC and of water is
4.186kJ/kg/oC. Find also, the energy requirement/kg water removed.
In freeze drying the latent heat of sublimation must be supplied. Pressure has little effect
on the latent heat of sublimation, which can be taken as 2838 kJ kg-1.
Heat energy required per kilogram of raw material= latent heat of sublimation
= 0.778 x 2838
= 2208 kJ.
25
Constant rate and falling rate in drying
Constant rate drying occurs at the beginning of drying of a wet product in which the rate
of moisture removal is constant.
dM = FvA(Ps – Pa) = KfA(Ta – Ts)
dt h
Falling rate drying is the process in which the rate of moisture removal decreases with
time. This occurs after the constant rate and the moisture content at which the constant
rate changes to falling rate is known as critical moisture content
dM = ά (M – Me)
dt
EXAMPLE
1. If the wet-bulb temperature in a particular room is measured and found to be 20°C in
air whose dry-bulb temperature is 25°C (that is the wet-bulb depression is 5°C) estimate
the relative humidity, the enthalpy and the specific volume of the air in the room using
the Psychometric chart in Figure 1
On the Psychometric chart (Figure 1) follow down the wet-bulb line for a temperature of
20°C until it meets the dry-bulb temperature line for 25°C. Examining the location of this
point of intersection with reference to the lines of constant relative humidity, it lies
between 60% and 70% RH and about 4/10 of the way between them but nearer to the
60% line.
28
LABORATORY 2:
TITLE: Physical Properties of Agric Products II – Volume, Density and Surface area
OBJECTIVES: At the end of this laboratory, you will be able to do the following:
1. Determine the volume and density of product that is heavier than water
2. Determine the volume and density of product that is lighter than water
3. Determine the surface areas of some products.
REQUIREMENTS: Fruits, vegetables, graph paper, scale, container sinker and water.
NOTES: Volume, density and surface area are important parameters in the design of
soils and storage bins, separation of products from undesirable materials, mechanical
compression of material, grading and sorting.
PROCEDURE
A. Volume and Density of heavy product.
You are supplied with 4 agricultural products that will readily sink in water, for all
four products
1. Determine the weight of product in air – Wa
2. Determine wt of container + water – Ww
3. Determine weight of container + water – product – Wr
4. Find volume of product. Also find density and specific gravity of product.
B. Volume and density of light product
You are supplied with 3 products that are lighter than water
1. Determine weight of product in air – Wpa
2. Determine weight of product in water Wpw
3. Determine weight of sinker + product inair – Waa
4. Determine weight of sinker + product in water – Waw
5. Find the wt. of water supplied, volume of solid and density of solid
C. Surface area
You are supplied with 3 kinds of leaves
1. Project the surface area on paper
2. Find the area of the leaves using graph paper
D. Questions
1. In what area do you think surface area of objects is particularly useful?
2. How do you suppose you can find the volume of products that will dissolve in
water?
29
LABORATORY 3
TITLE: Physical Properties of Agricultural Products III – Angle of Repose and
Angle of Internal Friction
OBJECTIVES: At the end of this laboratory, you will be able to:
1. Determine the Dynamic angle of repose of an agricultural produce
2. Determine the station co-efficient of friction for agricultural produce
Note: frictional characteristic of agricultural crops play a big role in the design of
handling and processing equipment. Angle of repose and static coefficient of friction
are two indices that can be used to indicate frictional properties of crops and their
definitions have been given in the class. Revise these definitions in order to get a
clear distinction between these two properties.
PROCEDURE
A. DYNAMIC ANGLE OF REPOSE
a) You are supplied with two types of agricultural crops. Follow the
instructions of the laboratory supervisor and use the funnel system to
determine the angle of repose.
ii) You are also supplied with an emptying angle box. Use this method in
obtaining the angle of repose.
iii) Compare your results. Which of these values for these crops?
B. STATIC COEFFICIENT OF FRICTION
(i) You are supplied with an inclined plane method apparatus. Following the
instructions of the laboratory supervisor, determine the static coefficient of friction on
(a) plywood (along the grain)
(b) plywood (across the grain)
(c) galvanized iron sheet
C. ANSWER THE FOLLOWING QUESTIONS:
(i) Under what real-life situations would you think angle of
repose and angle of internal friction are useful?
(ii) Under what situations do you think:
(a) a high angle of repose is an advantage?
(b) A high angle of repose is a disadvantage?
30
LABORATORY 4
TITLE: The Planimeter
OBJECTIVES: At the end of this laboratory, each student will be able to do the
following:
a. Identify the various parts of planimeter
b. Test the planimeter for reliability
c. Use the planimeter to determine area of given shapes
APPARATUS: Planimeter, plain paper, pencil and ruler
NOTES: A planimeter is an instrument for measuring the area of all shapes of plane
figure. The area is obtained by tracing their perimeters. Area of plans and maps to any
scale, sectional areas of machine drawings as well as the mean heights of line
PROCEDURE
A. GETTING FAMILIAR WITH THE PLANIMETER
The laboratory instructor will explain to you how the panimeter isused
1. Sketch and label the various parts of the planimeter
2. Explain in your own words how the planimeter is set up and used.
B. TEST-RUNNING THE PLANIMETER
1. Attach the test rule as described to you. Set the planimeter as directed and
determine the area described inmm2
2. Find the percent difference between your measurement and the area of the
square.
3. Draw a square of 1 x 1cm and use the planimeter to determine the area of
the square. Repeat for a circle of 1cm diameter.
4 Find the percentage error.
C. ANSWER THE FOLLOWING QUESTIONS
1. What are the advantages and disadvantages of using a planimeter for area
determinations
2. In what disciplines do you think the planimeter can be very useful
31
LABORATORY 5
TITLE: Using the Planimeter for Area Measurements.
OBJECTIVES: At the end of this laboratory, you will be able to do the following:
1. Use the planimeter to measure the projected area of some crops
2. Use the planimeter to measure the surface area of leaves.
3. Compare the effectiveness of planimeter to graph sheet method
APPARATUS: Planimeter, graph paper, pencil, fruits and leaves.
NOTES: Roundness and surface area of crops and leaves are often needed. The
planimeter is one instrument that can be used to quickly determine these characteristics
especially where there are no other means of measurement. However, the use of the
planimeter requires care because a small error of judgement can result in a large error of
measurement.
PROCEDURES
A. AREAS OF LEAVES
You are supplied with three kinds of leaves with different surface areas
1. Trace the areas of the leaves on graph paper
2. Use the planimeter to determine the area of each leaf
3. Use the graph paper to determine the area of each leaf.
4. Compare your results.
ROUNDNESS
You are supplied with three fruits.
2. On a graph paper, draw the projection of each fruit in the natural rest position.
3. Draw the smallest circumscribing circle on the projection drawn in (1)
4. Use both planimeter and graph sheet method to determine the projected area
Ap and the circumscribing circle A2
5. Determine Roundness (Ap / Ac) with both methods
6. Compare your answers for the three products
B. SURFACE AREA OF FRUITS
Your are supplied with two kinds of fruits/seeds
1. Coat each fruit/seed with the ink supplied
2. Cover the entire fruit/seed with graph paper (You may fold the graph paper)
3. Use the graph paper squares to determine the surface area of each fruit/seed.
4. Use the planimeter to determine the surface area of the fruit/seed.
5. Compare your results.
D. Answer the following questions:
1. What specific advantages to do you think
(a) the planimeter has over the graph paper method?
(b) the graph paper method has over the planimeter?
2. Which method will you choose and why if:
(a) you are in the field
(b) you are in the office.
32
LABORATORY 6
TITLE: Determination of Fineness Modulus and Modulus of Uniformity for feed.
OBJECTIVES: At the end of this laboratory, students will be able to:
1. Identify a set of Tyler’s sieve and a Ro-tap machine
2. Determine the Fineness modulus of a given ground feed
3. Determine the Modulus of Uniformity of ground feed.
NOTE: Screening is a method used for classifying small grains or granular materials.
Tyler’s sieve’s which are commonly used originated in the United states in 1910, Sieve
sizes (size of opening) vary from 3.75mm to 0.07mm with a pan at the bottom. However,
a standard set of seven sleeves is used to classify ground feed.
Fineness modulus and modulus of uniformity are two indices that are used to classify
ground feed. These indices have been explained to you in the classroom.
PROCEDURE:
A. SCREENING
You have been supplied with two samples
(i) Grains
(ii) Ground feed
(I) Weigh 250g of each sample
(II) Arrange the seven standard sieves (3/8” 4, 8, 14, 28, 48, 100) and the pan on
the Ro-tap, pour the sample from the top and vibrate for 5 minutes.
(III) Find the percentage on each sieve
B. CALCULATIONS
(i) Using an appropriate table, calculate the fineness modulus (fm)
(ii) Calculate the average size of grain (D) in inches.
D = 0.0041 x 2fm
(iiI) Determine the modulus of elasticity
iv) Draw a graph of screen opening versus percent finer than screen.
33
LABORATORY 7
Storage methods
Objective: To familiarize students with different methods of storage available both on –
farm and off –farm
Facility: 1. University Seed processing and storage unig
2. Strategic Reserve in Ibadan
Procedure: Students are taken on a study tour of the seed processing and storage unit to
identify various storage units and machinery.
Students are taken to one of the Nation’s strategic Reserve Location in Ibadan to identify
and specify the storage systems and processes
34
UNIVERSITY OF AGRICULTURE,
ABEOKUTA
DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURAL ENGINEERING
35
(i) A biscuit factory obtained maize from two sources (20 tonnes each), one has 12%
moisture content (mc) dry basis and the other 12% mc wet basis. Which one has more dry
matter? Justify your answer with calculations.
(ii) In (i) above, the company paid N60000.00 per tonne for the maize at 12% mc dry
basis. How much should a tonne cost at 12% mc wet basis. If the materials has to be dried
to 5% mc dry basis, what quantity of water will be lost from the material from each
source per tonne.
36
From this result, calculate the Uniformity Index. How can you describe the feed?
(iii) Describe how the Terminal Velocity of an agricultural material can be obtained in
the laboratory.
(ii) Give a detailed description (with equations and sketches where necessary) of the
laboratory method for determining creep in 4 element Burgers model.
37
ASAE D272.3 MAR96
Approved by the ASAE Committee on Technical Data; adopted by ASAE 1 Purpose and scope
1948; revised 1954, 1962; reconfirmed by the ASAE Electric Power and
1.1 These data can be used to estimate the resistance to airflow of beds
Processing Division Technical Committee December 1968, December
of grain, seeds, and other agricultural products, and of perforated metal
1973, December 1978, December 1979; revised December 1980;
sheets. An estimate of this airflow resistance is the basis for the design
reconfirmed December 1985; revised by the Grain and Feed Processing
of systems to dry or aerate agricultural products.
and Storage Committee; approved by the Food and Process Engineering
Institute Standards Committee March 1987; reconfirmed December 1.2 Data are included for common grains, seeds, other agricultural
1991; reaffirmed December 1992, December 1993, December 1994, products, and for perforated metal sheets, over the airflow range
December 1995; revised March 1996. common for aeration and drying systems.
2 Empirical curves
NOTE – This chart gives values for a loose fill (not packed) of clean, relatively dry grain. For a loose fill of clean grain having high moisture content (In equilibrium with
relative humidities exceeding 85%), use only-80% of the indicated pressure drop for a given rate of air flow.
Packing of the grain in a bin may cause 50% higher resistance to air flow than the values shown. White rice is a variety of popcorn.
The pressure drop for airflow through bulk grain in the horizontal direction has been measured for wheat and barley (Kumar and Muir, 1986); canola (Jayas et al., 1987);
corn (Kay et al., 1989); alfalfa pellets (Sokhansanj et al., 1990); flaxseed (Jayas et al., 1991); and bird’s foot trefoil, canary seed, fababeans, lentils, meadow fescue, oats,
timothy, and tara peas (Alagusundaram et al., 1992). The pressure drop in the horizontal direction may be 60% to 70% of the pressure drop for airflow in the vertical
direction. For some seeds, however, the difference between the pressure drops for the horizontal and vertical airflows may be nonexistent.
Figure 1 – Resistance to airflow of grains and seeds (SI Units) (Shedd’s data)
Figure 2 – Resistance to airflow of grains and seeds (Inch-pound units) (Shedd’s data)
Figure 6 – Resistance to airflow of shelled corn and wheat at low airflows (Inch-pound units)
DP S D
rb 2
rk
Q
rk S D
rb 2
Q
S D S D
5 X 11 X 2 1X3
Figure 7 – Resistance to airflow of perforated metal sheets L rb 3 rb 3
when supporting grain (Henderson) 12 12
rk rk
SI units: S D
DP
L
5
corrected
S D
DP
L
~ 11 ~14.5566226.418Q !~ fm!!
clean
Customary units: S D
DP
L
5
corrected
S D
DP
L
~ 11 ~ 14.5566
clean
20.1342Q !~ fm!!
NOTE – The parameters given were determined by a least square fit of the data in Figures 1 to 6. To obtain the corresponding values of (a) in inch-pound units (in
H2O min2/ft3) divide the above a-values by 31635726. To obtain corresponding values of (b) in inch-pound units (ft2/cfm) divide the above b-values by 196.85. Parameters
for the Lot 2 Ear Corn data are not given since the above equation will not fit the data.
Although the parameters listed in this table were developed from data at moderate airflows, extrapolations of the curves for shelled corn, wheat, and sorgbum agree well
with available data (Stark and James) at airflows up to 1.0 m3/s · m2.
Table 3 – Values for constants (inch-pound units) for equation in clause 5.1
Airflow range,
Table 2 – Value for constants (SI units) for equation in clause 5.1 cfm/ft3 X1 X2 X3
Airflow range, m3/s·m2 X1 X2 X3 5.3 < Q < 26.3 20.0012 5.5331024 1.62 3 1025
26.3 , Q < 52.5 20.013 6.9431024 1.39 3 1025
0.027 < Q < 0.13 20.998 88.8 511 52.5 , Q < 117 20.094 10.2 31024 1.23 3 1025
0.13 < Q < 0.27 210.9 111 439
0.27 < Q < 0.60 276.5 163 389 NOTE – Range of applicability: 732 to 799 kg/m3 (45.7 to 49.9 lb/ft3) (corn
bulk density) 0.027 to 0.60 m3 /s · m2 (5.3 to 117 cfm/ft2) (Bern and Charity).