Introduction to Electronic Communications

A communication system conveys information from its source to a destination some

distance away. Thus, any communication system’s basic function is information transfer.
Message is the physical manifestation of information as produced by the source. Whatever form
the message takes, the goal of a communication system is to reproduce an acceptable replica of
the source message.

Electronic communications system can be summarized as the TRANSMISSION,

RECEPTION and PROCESSING of information between two or more locations using electronic
circuits.

Block Diagram of an Electronic Communications System

Transmission
TRANSMITTER Medium RECEIVER
Source Destination
[Tx] [Rx]

A simplified electronic communications system includes a transmitter, a transmission

medium and a receiver.

• TRANSMITTER – a collection of one or more electronic devices or circuits that

converts the original source information to a signal that is more suitable for transmission
over a given transmission medium. Signal processing for transmission almost always
involves modulation and may also include coding.

• TRANSMISSION MEDIUM/CHANNEL – provides a means of transporting signals

from a transmitter to a receiver. It may be a pair of wires, coaxial cables, fiber optics or
even air. Every channel introduces some amount of transmission loss or attenuation, so
the signal power progressively decreases with increasing distance.

• RECEIVER – a collection of electronic devices and circuits that accepts the transmitted
signals from the transmission medium and converts them back to their original form.
Receiver operations include amplification to compensate for transmission loss, and
demodulation and decoding to reverse the signal-processing performed at the
transmitter. Filtering is another important function at the receiver.

ECECOM1 Lecture Notes

Edzel R. Lapira
lapirae@dlsu.edu.ph
Undesirable Effects of Signal Transmission

Various unwanted undesirable effects show up in the course of signal transmission:

• Attenuation – reduces of signal strength at the receiver;

• Distortion, interference and noise – appear as alteration of the signal shape.

• DISTORTION – is waveform perturbation caused by an imperfect response of
the system to the desired signal itself. It disappears when the signal is turned off.
This effect can be corrected, or at least reduced, with the help of special filters
called equalizers.

• INTERFERENCE – is contamination by extraneous signals from human

sources- other transmitters, power lines and machinery, switching circuits, and so
on. It occurs most often in radio system whose receiving antennas usually
intercept several signals at the same time.

• NOISE – refers to random and unpredictable electrical signals produced by

natural processes both internal and external to the system. When noise is
superimposed in the information-bearing signal, the message may be partially
corrupted or totally obliterated. Filtering can be used to reduce noise
contamination, but there inevitably remains some amount of noise that cannot be
eliminated.

Transmission Modes

Transmission mode refers to the design of the electronic communications system to

handle information transmission. Four transmission modes are possible:

1. SIMPLEX (SX)
Transmissions can occur only in one direction. It is also known as one-way-only,
receive-only, or transmit-only systems. A communication location may be a
transmitter or a receiver, but not both. An example of a system using simplex
transmission mode is in commercial radio or television broadcasting.
2. HALF DUPLEX (HDX)
Transmissions occur in both directions, but not at the same time. It is also known as
two-way-alternate, either-way, or over-and-out systems. A communication location
may be a transmitter and a receiver, but not both at the same time. Examples of half-
duplex transmission include the citizens band and police radio band two-way radio
system with PPT (push-to-talk) buttons to key their transmitters.
3. FULL DUPLEX (FDX)
Transmissions can occur in both directions at the same time. It is also known as two-
way simultaneous, duplex or both-way systems. A communication location can
transmit and receive simultaneously; however, the station it is transmitting to must
also be the station it is receiving from. A standard telephone system is an example of
full-duplex transmission.
4. FULL/FULL DUPLEX (F/FDX)
Transmission and reception are done simultaneously, but not necessarily between the
same two communication locations. The U.S. Postal Service is an example of full/full
duplex operation.

ECECOM1 Lecture Notes

Edzel R. Lapira
lapirae@dlsu.edu.ph
 Electromagnetic Spectrum

The purpose of an electronic communications

system is to send information between two or more
locations commonly called stations. This is
accomplished by converting the original information
into electromagnetic energy and then transmitting it to
one or more receive stations where it is converted back
into its original form.
Electromagnetic energy can propagate as a
voltage or current as emitted radio waves through free
space. Electromagnetic energy is distributed
throughout an almost infinite range of frequencies.

FREQUENCY – the number of times a periodic

motion, such as a sine wave of voltage or
current, occurs in a given period of time. Each
complete alteration is called a cycle. The basic
unit of frequency is Hertz (Hz) or cycles-per-
second (cps).

Transmission Frequencies

The total electromagnetic frequency spectrum

extends from subsonic frequencies to cosmic rays. The
frequency spectrum is further divided into subsections
or bands. Each band has a name and boundaries.

The total usable radio-frequency (RF) spectrum

is divided into narrower frequency bands, which are
given descriptive names and band numbers. The
International Telecommunications Union – Radio
(ITU-R), formerly known as CCIR – International
Radio Consultative Committee, assigns the band
designations and are listed below.

(ELF) – Extremely Low Frequencies

• 30 Hz – 300 Hz [107 – 106 m]
• powerline frequencies (50 Hz and 60 Hz)
• lower end of hearing range

(ULF) – Ultra Low Frequencies

• 300 Hz – 3000 Hz [106 – 105 m]
• also called Voice Frequencies (VF)
• normal range of human speech

ECECOM1 Lecture Notes

Edzel R. Lapira
lapirae@dlsu.edu.ph
(VLF) – Very Low Frequencies
• 3 kHz – 30 kHz [105 – 104 m]
• higher end of hearing range
• used in some government and military communications
• used by navy to communicate with submarines

(LF) – Low Frequencies

• 30 kHz – 300 kHz [104 – 103 m]
• aeronautical and marine navigation
• also used as subcarriers (for modulation)

(MF) – Medium Frequencies

• 300 kHz – 3000 kHz [103 – 102 m]
• AM Radio Broadcasting (535 kHz – 1605 kHz)
• various marine and aeronautical communication applications

(HF) – High Frequencies

• 3 MHz – 30 MHz [102 – 101 m]
• also called “short waves”
• all kinds of two-way radio communications
• “Voice of America” and “Radio Free Europe”
• government and military services use this band for two-way communications
• Amateur Radio and CB (Citizens’ Band) communications

(VHF) – Very High Frequencies

• 30 MHz – 300 MHz [10 – 1 m]
• extremely popular frequency range
• used for mobile radio, marine and aeronautical communications, FM Radio Broadcasting
(88 MHz – 108 MHz) and Television channels 2 through 13.

(UHF) – Ultra High Frequencies

• 300 MHz – 3000 MHz [1 – 10-1 m]
• another extremely used portion (band)
• UHF television channels 14 through 83
• For land mobile communications services such as cellular phones
• Military services
• Radar and navigation services

(SHF) – Super High Frequencies

• 3 GHz – 30 GHz [10-1 – 10-2 m]
• microwave frequencies used for satellite communications and radar

(EHF) – Extremely High Frequencies

• 30 GHz – 300 GHz [10-2 – 10-3 m]
• equipment used to receive and generate these frequencies are complex and expensive
• also called “millimeter/millimetric waves”

ECECOM1 Lecture Notes

Edzel R. Lapira
lapirae@dlsu.edu.ph
INFRARED
• f > 300 GHz
• these frequencies are not referred to as radio waves and are associated with heat
• these frequencies have wavelengths “too long to be seen”
• sandwiched between the highest RF and visible electromagnetic spectrum
• LONG INFRARED – 10,000 nm Æ 1,000 nm
• SHORT INFRARED – 1,000 nm Æ 700 nm

VISIBLE SPECTRUM
• [0.4 µm to 0.8 µm]
& ) (Violet – 4000 A
• light frequencies (Red – 8000 A & )
• Able to handle a tremendous amount of information, e.g. fiber optic applications
• NOTE: 1 A & = 0.0001 µm

Wavelength
When dealing with radio waves, it is common to use the units of wavelength rather than
frequency. Wavelength is the length that one cycle of an electromagnetic wave occupies in
space (i.e. the distance between similar points in a repetitive wave). It is inversely proportional
to the frequency of the wave and directly proportional to the velocity of propagation (which is
assumed to be speed of light, c). This relation can be shown as
v kc
λ= or λ=
f f
where: λ = wavelength
f = frequency
k = velocity factor/constant (0 ≤ k ≤ 1)
c = speed of light(3 x 108 m/s or 9.84 x 108 ft/s or 186,000 mi/s)

Bandwidth and Information Capacity

Two most significant limitations on the performance of a communications system are:
noise and bandwidth.
Bandwidth is the difference between the highest and lowest frequencies contained in the
information. Bandwidth of a communications channel is the difference between the highest and
the lowest frequencies that the channel will allow to pass through it (i.e. its passband).
Information theory is a highly theoretical study of the efficient use of bandwidth to
propagate information through electronic communications systems. It can be used to determine
the information capacity of a communications system.
Information capacity is a measure of how much information can be transferred through
a communications system in a given period of time. The amount of information that can be
propagated through a transmission system is a function of system bandwidth and transmission
time.
HARTLEY’S LAW (1920, Ralph Hartley of Bell Telephone Laboratories) simply states
that the wider the bandwidth and the longer the transmission, the more information that can be
conveyed through the system. Hartley’s law is stated as

I ∝ B× t
where: I = information capacity; B = system bandwidth (Hertz); t = transmission time (seconds)

ECECOM1 Lecture Notes

Edzel R. Lapira
lapirae@dlsu.edu.ph
 A Chronology of Electrical Communication

YEAR EVENT

1837 Samuel Morse developed the telegraph by using electromagnetic induction to

transfer information in the form of dots, dashes and spaces between a simple
transmitter and receiver using a transmission line consisting of a length of
metallic wire.

1876 Alexander Graham Bell and Thomas Watson were the first to successfully
transfer human conversation over a crude metallic-wire communications system
they called the telephone.

1894 Guglielmo Marconi successfully transmitted the first wireless radio signals
through the Earth’s atmosphere.

1908 Lee DeForest invents the Audion (triode) based on Fleming’s diode. The Audion
provided the first practical means of amplifying electrical signals.

1918 Major Edwin Howard Armstrong perfects the superheterodyne receiver.

1920 Radio stations began broadcasting amplitude-modulated (AM) signals. The first
commercial broadcasting station was KDKA, Pittsburgh.

1936 J. R. Carson, H. Nyquist, J.B. Johnson and R. Hartley published the papers
regarding Transmission Theory based on the theory of signal transmission and
noise.

1923-1938 Experiments on the different components of the television were conducted from
the mechanical image-formation system demonstrated by Baird and Jenkins, the
to the theoretical analysis of bandwidth requirements, up to the use of vacuum
cathode-ray tubes by DuMont and others.

1927 The Federal Communications Commission (FCC) was established.

1933 Major Edwin Howard Armstrong invented frequency modulation (FM).

1934 Harold Stephen Black develops the negative-feedback amplifier.

1948 Claude Elwood Shannon publishes the founding papers of information theory.

1948-1951 John Bardeen, Walter Houser Brattain and William Shockley invented the
transistor devices.

1962 Satellite communication begins with Telstar I.

1969 ARPANET created (precursor to Internet)

ECECOM1 Lecture Notes

Edzel R. Lapira
lapirae@dlsu.edu.ph
 Modulation

Modulation and coding are operations performed at the transmitter to achieve efficient
and reliable information transmission.

Modulation involves two waveforms: a modulating signal and a carrier wave.

The modulating signal represents the message. It is also known as the baseband signal.

A modulator (performs modulation) systematically alters the a characteristic of carrier

wave (either its amplitude, frequency or phase) in correspondence with the variations of the
modulating signal. The resulting modulated wave thereby “carries” the message information. It
is generally required that modulation be a “reversible” operation, so the message can be
retrieved by an inverse process of demodulation.

Depicted below is an illustration of amplitude modulation.

The two basic types of electronic communications system are analog and digital.

An analog communications system is a system in which energy is transmitted and

received in analog form (a continuously varying signal such as a sine wave). With analog
communications systems, both the information and the carrier are analog signals. Since the
carrier is analog, continuous-wave (CW) modulation is used. Under CW modulation, there are
three possible methods: amplitude modulation (AM) is performed when the amplitude of the
carrier wave is varied according the variations of the modulating signal; if the frequency of the
carrier wave is varied proportional to the modulating signal, then frequency modulation (FM)
is executed; and if the phase of the carrier wave is varied proportional to the modulating signal
then phase modulation (PM) is produced.

Most long-distance transmission systems employ CW modulation with a carrier

frequency much higher than the highest frequency
component of the modulating signal. The spectrum of the
modulated signal then consists of a band of frequency
components clustered around the carrier frequency. Under
these conditions, CW produces frequency translation.

Frequency translation is the process of converting a

frequency or band of frequencies to another location in the
total frequency spectrum.

ECECOM1 Lecture Notes

Edzel R. Lapira
lapirae@dlsu.edu.ph
 Digital communications covers a broad range of communications techniques including
digital transmission and digital radio.
Digital transmission transfers digital pulses (discrete levels) between two or more
points in a communications system using either a metallic wire or an optical fiber. There is no
analog carrier and the information to be sent through the physical transmission medium should
be in digital form. If the information is originally in analog form, then analog-to-digital
conversion maybe performed.
Digital radio is the transmittal of digitally modulated analog carriers between two or
more points in a communications system. With digital radio, the modulating signal and the
demodulated signals are digital pulses and the carrier wave is an analog signal.
There are four possible modulation techniques with digital radio. If the information
signal is digital and the amplitude of the carrier is varied proportional to the information signal,
a digitally modulated signal known as amplitude shift keying (FSK) is produced. If the digital
information varies the frequency of the analog carrier signal, then frequency shift keying
(FSK) is produced. If the digital information varies the phase, then phase shift keying (PSK) is
produced. If the digital modulating signal varies both the amplitude and phase of the analog
carrier signal, quadrature amplitude modulation (QAM) is produced.

Modulation Benefits and Applications

The primary purpose of modulation in a communication system is to generate a

modulated signal suited to the characteristics of the transmission channel. Discussed below are
several practical benefits and applications of modulation.

►Modulation for efficient transmission

►Modulation to overcome hardware limitations

►Modulation to reduce noise and interference

►Modulation for frequency assignment

►Modulation for multiplexing

ECECOM1 Lecture Notes

Edzel R. Lapira
lapirae@dlsu.edu.ph
 Mixing

Mixing is the process of combining two or more signals and is an

essential process in electronic communications. There are two ways of
mixing signals: linearly and nonlinearly.

Linear Mixing

Also known as linear summing, it occurs when two or more

signals combine in a linear device such as a passive network or a small-
signal amplifier.

NB:
• Signals combine in such a way that NO NEW FREQUENCIES ARE PRODUCED.
• Combined waveform is simply the linear addition of the individual signals.

Single-input frequency

The output is simply the original input signal amplified by the gain of the amplifier.

ECECOM1 Lecture Notes

Edzel R. Lapira
lapirae@dlsu.edu.ph
Multiple-input frequencies

The output is a complex waveform containing both input frequencies and is equal to the
algebraic sum of the two input signals. If additional input frequencies are applied, they are
linearly summed with the other input signals.

ECECOM1 Lecture Notes

Edzel R. Lapira
lapirae@dlsu.edu.ph
Nonlinear Mixing

Nonlinear mixing occurs when two or more signals are combined in a nonlinear device
such as a diode or large-signal amplifier. With nonlinear mixing, ADDITIONAL FREQUENCY
COMPONENTS ARE PRODUCED.

Single-input frequency

The output from a nonlinear device is in the infinite power series

v out = Av in + Bv in2 + Cv 3in

where v in = Va sin 2πf a t
Therefore
v out = A (Va sin 2πf a t ) + B(Va sin 2πf a t ) + C(Va sin 2πf a t )
2 3

where Av in = linear term or simply the input signal (fa) amplified by the gain (A)
Bv in2 = quadratic term that generates the second harmonic frequency (2fa)
Cv 3in = cubic term that generates the third harmonic frequency (3fa)

The output waveform is a summation of the input frequency (fa) and its higher harmonics
(multiples of the fundamental frequencies). If the harmonics are undesired, it is called harmonic
distortion. If the harmonics are desired, it is called frequency multiplication.

ECECOM1 Lecture Notes

Edzel R. Lapira
lapirae@dlsu.edu.ph
Multiple-input frequencies

This is usually the condition when a large-signal (nonlinear) amplifier accepts two or
more input signals with different frequencies. Mathematically, the output with two input
frequencies is

v out = Av in + Bv in2 + Cv 3in

where v in = Va sin 2πf a t + Vb sin 2πf b t

Therefore

v out = A (Va sin 2πf a t + Vb sin 2πf b t ) + B(Va sin 2πf a t + Vb sin 2πf b t )
2

+ C(Va sin 2πf a t + Vb sin 2πf b t ) + L

3

If the binomial theorem is applied to each higher-power term,

( 2 3
)( 2
v out = Av 'a + Bv 'a + Cv 'a + L + Av 'b + Bv 'b + Cv 'b + L
3
)
( 2 2
+ 2Bv 'a v 'b + 3Cv 'a v 'b + 3Cv 'a v 'b + L )
where v a = Va sin 2πf a t
'

v 'b = Vb sin 2πf b t

The terms in the third parentheses generate the cross products. The cross products are
produced from the intermodulation among the two original frequencies and their harmonics. The
cross products are the sum and difference frequencies; they are the sum and difference of the
two original frequencies, and the sums and differences of their harmonics. An infinite number of
harmonic and cross-product frequencies are produced when two or more frequencies mix in a
nonlinear device. If the cross products are undesired, it is called intermodulation distortion. If
the cross products are desired, it is called modulation. Mathematically, the sum and difference
frequencies are

cross products = mf a ± nf b

where m and n are positive integers between one and infinity.

NB:
When two or more frequencies are amplified in nonlinear device:
• Harmonics are produced; and
• Intermodulation distortions (unwanted cross-product frequencies) are generated.

ECECOM1 Lecture Notes

Edzel R. Lapira
lapirae@dlsu.edu.ph
ECECOM1 Lecture Notes
Edzel R. Lapira
lapirae@dlsu.edu.ph
 The Decibel System

Signals in communications systems span a range of wide magnitudes. The decibel scale
compresses this span into smaller ranges that are easier to manipulate.

The decibel (dB) is a logarithmic unit used to describe a ratio. The ratio may be gain,
power, voltage, current, sound pressure, intensity or several other things.

The basic unit of measurement in this system is not the decibel; it is the bel. The bel is a
unit that expresses the logarithmic ratio between the input and the output of any given
component, circuit, or system. Mathematically, it can be expressed as

PX
bel = log
PY

where PX and PY are power values.

Relating the decibel and the bel, there are 10 decibels in a bel:

1 bel = 10 decibels

The number of decibels corresponding to two ratios of power, for instance, is equal to 10
times the logarithm of that power ratio:

PX
decibel = 10 log
PY

The decibel can also be used to handle voltage ratios (like voltage gain), i.e.,

VX 2
RX
dB = 10 log VY 2
RY

if RX = RY,
VX2
dB = 10 log 2
VY
2
V 
= 10 log X 
 VY 

VX
dB = 20 log
VY

ECECOM1 Lecture Notes

Edzel R. Lapira
lapirae@dlsu.edu.ph
dB Reference Values
(a) dBm – reference power is 1 mW.

P watts
dBm = 10 log
1 mW

(b) dBW – reference power is 1 watt.

P watts
dBW = 10 log
1W

(c) dBrn – reference noise power is 1 pW.

Noise Power watts

dBrn = 10 log
1 pW

Rules in the Addition/Subtraction using dB:

(1) dB1 + dB 2 = dB3

(2) dB + dBm1 = dBm 2

(3) dBW1 + dB = dBW2

(4) Do not add/subtract two dB measurements with reference values.

Absolute Value from a dB Values

Given:

P dB = 10 log A

Solving for A yields,

P dB

A = 10 10

ECECOM1 Lecture Notes

Edzel R. Lapira
lapirae@dlsu.edu.ph
 dB Calculation Problems

1. What is the dB value for a signal at 10 watts compared to another signal at

0.5 watt?

2. A signal enters the circuit with a value of 0.1 V and is amplified to 5 V.

How much dB gain is this? Express the voltage gain in dB.

3. The signal is attenuated from 5 V to 0.1 V. What is the decibel value of the
attenuation?

4. Convert the following absolute power levels to dBm: 0.002 W, 0.0001 W,

10 mW, and 0.001 W.

5. How many watts of power are there in 0 dBW?

6. Express the noise power of 10-24 W into dBrn.

7. Perform the following operations:

a) 20 dB + 20 dB
b) 20 dBm + 10 dB
c) 10 dBW + 2 dB
d) 2 dBm + 4 dBm

8. If the power gain of an amplifier is 100 dB, what absolute value does this
correspond to?

9. Given the communications system below, determine the effective radiated

power (ERP).

Antenna
G = 30 dB
Pre-Amp Main Amp
PO =
15 dBw

Tx 20 dB 50 dB

ECECOM1 Lecture Notes

Edzel R. Lapira
lapirae@dlsu.edu.ph
 Noise Analysis
Electrical noise is defined as any undesirable electrical energy that falls within the
passband of the signal.

The figures below illustrate the effect noise has on an electrical signal.

Two categories of noise:

1. Correlated noise – it exists only when a signal is present.
2. Uncorrelated noise – it is present all the time whether there is a signal or not.

UNCORRELATED NOISE
Uncorrelated noise is present regardless of whether there is a signal present or not. It can
be further subdivided into two categories: external and internal.

• EXTERNAL NOISE – is noise that is generated outside the device or circuit. Primary
sources of external noise include: atmospheric, extraterrestrial, and man-made.

• Atmospheric Noise (or static noise) – is naturally occurring

disturbances that originate within Earth’s atmosphere. It is
the familiar sputtering, crackling, and so on, often heard
from the speaker when there is no signal present.
Lightning discharges during thunderstorms are typical
sources of atmospheric noise. Its intensity is inversely
proportional with its frequency and becomes less severe at
frequencies above 30 MHz.

ECECOM1 Lecture Notes

Edzel R. Lapira
lapirae@dlsu.edu.ph
 • Extraterrestrial Noise (or deep-space noise) – consists of electrical signals that
originate outside the earth’s atmosphere. Sources of this type of noise include the
Milky Way, other galaxies and the sun. There are two types of
extraterrestrial noise: solar and cosmic.

• Solar noise - is generated directly from the sun’s heat. There are
two parts to solar noise: a quiet condition when relatively
constant radiation intensity exists and high intensity, sporadic
disturbances caused by sun spot activity and solar flare-ups.

• Cosmic noise (or black-body noise) – its intensity is

relatively small since sources are much farther away than
the sun.

• Man-Made Noise (or industrial noise) – is simply the noise that is

produced by mankind. Predominant sources of man-made noise include the
inventions created by mankind like electric motors, fluorescent lights, machines, etc.

• INTERNAL NOISE – is electrical interference generated within a device or circuit.

• Shot noise (or transistor noise) – is caused by the random

arrival of current carriers (holes and electrons) at the output
element of an electronic device, such as a diode, FET or
BJT. It was first observed in the anode current of a vacuum
tube amplifier and was described mathematically by Walter
Hans Schottky in 1918. This noise is randomly varying and
is superimposed onto any signal present. When amplified,
shot noise sounds similar to metal pellets falling on a tin
room. For a diode,
i n = 2 e i p BW
where in = rms shot-noise current
e = charge of an electron = 1.6 x 10-19 C
ip = direct diode current
BW = bandwidth (Hz)

• Transit-time noise - it is noticeable when the time it takes for a carrier to propagate
through a device is an appreciable part of the time of one cycle of the signal.
Transmit-time noise in transistors is determined by carrier mobility, bias voltage and
transistor construction. Carriers traveling
from emitter to collector suffer from
emitter-time delays, base transit-time
delays, and collector recombination-
time and propagation-time delays. If
transit delays are excessive at high
frequencies, the device may add more
noise than amplification to the signal.

ECECOM1 Lecture Notes

Edzel R. Lapira
lapirae@dlsu.edu.ph
 • Thermal noise (or Brownian noise or Johnson noise or white noise) – is associated
with the rapid and random movement of electrons within a conductor due to thermal
agitation. This random movement was first noted by Robert Brown by observing
moving-particle nature of matter in pollen grains. Random movement of electrons
was first recognized in 1927 by J.B. Johnson. Johnson proved that thermal noise
power is proportional to the product of bandwidth and temperature. Mathematically,
the noise power is
N = KTB
where N = noise power (watts)
B = bandwidth (hertz)
K = Boltzmann’s constant (1.38 x 10-23 J/K)
T = absolute temperature (Kelvin) (room temp = 170C or 290 K)

The equation indicates that the available power from a thermal noise source is
proportional to bandwidth over any range of
frequencies. (This is true from 0 Hz to the highest
microwave frequencies used today.) Thermal noise is
equally distributed throughout the frequency spectrum;
that is why it is also called a white noise source. The
total rms noise power measured in any fixed bandwidth
is equal to the total rms noise power measured in an
equal bandwidth anywhere else in the total noise
spectrum.
Thermal noise is random and continuous and occurs at all frequencies. This is
why thermal noise is the most significant of all noise sources.

Thermal noise can also be expressed in terms of noise voltage (VN). Consider the
figure below

For the worst-case condition and maximum transfer of noise power, the load
resistance (R) is made equal to the internal resistance of the source (RI). The noise
power developed across the load resistor is equal to KTB. The mathematical
expression for VN is derived as follows:
2
 VN 
 2 VN2
N = KTB =   =
R 4R

VN = 4RKTB

ECECOM1 Lecture Notes

Edzel R. Lapira
lapirae@dlsu.edu.ph
CORRELATED NOISE
Correlated noise is the noise that is mutually related to the signal and cannot be present
in a circuit unless there is an input signal. It is produced by nonlinear amplification and includes
harmonic and intermodulation distortion. All amplifiers are nonlinear to some extent.

• HARMONIC DISTORTION – is when unwanted

harmonics of a signal are produced through nonlinear
amplification (mixing). The distortion to a specific harmonic
is the ratio of the rms amplitude of that harmonic to the rms
amplitude of the fundamental harmonic. The total harmonic
distortion (THD) is the ratio of the combined rms amplitude
of the higher harmonics to the rms amplitude of the
fundamental harmonic. Mathematically, THD is

v higher
%THD = × 100%
v fundamental

where THD = percent total harmonic distortion

vhigher = quadratic sum of the rms voltages of the harmonics above the
fundamental frequency, v 22 + v 32 + L + v 2n
vfundamental = rms voltage of the fundamental harmonic

• INTERMODULATION DISTORTION – is the generation of unwanted sum and

difference frequencies when two or more signals are amplified in a nonlinear device,
such as a large-signal amplifier. The sum and difference frequencies, produced by
mixing two or more signals in a nonlinear device, are called cross products.

• IMPULSE NOISE – is characterized by high-amplitude peaks of short duration in the

total noise spectrum. It appears as sudden bursts of irregularity, pulse-shaped insertion
that generally lasts between a few microseconds and a fraction of a millisecond.

• INTERFERENCE – is a form of external noise and it means “to disturb or detract

from.” Electrical interference is when information signals from one source produce
frequencies that fall outside their allocated bandwidth and interfere with information
signals from another source.

ECECOM1 Lecture Notes

Edzel R. Lapira
lapirae@dlsu.edu.ph
 Signal-to-Noise Ratio (SNR)

Signal-to-noise power ratio (S/N) is the ratio of the signal power level to the noise power
level. Mathematically, signal-to-noise power ratio is expressed as

S Ps
=
N Pn
where Ps = signal power (watts)
Pn = noise power (watts)

In terms of logarithms, the SNR can be shown as

S P 
= 10 log s 
N dB  Pn 

The SNR of a system can also be determined in terms of voltage measurements:

S V 
= 20 log s 
N dB  Vn 
where Vs = signal voltage (volts)
Vn = noise voltage (volts)

Noise Factor and Noise Figure

Noise factor (F) and noise figure (NF) are figures of merit used to indicate how much
the signal-to-noise ratio deteriorates as a signal passes through a circuit or series of circuits.

Noise factor (F) is simply a ratio of input signal-to-noise power ratio (Si/Ni) to ourpur
signal-to-noise power ratio (So/No). In other words, it is a ratio of ratios. Mathematically, noise
factor is
S
 
input signal − to − noise power ratio  N i
F= =
output signal − to − noise power ratio  S 
 
 N o

Noise figure (NF) is simply the noise factor stated in dB and is a parameter commonly
used to indicate the quality of a receiver.

NF = 10 log(F)

• The noise figure indicates how much the SNR deteriorates as a waveform propagates
from the input to the output of a circuit.
• For a perfect, noiseless circuit the noise factor (F) is 1, the noise figure (NF) is 0 dB.

ECECOM1 Lecture Notes

Edzel R. Lapira
lapirae@dlsu.edu.ph
 Noise in Amplifiers

In reality, however, amplifiers are not ideal. The amplifier adds internally generated
noise to the waveform, reducing the overall signal-to-noise ratio. The predominant noise is

thermal noise.

Consider the ideal noiseless amplifier below.

The amplifier with a gain of Ap accepts an input signal with a power level of Si and an
input noise with a power level of Ni. The output signal level is simply the input signal amplified
by a level of So = ApSi. At the same time, the amplifier also amplifies the input noise signal, thus
the output noise signal power level No = ApNi. The output SNR can be expressed as

Sout A p Si S
= = i
N out A p N i N i

Consider the nonideal amplifier that generates an internal noise level of Nd.

Both the input signal and the input noise signal are amplified by the system. The output
signal of the amplifier is still So = ApSi. The circuit adds the internally generated noise to the
waveform. Mathematically,

Sout A p Si Si
= =
N out A p N i + N d Nd
Ni +
Ap

ECECOM1 Lecture Notes

Edzel R. Lapira
lapirae@dlsu.edu.ph
 Amplifiers and Noise Figures

Electronic circuits and even discrete components add noise to signals that pass through
them. Amplifiers increase the strength of any input signal, including the desired signal and any
input noise. Therefore, an ideal amplifier with no added noise will not be able to increase the
signal-to-noise ratio (S/N). Since one is forced to cope with ideal amplifiers, each amplifier will
add internally generated noise to the input waveform. As seen below, the internal noise of the
first amplifier (or component) will affect the system noise factor the most.

RF RF RF
Amp Amp Amp
Ideal
Performance

Signal Power

Non-Ideal Noise

Noise Power

When two or more amplifiers are cascaded as in the figure below:

The total noise factor is the accumulation of the individual noise factors.

Friiss’ formula is used to calculate the total noise factor of several cascaded amplifiers
and is shown below:
F2 − 1 F3 − 1 Fn − 1
FT = F1 + + +L+
A1 A1 A 2 A1A 2 K A n −1

where FT = total/system noise factor for n cascaded amplifiers

F1, F2, F3, …, Fn = individual amplifier noise factors
A1, A2, A3,.. An-1 = individual amplifier power gains

The total noise figure is computed very easily by

NFT = 10 log FT

ECECOM1 Lecture Notes

Edzel R. Lapira
lapirae@dlsu.edu.ph
 Equivalent Noise Temperature

When precise noise calculations (0.1 dB or less) are necessary, it is generally more
convenient to express noise figure in terms of noise temperature or equivalent noise temperature
rather than as an absolute power. Because noise power (N) is proportional to temperature, the
noise present at the input to a device can be expressed as a function of the device’s
environmental temperature (T) and its equivalent noise temperature (Te). Noise factor can be
converted to a term dependent on temperature as follows:

N d = KTe B

Ni No
Nd
Signal Signal
A
In Out
Te
T

where : Nd = noise power added from a single component

N0 = noise power at the output
Ni = total input noise power of an amplifier
T = ambient temperature
Te = equivalent noise temperature of an amplifier
A = power gain of an amplifier

Therefore, N0 may be expressed as:

No = ANi + ANd = A ( KTB) + A ( KTe B)

N o = AKB ( T + Te )
Solving for the noise factor,

S S
N input Ni N AKB(T + Te )
FT = = = o =
S  S  AN i AKTB
A 
N output  No 

T + Te T
FT = = 1+ e
T T

ECECOM1 Lecture Notes

Edzel R. Lapira
lapirae@dlsu.edu.ph