Psychology of Teaching and Learning

SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
DEPARTMENT OF CURRICULUM AND INSTRUCTION
P.O. Box 342-01000

Thika
Email: Info@mku.ac.ke
Web: www.mku.ac.
UNIT CODE: BEP3201
UNIT NAME: PSYCHOLOGY OF TEACHING AND LEARNING
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BEP3201 : Psychology of Teaching and Learning
Credit Hours: 3
Pre-requisites: None
PURPOSE OF THE COURSE

Purpose
This course is designed to equip the learners with adequate psychological researches and
information regarding teaching and learning processes which affect classrooms today.
These include changes through diversification of teaching methods, promotion of
classroom experimentation, innovations, diffusion and information regarding teaching
and learning process. It offers the learners an overview of past & contemporary thinking
in the areas of teaching and learning.
Expected Learning Outcomes

By the end of the course, the learner should be able to:
i) Utilize knowledge and skills based on empirical and theoretical bases of learning
ii) Identify different types of learning, as expounded by Gagne’s hierarchies of learning
iii) Define the terms teaching and learning as a process
COURSE OUTLINE
WEEK 1. The Nature and Scope of Learning
 Definition of terms
 Areas of concern
WEEK 2 Background To The Psychological, Empirical And Theoretical Bases Of
Learning
 Process of learning
WEEK 3 Types Of Learning
 Gagne’s hierarchy of learning
 Other types of learning
WEEK 4 Psychology of Learning
 S-R theories i.e. Operant and Classical conditioning
 Cognitive field theories
WEEK 5 Conditions of learning
 Classical conditioning
 Operant conditioning
 Multiple Response learning
 Cognitive learning
 Social learning
WEEK 6 Teaching
 Definition of terms
 Different viewpoints of teaching
WEEK 7 Phases and operations of teaching
 Teaching and learning for memory, understanding, and reflective levels of
learning outcomes
WEEK 8 Importance of studying learning and teaching
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 Implications of learning theories in the teaching/ learning
WEEK 9 Factors influencing learning
 The teacher; teacher’s competence
 The learning environment
 The learner characteristics
 Personality dispositions
 Intellectual guidelines
 Motivational levels
 Conflict of interest
 Socio economic background
 The subject matter
WEEK 10 Classroom Management
 Behavior Modification Techniques
 Methods of identifying behavior problems in class
 Methods of behavior change
WEEK 11 Remembering and forgetting
 Why students forget what they learn
 Ways of improving memory among learners
WEEK 12 Individual differences in learning
 Factors responsible for individual differences
 How to cater for individual differences in class
WEEK 13 Attitude Change and Learning
 Definition of attitude
 Importance of attitude in learning situations
 Attitude change for positive learning
Teaching / Learning Methodologies

 Lectures and tutorials
 Group discussion
 Demonstration
 Individual assignment
Instructional Materials and Equipment

Projector, Text books, Design catalogues , Computer laboratory, Design software, and
Simulators .
Course Assessment
Examination 70%
Continuous Assessments (Exercises and Tests) 30%
Total 100%
Recommended Text Books

i) Charles E Skinner (2007); Educational Psychology 4e; Prentice-hall Of India Pvt Ltd
ii) Rioth R. H (2007); Educational and Personality Development; Blackwell – London
iii) R.N. Sharma (2004); Educational Psychology; Atlantic Publishers & Distributors (p)
Ltd.
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iv) Uba A (1989); Fundamental Psychology of Childhood and Adolescence; Ibadan
Patrice Continental Press
Text Books for further Reading

i) Liebert M Robert and Wicks- Nelson Rita (1981); Development Psychology; McGraw
Hill Book Company New York
ii) Spirinthall A. Norman Spirinthall C Richard & Oja N. Sharon (1994); Educational
Psychology A Developmental Approach; McGraw Hill Inc. New York
TABLE OF CONTENTS
PURPOSE OF THE COURSE ........................................................................................................... 2

Purpose.................................................................................................................................................. 2
Expected Learning Outcomes ............................................................................................................. 2
COURSE OUTLINE ........................................................................................................................... 2
Course Assessment ............................................................................................................................... 3
TABLE OF CONTENTS .................................................................................................................... 4
CHAPTER 1 ......................................................................................................................................... 9
The Nature and Scope of Learning .................................................................................................... 9
Objectives ........................................................................................................................................... 9
1.0 Introduction .................................................................................................................................. 9
1.1 Definition of Terms ...................................................................................................................... 9
1.2 Areas of Concern ........................................................................................................................ 11
1.3 Review Questions ....................................................................................................................... 11
CHAPTER 2 ....................................................................................................................................... 12
Background to the Psychological, Empirical and Theoretical Bases of Learning ....................... 12
Objectives ......................................................................................................................................... 12
2.0 Introduction ................................................................................................................................ 12
2.1 The Process of Learning............................................................................................................. 12
2.2 Ways in which learning takes place ........................................................................................... 13
CHAPTER 3 ....................................................................................................................................... 21
TYPES OF LEARNING.................................................................................................................... 21
Objectives ......................................................................................................................................... 21
3.0 Introduction ................................................................................................................................ 21
3.1 Gagne’s Hierarchy of Learning .................................................................................................. 21
3.2 Domains of Learning .................................................................................................................. 22
The cognitive domain ............................................................................................................ 22
The affective domain ............................................................................................................. 24
The psychomotor domain ...................................................................................................... 24
CHAPTER 4 ....................................................................................................................................... 26
Psychology of Learning ..................................................................................................................... 26
Objectives ......................................................................................................................................... 26
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4.0 Introduction ................................................................................................................................ 26
4.1 S-R theories i.e. Operant and Classical Conditioning ................................................................ 26
4.2 Cognitive Field Theories ............................................................................................................ 29
CHAPTER 5 ....................................................................................................................................... 34
Conditions of Learning ...................................................................................................................... 34
Objectives ......................................................................................................................................... 34
5.0 Introduction ................................................................................................................................ 34
5.1 S-R theories i.e. Operant and Classical Conditioning ................................................................ 34
5.1.1 Classical Conditioning .................................................................................................. 34
5.2 Cognitive Field Theories ............................................................................................................ 36
5.2.1 Social cognitive learning theory ................................................................................... 36
5.2.2 Piaget’s Cognitive Constructivism Theory ................................................................... 37
CHAPTER 6 ....................................................................................................................................... 39
Teaching .............................................................................................................................................. 39
Objectives ......................................................................................................................................... 39
6.0 Introduction ................................................................................................................................ 39
6.1 Definition of Terms .................................................................................................................... 39
6.2 Different Viewpoints of Teaching.............................................................................................. 40
6.2.1 The Herbatian moral and intellectual development theory ........................................... 40
6.2.2 Cognitive Models of Teaching...................................................................................... 41
CHAPTER 7 ....................................................................................................................................... 44
Phases and Operations of Teaching ................................................................................................. 45
Objectives ......................................................................................................................................... 45
7.0 Introduction ................................................................................................................................ 45
7.1 Anatomy /Structure of Teaching: ............................................................................................... 45
7.2 Phases of Teaching ..................................................................................................................... 46
7.2.1 Pre – Active Phase of Teaching .................................................................................... 46
7.2.2 Interactive Phase of Teaching ....................................................................................... 47
7.2.3 Post-Active Phase of Teaching: .................................................................................... 50
7.3 Teaching Abstract Concepts....................................................................................................... 51
7.4 Teaching Critical Thinking Skills .............................................................................................. 52
7.5 Teaching meta-cognition in geography (teaching students to monitor their thinking) .............. 53
CHAPTER 8 ....................................................................................................................................... 54
Importance of Studying Learning and Teaching ............................................................................ 55
Objectives ......................................................................................................................................... 55
8.0 Introduction ................................................................................................................................ 55
8.1 Of what use is the psychology of teaching and learning to a teacher ........................................ 55
8.2 Implications of Learning Theories in Teaching/ Learning......................................................... 55
iii. Of what use is the psychology of teaching and learning to a teacher ................................... 59
CHAPTER 9 ....................................................................................................................................... 60
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Factors Influencing Learning ........................................................................................................... 60
Objectives ......................................................................................................................................... 60
9.0 Introduction ................................................................................................................................ 60
9.1 The Teacher; Teacher’s Competence ......................................................................................... 60
9.2 The Learners’ Characteristics..................................................................................................... 60
9.2.1Personality dispositions ................................................................................................. 60
9.2.2 Intellectual abilities ...................................................................................................... 61
9.2.3 Motivation and incentives ............................................................................................. 61
9.2.4 Socio economic background ......................................................................................... 63
9.3 The Learning Environment ........................................................................................................ 63
CHAPTER 10 ..................................................................................................................................... 66
Classroom Management .................................................................................................................... 66
Objectives ......................................................................................................................................... 66
10.0 Introduction .............................................................................................................................. 66
10.1 Behavior Modification Techniques .......................................................................................... 66
Reinforcement .................................................................................................................................. 66
Schedules.......................................................................................................................................... 66
Positive reinforcement...................................................................................................................... 67
Response discrepancy observation method ...................................................................................... 67
Selection of reinforcements.............................................................................................................. 68
Negative reinforcement .................................................................................................................... 71
Modeling .......................................................................................................................................... 72
Shaping ............................................................................................................................................. 73
Punishment ....................................................................................................................................... 74
Response cost ................................................................................................................................... 75
Time-out ........................................................................................................................................... 77
10.2 Methods of behavior change .................................................................................................... 79
10.3 Review Questions ..................................................................................................................... 83
CHAPTER 11 ..................................................................................................................................... 84
Remembering and Forgetting ........................................................................................................... 84
Objectives ......................................................................................................................................... 84
11.0 Introduction .............................................................................................................................. 84
11.1 Why Students Forget What They Learn ................................................................................... 84
11.2 Ways of Improving Memory among Learners ......................................................................... 86
CHAPTER 12 ..................................................................................................................................... 89
Individual Differences in Learning .................................................................................................. 89
Objectives ......................................................................................................................................... 89
12.0 Introduction .............................................................................................................................. 89
12.1 Factors Responsible for Individual Differences ....................................................................... 89
12.2 How to Cater for Individual Differences in Class .................................................................... 90
CHAPTER 13 ..................................................................................................................................... 92
Attitude Change and Learning ......................................................................................................... 92
Objectives ......................................................................................................................................... 92
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13.0 Introduction .............................................................................................................................. 92
13.1 Definition of Attitude ................................................................................................................. 92
13.2 Importance of Attitude in Learning Situations ......................................................................... 92
13.3 Factors Influencing the Development of Attitudes .................................................................. 92
MODEL EXAMINATION PAPERS ............................................................................................... 94
Model paper1 ...................................................................................................................................... 94
MODEL PAPER 2 ............................................................................................................................. 95
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CHAPTER 1
The Nature and Scope of Learning
Objectives
By the end of this topic, you should be able to:
 Define terms related to learning
 Identify the scope of psychology of teaching and learning course
1.0 Introduction
Psychology is the scientific study of the mind and how it influences behaviour
This course therefore is going to deal with the scientific study of the mind and how it
influences teaching and learning.
1.1 Definition of Terms

Teaching
Teaching is a process of facilitating changes in learners and entails the demonstration,
guiding and directing of learner efforts. It is therefore a way of helping one to learn.
Teaching is an intentional activity that involves a teacher, a student, some specific
content to be learnt or taught. It can be defined as the process of one (teacher)
intentionally passing on specific content/knowledge to another (student).
Learning: Learning may be defined as a relatively permanent change changes in

behavior resulting from reinforced practice. It refers to the process of acquiring
knowledge, skills and attitudes through study, experience and teaching.
Factors that affect learning
 Intelligence of the learners
 The complexity of the subject matter
 The significance placed by the learners on what is to be learned
 The environment in which learning is taking place.
Training
Training is the acquisition of knowledge, skills, and competencies as a result of the
teaching of vocational or practical skills and knowledge that relate to specific useful
competencies. Training has specific goals of improving one's capability, capacity, and
performance. It forms the core of apprenticeships and provides the backbone of content at
institutes of technology (also known as technical colleges or polytechnics).
Education in its general sense is a form of learning in which knowledge, skills, and
habits of a group of people are transferred from one generation to the next through
teaching, training, research. Generally, it occurs through any experience that has a
formative effect on the way one thinks, feels, or acts.
Types of education
i. Formal education: organized educational activity within an established system
ii. Informal education: unorganized learning activity in which human beings undergo
in a lifetime
iii. Non formal education: organized learning activities outside the estrablished
formal education system
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Elements of the learning process
An effective learning process or an ideal learning process should have the following
elements:
 The learner
 The teacher
 Teaching and learning resources
 The learning environment
 The content/subject matter
a) The learner
The learner is considered as the most important element of the teaching and learning
process. This is because:
 The learner is the chief beneficiary of the learning process, and the reason
why the teaching is taking place.
 The learner must be present for the learning cycle to be complete. Without
the learner, there can be no teaching and therefore no learning.
 The learner is the basis for the selection of teaching approaches, as his/her
needs and abilities determine thee.
 The learner is the basis for the selection of teaching objectives as they are
the ones to manifest the behaviour change.
 Learners enrich the learning process as they are a resource in themselves
by the contributions that they make. Their past experiences serve to enrich
current learning
 It is from the learners that evaluation of the process odf learning is made.
 The learners helps the teacher in deciding on the appropriatre teaching
resources
 The learner is the basis of the choice of content for the learning process.
b) The teacher
The role of the teacher in the teaching and learning process include:
 Set out the objectives of the learning process
 Select and organize the learning resources
 Organize the learning environment
 Maintain order during the learning process
 Organize appropriate learning experiences for the learners
 Guide the learning process
 Organize the learning experiences
 Evaluate learning
 Identify different learner needs and address them appropriately
 Organize the content to be learny
 Arouse and capture the learners motivation
c) Teaching and learning resources

d) The learning environment
e) The content/subject matter
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1.2 Areas of Concern
The study of psychology of teaching and learning includes;
 Background to the psychological, empirical and theoretical bases of learning
 types of learning
 psychology of learning
 conditions of learning
 teaching and the phases and operations of teaching
 importance of studying learning and teaching
 factors influencing learning
 classroom management
 remembering and forgetting
 individual differences in learning
 attitude change and learning
Is teaching more difficult today?

Arguments for
 Curriculum demands are greater than before
 Rapid changes in technology and society make keeping abreast more difficult
 Individualized teaching is now more expected than before and is more demanding
 The tasks expected of teachers are more
 The teacher today needs to know more
 Teachers have to deal with not just students but also parents, community,
politicians religious and management.
 Social mobility has added strain to teachers
Arguments against
 Classes are generally smaller than they used to be
 Buildings are better
 There are more teaching equipment
 Children are healthier
 Children are more exposed to a wider range of environmental influences which
stimulate learning in class.
 Education is now state supported so resources are more available
1.3 Review Questions
i. Define education
ii. Differentiate between the terms learning and training
iii. State and explain the elements of the learning process
iv. Teaching is harder today than ten years ago. Discuss.
v. Analyze the areas of concern inth psychology of teaching and learning
Books for further reading

i) Charles E Skinner (2007); Educational Psychology 4e; Prentice-hall Of India
Pvt Ltd
ii) Rioth R. H (2007); Educational and Personality Development; Blackwell –
London
iii) R.N. Sharma (2004); Educational Psychology; Atlantic Publishers &
Distributors (p) Ltd.
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CHAPTER 2
Background to the Psychological, Empirical and Theoretical Bases of Learning
Objectives
 Analyze the learning process
2.0 Introduction
In the previous chapter we defined learning as a relatively permanent change changes in
behavior resulting from reinforced practice or as the process of acquiring knowledge,
skills and attitudes through study, experience and teaching. As a process, learning has
psychological, empirical and theoretical foundations. This chapter examines these
foundations by expounding on the learning process.
2.1 The Process of Learning

As defined earlier, learning may be defined as a relatively permanent change changes in
behaviour resulting from reinforced practice.
The learning process refers to the process of acquiring knowledge, skills and attitudes
through study, experience and teaching.
Stages in the process of learning

The stages are based on Gesells theory of learning
Stage I
1. Paying attention to learning material
 Attention is necessary if we are to take note of experiences. Many things happen
around us but we only understand or take note of those we pay attention to.
 Teachers must train the attention of the learners if benefits of teaching are to leave
their fullest effect. Paying attention involves listening & observing. Although
they are habits that should be taught at home, the teacher must do it if home
failed.
 However, be aware that the length of time for which a child attention can be on
one thing is short, therefore give changes of activity.
2. Gaining interest in what is to be learned.

 Once attention has been captured, motivation must follow. Motivation is all
important to get children to learn. Although the teacher can impose/force by
making children pay attention and compel them to learn with threats of
punishment or promises of reward, this learning is usually shallower than when
the motivation is self-imposed.
 Self-imposed motivation goes deep down onto our personality. We do things

because they personally interest us, make us happy or gives us satisfaction. This
motivation does not always come first in learning. However, the teacher should
therefore impose external motivation & hope that in the course of learning self
imposed motivation will occur.
 Externally imposed motivation includes the fear that drives children to work.
Children who work hard to get good marks or grades are responding to external
motivation. The most common external motivation are rewards & punishment.
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 However, the punishment or reward should be based on a good teacher pupil
relationship and secondly, be appropriate to age and character of individual
(Don’t Cain if child is already hardened by Caning), Don’t give stars if the child
is too old to appreciate.
3. Developing skills and understanding

 Skills are physical & mental abilities that require a high degree of coordination
between the body and brain
 The value of skills lies in their obvious economy of effort. Once learned, they
continue with little or no effort.
 Such learning cannot develop without active participation by learners. Therefore
teachers need to provide for activities that aid learning.
 Through activity, experience is more readily acquired skills are more quickly learned
and learning is better understood.
4. Experimenting with what is learned
Once we possess a certain amount of knowledge or skill, our immediate desire is to use it.
New knowledge & experiences invite experimentation & thus continue until they are
fully integrated with previous experience
5. Applying learning
 The ultimate value of knowledge lies in using it. Skills/knowledge learned but not
applied is soon forgotten
 The teacher should make effort to help learners see the relevance of such
knowledge/skills so that they (learners) can apply them.
2.2 Ways in which learning takes place

Other ways through which learning takes place are outlined as follow:
1. Imitation
 Imitation is also referred to as observational learning. It refers to the process of
following an example that has been provided. This kind of learning results from
watching others and is not dependent on reinforcement. It is pronounced in
experimentation and demonstration lessons.
 Albert Bandura developed the social learning theory which emphasizes the
importance of observing and modeling what other people do. Much learning
occurs in the social context.
 Learners who are surrounded by positive models have the opportunity to learn a
lot of positive behavior. Learners surrounded by models who have negative
influence may find it difficult to learn certain skills.
Certain steps involved in the modeling process:

Attention-You have to pay attention to learn something
Retention- You should be able to remember what you have paid attention to
Reproduction- his is translating the images or behavior observed into actual
behavior
Motivation- This is the reason for doing something.
Imitation can be applied in:
 The formation of standards of judgement
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 The learning of first languages
 Learning how to solve problems
Factors that determine successful learning through imitation include:

 The characteristics of the models must be such that they make observation
effective. The model should be a significant person who the learner respects and
identifies with, for example, people such as presidents, athletes and celebrities. In
class, the teacher is the model for effective learning.
 The learner should be reinforced for correctly imitating the behavior expected for
a more productive effect.
 The learner needs to observe the model behaving in exactly the same way he or
she is expected to behave.
 Time should be provided for reinforcement for the imitated behavior. The more
attention paid to the modeling agent, the more effective the learning is likely to
be.
2. Repetition and practice

Repetition and practice involves repeated exposure to the materials to be learnt reinforces
or strengthens learning.
Characteristics of repetition and practice

Characteristics of repetition and practice are:
 The more the practice, the better the mastery
 The amount of practice required depends on the task being learnt. The more
complex task, the number of practice sessions required for effective mastery.
 A lot of practice usually results in overlearning, that is, mastery. In such a case an
individual’s memory becomes very good and the learnt material cannot be
forgotten. Recall, therefore, becomes automatic.
3. Play and drama

The importance of play in the learning process is based on its value in enhancing the
acquisition of knowledge, skills and attitudes.
This is because:
 Through play, children acquire language and improve their proficiency
 Play stimulates imagination and creativity, especially when it involves the
handling and manipulation of materials.
 It enhances the development of social skills by emphasizing aspects such as
cooperation, communication and competition. It leads to the acquisition of values
such as empathy and concern for others.
 It makes learning enjoyable because it has a stimulating and motivational aspect
attached to it.
 It provides children with opportunities to experiment with knowledge and skills
acquired in class and elsewhere
 In play, children exercise their motor skills, in this way they learn body and
muscle coordination and keep physically and mentally healthy.
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4. Conditioning and association of ideas
Conditioning and association of ideas is a psychological process that causes an organism
or person to respond in a particular way to stimulus selected by some other person. The
selected stimulus would not, under ordinary circumstances, evoke the response achieved.
However,as a result of conditioning, the response comes from an association with the
stimulus that is formed in the mind.
There are two types of conditioning: classical conditioning and operant conditioning.
a) Classical conditioning
b) Operant conditioning
Operant conditioning, also called instrumental conditioning, is the process whereby a
behavior usually a voluntary one, becomes associated with the consequences of
performing that behavior.
5. Memorization
Knowledge is organized in such a way that it makes it possible for people to form mental
pictures or images of places, events or objects. Memorization is the process of
purposefully enhancing the storage and retention of what is learnt by virtue of its
organization into mental pictures for later recall or recognization.
Factors that determine successful memorization include:
 Ensuring that learning is linked to what is already known through the experiences
that learners already have.
 Structuring the material to be learnt in an organized way through sequencing
 Ensuring that what is learnt is meaningful and of relevance to the learners
 Use of mnemonic devices, such as acronyms
 Enhancing practice and repetition
 Emphasizing frequent revision.
6. Investigation and discovery

Investigation and discovery is learning that takes place after the learner has taken an
active role in finding our something. The learner is given all the required apparatus or
materials,directions and guidelines before carrying out the investigation. This is the case
with class experiments and project work.
7. Incidental learning
Incidental or situational learning is the kind of learning that takes place unconsciously or
unintentionally as a result of some activity that a learner is engaged in. what is learnt
therefore depends on the situation and the experiences that the learner is exposed to
For example:
In an English lesson on proper nouns, Alia makes the following sentence: Nairobi is the
capital of Kenya. Furaha, who is Alia’s desk mate learns , not only about proper nouns,
but also information about Kenya. This kind of information has been learnt although it
was not the primary information to be learnt. This is the reason why incidental learning
is referred to as situational learning.
Incidental learning can be enhanced by:
 Using activity-based learning, such as discovery method
 Using probing and thought-provoking questions
 Teaching problem-solving skills and encouraging divergent thinking
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 Using the immediate environment and real life experiences in learning
 Encouraging freedom of expression in discussing issues.
8. Trial error
 Trial and error is a method of solving problems. It involves sorting through
possibilities, selecting one at a time and applying it to the problem. It the problem
is not solved, another possibility is selected. This continues until the problem is
solved.
 The major limitation with this approach is that it is time-consuming. Where
possible solutions to a problem are many, using trial and error would cost one
dearly in terms of time, resources and energy.
9. Insightful learning
 Insightful or intuitive learning is the process that allows for sudden flashes of
inspiration that allow us to solve problems, often in novel ways.
 In insightful learning, and individual surveys each element of a problem and calls
upon previous knowledge and rules from their memory store to solve the existing
problem. The method of solution applied to one problem may, thus, be applied to
other problems with similar characteristics.
10. Transfer of learning

Transfer of learning is the application of previously learnt knowledge to new situations.
Transfer often results in the ability to perform sensibly and adequately in a new task. For
example.
Using a dictionary enables one to use a directory or a catalogue
Mastering language concepts appropriately enables a learner to effectively write a
composition
Mastering the alphabet enables the learner to write simple words.
Types of transfer of learning
General transfer
 It is the ability to take knowledge or skills learnt in one situation and apply them
to a broad range of different situations
 For example, the learning of writing is applied to all subjects at all levels of
learning
Specific transfer
 It is the ability to use information in a setting similar to the one in which
information is originally learnt. For example skills learnt in tennis can be applied
to badminton
Positive transfer
 This occurs when previous learning assists us in the learning of new tasks
 For example, in Mathematics, the teacher begins with simple concepts to help
pupils master the next level of difficulty. The teacher starts with addition of
whole numbers such as 2+2=4. When mulitiplication is introduced, the learners
are able to interpret this as repeated addition: 2x3 =2+2+2=6
Negative transfer
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 It is also referred to as habit intereference. It takes place whenever prior learning
interferes with the learner’s attempts to master a new task.
 For example, at the beginning of the year 2009, an individual may continue
indicating the previous year when actually referring to dates in the new year. The
individual may write 12/1/08 instead of 12/1/09.
Zero transfer
 It is also referred to as neutral transfer. It occurs when there is no relationship
between previous learning and the new task. The previous learning has no effect
or influence on the new task.
 For example, the learning of addition of whole numbers such as 2+2 =4 has no
effect on learning about greetings.
Bilateral transfer
 It is also called cross education. It takes place in motor development when we
transfer learning between limbs.
 For example, an individual can learn to kick a ball using the right foot. This
individual will then be able to learn how to kick a ball using the left foot.
Learning is transferred in two main directions:

Lateral transfer-
 This is also referred to as horizontal transfer and happens when knowledge learnt
earlier on is applied horizontally or at a similar level. There is no upward
movement.
 For example, content learnt in Social Studies in Standard 3 can aid the
understanding of content in Religious Education in the same class.
Vertical transfer-
 This indicates an upward movement in the transfer of learning. What is learnt in
one situation can be applied to other, more complex situations.
 For example, Physics content in Form ! is used as a base for the learning of
Physics in Form 2,3 and 4, and even for engineering courses later in college or
university. In this case, simple concepts are prerequisite to the understanding or
more complex concepts.
 Vertical transfer is easy to generalize and is more useful when compared to
horizontal transfer.
Factors influencing transfer of learning

There are at least five factors that determine the learner’s ability to transfer learning:
Similarity between the learning situations

The closer the relationship between different learning situations, the more likely
that transfer will occur. For instance, if learners have encountered mammals such as
dogs, cats or horses, they are likely to identify a cow as a mammal. On the other hand,
learners are less likely to transfer the concept of a mammal to a bat whose features are
not closely related to the mammals that the learners have already encountered.
Variety of learning experiences

Variety is sometimes referred to as a multiple knowledge representation. It is a
situation in which a topic is covered in several ways from a number of perspectives. As
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learners construct understanding and prepare for transfer, each case or example adds
different, but useful connections that the others do not.
Quality of learning experiences
This refers to the extent to which experiences are accessible and meaningful to
learners. In the case of concept learning, this means that the essential characteristics of
the concepts are observable in the examples used and are understood by learners. For
example, in teaching the principle of how materials expand under the influence of
heat,seeing a balloon expand over a heated bottle is a higher quality example, than a
picture or verb statement of the same experience.
Context of learning experiences
Learners do not merely encode information. They encode it together with the
context in which the information is presented. The role of context has important
implications for teaching in general, and transfer in particular. For effective transfer to
occur, knowledge and skills learnt in one context must be applied to others.
Depth of understanding and practice
The more times learners spend studying content, the more likely that transfer will
occur. The creation of more opportunities for learners to practice enhances the depth of
understanding and increases the likelihood of transfer.
Application of transfer of learning to classroom learning

 Teachers should adopt the following strategies in order to maximize transfer of
learning within and outside their classrooms.
 Make the learning or training situation as similar to real-world situations as
possible
 Provide many practice opportunities on the original tasks before the transfer task
is attempted to ensure that learners have thoroughly mastered the initial stages of
given content before moving on to the next.
 Provide a good deal of practice on related sets of problems
 Emphasize proper sequencing and prerequisite learning of a series of tasks.
 Once learners master a series of tasks early, they are placed in a better position to
transfer their knowledge to related tasks.
 Whenever principles based on generalizations are stated, provide a wide variety of
examples. For example, when teaching about the concept of the communities,
one can talk about ants and bees.
 Assist learners to form a link between what they learn in the classroom and the
world outside their school by creating problem solving situations in which
learners are required to apply the content learnt in class.
 Emphasize the use of inductive approaches to learning as a way of encouraging
learners to work out rules and principles for themselves. This will contribute to
positive transfer. Inductive approaches, such as the use of project work,
assignments and discussions, help in making learning realistic and relevant to the
life of the learner.
 Emphasize the similarities between the content and the situation to which the new
learning will apply. The teacher should make it clear to the learners that what is
being learnt can be transferred to other situations.
11. Experience
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Experience occurs after a learner has undergone learning in a practical situation.
For example, a child may learn that fire is dangerous only after playing with it and being
burnt. It is said that experience is the best teacher. As such, teachers should make
experience an integral aspect of learning situations. This can be through the use of
project work, educational visits, discovery learning, activity methods and general use of
the environment.
Application of experience to classroom learning

Factors to consider when applying learning through experience include:
 Knowledge gained and skills acquired last for along time
 Learning is real and meaningful as it involves all the senses
 Learning is more interesting
 Learning is innovative
However, care must be taken in the use of experience in learning as not all experiences
have desirable learning outcomes. For example, learners may learn to cross a road by
trial and error than by systematically checking for oncoming vehicles.
12. Latent learning

Latent learning is that learning that occurs but it is not manifested until there is an
incentive to demonstrate it.
Application of latent learning to classroom learning

A teacher should remember the following when applying latent learning in the classroom:
 Teachers are encouraged to use reinforcement in teaching and learning in order to
motivate learners to attend to learning tasks with the desired proficiency.
 Systematic organization of learning materials can be used as an incentive to the
formation of cognitive maps in the minds of learners. Teachers should ensure that
all content and learning tasks are sequenced appropriately. The classroom
environment should also be enriched with a variety of learning areas which should
be systematically referred to during teaching so that learners can form an
association between them and the learning tasks relevant to their use. This
information, once stored, is likely to boost latent learning.
 Memory provoking practices and procedures can be used in teaching and learning.
These include the question and answer technique, and mnemonic devices such as
abbreviations and acronyms
 Define the term ‘learning’
 Describe five procedures that a teacher could employ to boost learning through
the use of each of the following learning strategies:
 Imitation
 Memorization
 Define the concept of ‘transfer of learning’
 With the use of examples, explain five different ways in which transfer of
learning takes place
 What is the relationship between learnt motivation and transfer of learning?
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 Explain five implications of the concept of transfer of learning for classroom
practice.
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20
CHAPTER 3
TYPES OF LEARNING
Objectives
 State and explain Gagne’s hierarchy of learning
 Other types of learning
3.0 Introduction
Different scholars have classified learning into different types. Among these are
classifications by Gagne and by Benjamin Bloom. This chapter examines the different
types of learning as put forth by these scholars.
3.1 Gagne’s Hierarchy of Learning

Gagne, who, like Bloom and his associates, worked mainly within the neo-behaviourist
tradition of educational psychology, and approached understanding primarily through
cognitive skills. He hypothesized that such skills are acquired hierarchically, and
presented a general hierarchical model containing eight types of learning:
 Signal learning
 Stimulus-response learning
 Chaining
 Verbal association
 Discrimination
 Concept learning
 Rule learning
 Problem solving (Gagne, 1962).
He suggested that the higher levels of the hierarchy could be applied to many of the
subjects taught in schools; and that where such hierarchies could be identified; it should
be possible to analyze tasks in order to identify the pre-requisite learning for a given
objective. The findings of such analyses could then be used to inform the planning of
sequences within specific content areas (Gagne, 1970).
i. Signal learning
This is the simplest form of learning and consists essentially of the classical
conditioning first described by behavioral psychologist, Pavlov. In this, the
subject is ‘conditioned’ to emit a desired response as a result of stimulus that
would not normally produce that response. This is done by first exposing the
subject to the, chosen stimulus(known as the conditioned stimulus) along with
another stimulus (known as the unconditioned stimulus) which produces which
produces the desired response naturally; after a number of repetitions it is found
that the subject emits the desired response when exposed to the conditioned
stimulus on its own.
ii. Stimulus-response learning

This is more sophisticated form of learning which is also known as operant
conditioning and was originally developed by skinner. It involves developing
desired stimulus –response bonds in the subject through a carefully planned
reinforcement schedule based on the use of rewards and punishment.
iii. Chaining
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This is a more advanced form of learning in which the subject develops the ability to
connect two or more previously learnt stimulus-response bonds into a linked sequence. It
is the process whereby most complex psychomotor skills are learned e.g. driving, riding.
iv. Verbal association
This is a form of chaining in which the links between the items being connected
are verbal in nature. Verbal association is one of the key processes in the
development of language skills.
v. Discrimination learning
This involves developing the ability to make appropriate (different) responses to a
series of similar stimuli that differ in a systematic way. The process is made more
complex by the phenomenon of interference, whereby one piece of learning
inhibits the other. Interference is thought to be one of the main causes of
forgetting
vi. Concept learning
This involves developing the ability to make a consistent response to different
stimuli that form a common class or category of some kind. It forms the basis for
the ability to generalize, classify etc.
vii. Rule Learning

This is a very high level cognitive process that involves being able to learn
relationships between concepts and apply these relationships in different situations,
including situations not previously encountered. It forms the basis of the learning of
general rules, procedures etc.
viii. Problem solving

This is the highest level of cognitive process according to Gagne. It involves
developing the ability to invent a complex rule algorithm or procedure for the
purposes of solving particular problem and then using the method to solve other
problems of similar nature.
3.2 Domains of Learning
Psychologist Benjamin Bloom and his colleagues identified three domains or

learning outcomes of educational activities. This classification frame work came to be
known as the taxonomy of educational objectives or Blooms taxonomy.
It identifies three levels or domains of learning and is hierarchical. Each of the three
domains is divided into levels, starting from the simplest to the most complex.
Learning at higher levels is dependant in knowledge and skills acquired at other levels.
The taxonomy, therefore, provides a sequential model for dealing with curriculum
content.
The cognitive domain

The cognitive domain involves knowledge and the development of mental skills.
There are six levels which are listed from the simplest to the most complex there are
 Knowledge/ Remember
Remembering skills entail recalling information as it was presented. Knowledge can be
defined as the recollection or recall of appropriate, previously learnt information. It
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includes the recalls of terminology and specific facts. Verbs to use in the statement of
instructional objectives at this level include: define, enumerate, identify, label, list,
match, name, select, and state. Example: by the end of the lesson, the learners should be
able to list the different types of media that online courses can include
Comprehension/understand
Comprehension entails the understanding of information so as to be able to translate,
perceive and interpret instruction and problems. Learners should be able to classify, cite,
convert, describe, discuss, explain, give examples, paraphrase, restate in own words,
summarize, understand, distinguish and rewrite.
Understanding skills can include restating knowledge learnt earlier in one’s own terms,
translating ideas and concepts and recognizing inferences and assumptions understanding
skills can be tested by repeating questions and problems in a different form
Example: by the end of the lesson the learners should be able to write complete
instructional objectives at the appropriate level using Blooms taxonomy.
Application
Application is using previously learnt information in new situations to solve problems.
Those experiencing this level of learning should show the capacity to apply, change,
compute, modify, predict, prepare, relate, solve, show, use and produce.
Analysis
Analysis refers to the ability to break down informational materials into their component
parts examine them and understand the organizational structure. It may involve
identifying motives or causes, making inferences or finding evidence to support
generalization .at this level, learners should be able to break down, correlate,
discriminate, differentiate, distinguish, focus, illustrate, infer, limit, outline point out,
prioritize, recognize separate, subdivide, select and compare. Analysis can require
learners to detect relationships and draw conclusions you can use experiments or supply
data to test analysis skills.
Example: given a properly written instructional objective, identify the conditions , skills
and criteria.
Synthesis /create
Synthesis refers to the building of structures or patterns from various kinds of elements.
Learners at this level can put parts together to form a whole that has a new meaning or
structure. Key words in use for this level of learning include categories. To create is to
produce something new or to modify a thing that already exists. Creating can also take
the form of a speech, proposal, project or theory.
Sample verbs: summarize, revise, compose, construct, create, synthesize,
Example: create an online course which includes all the levels of learning as spelled out
in the Bloom’s taxonomy.
Evaluation
Evaluation refers to the process of making judgment s about information, its value and
quality. Learning and the level includes appraising, comparing and contrasting,
defending, judging, interpreting, justifying, discriminating and evaluating. Evaluation
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entails using personal values to judge knowledge. Evaluations are hard to grade
objectively. Sample verb: appraise, compare, conclude, criticize, assess, evaluate.
Example: by the end of the lesson, the learners should be able to evaluate the
effectiveness of the educational technology course
The affective domain

Concerned with emotions and attitudes
Has five levels
Receiving –involves awareness and paying attention
 Key words are name, choose, point at, select, use, locate, follow, describe
Responding
 Involves active participation in the learning process. The learner reacts to what
they have received in.
 Measuring verbs include answer, assist, aid, discuss, greet, help, label, perform,
practice, present, read, record select & write.
Valueing
 This describes the value or worth that a learner attaches to a particular object,
phenomenon or behaviour.
 Key terms include complete, join, demonstrate, differenciate, explain, form,
initiate, write, join, justify, propose, report, share & study & work.
Organization
 This involves arranging values according to priority by comparing, relating &
synthesizing them.
 Key verbs are alter, arrange, combine, explain, organize, synthesize, relate.
Internalization of values
 The learner has formed a value system that influences his or her behaviour.
 Key words are influence, perform, practice, qualify, question, verify, display,
discriminate, act.
The psychomotor domain

The psychomotor domain involves; physical movement, coordination and use of the
motor skill. This domain describe the ability to physically manipulate things such as
tools. Bloom and his colleagues did not create levels n this domain. Other educators have
created seven levels from the simplest t; the most complex form. They are
Perception
This is the ability to use the senses to guide motor activity. Individuals experiencing
learning at this level should be able to choose, describe, detect, differentiate, distinguish,
identify, isolate, select.
Set
This indicates the readiness to act. At this level, individuals should be able to display,
explain, move, proceed, restate and volunteer
Guided response
This refers to the early stages of learning a complex skill that include imitation, and trial
and error. Achievement at this level is attained by practicing. Learning is demonstrated
by copying, tracing, following, reacting and reproducing.
Mechanism
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This refers to the intermediate stage of learning a complex skill. Learnt responses should
become habitual, confident and proficient. Learners can assemble, construct, dismantle,
fasten, fix, grind, heat, measure, mend, sketch, organize and calibrate.
Complete overt response
This is the skilful performance of physical acts that involve complex movement patterns.
Proficiency is indicated by quick, accurate and highly coordinated performance. Key
terms that show learning at this level include assemble, build, calibrate, construct,
dismantle, display, fix, fasten, grind, heat, manipulate, measure, mix, organize and
sketch.
Adaptation
Individuals experiencing learning at this level have well-developed skills and are able to
make modifications to fit special requirements. Learners at this level adapt, alter, change,
rearrange and reorganize.
Origination
This involves creativity. The learner can create new movement patterns to suit different
situations. Individuals at this level should demonstrate the ability to arrange, build,
combine, compose, construct, design, initiate and make.

 Name the thre domains of learning
 Explain the key characteristics of the three domains of learning put forth by
Bloom.
 What is the significance of the taxonomy of objectives by Benjamin Bloom to
educational planners and teachers? (Give five points.)
 Evaluate Gagne’s hierarchical model of learning.

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25
CHAPTER 4
Psychology of Learning
Objectives
 Explain the S_R theories of learning
 Identify and explain the cognitive field theories
4.0 Introduction
Psychology of learning is based on psychological theories. Among these are the
Stimulus-Response theories (S_R theories) and the cognitive field theories. This chapter
discusses these theories as they relate to learning
4.1 S-R theories i.e. Operant and Classical Conditioning

 S-R theories of learning are also refered to as Behaviorism theories.
The major proponents are John Watson, B.F. Skinner and Parlov, Thordike and
Guthrie
Behaviorism is based on three basic assumptions:
1. That learning is manifested by a change in behaviors and define learning as
acquisition of new behavior
2. That the environment under which learning takes place shapes behavior
3. That the principle of contiguity (how close in time two events must be for a bond
to be formed) and reinforcement (any means of increasing likelihood of event
being repeated) are key to learning.
For behaviorism, learning occurs through conditioning
Conditioning and association of ideas is a psychological process that causes an organism
or person to respond in a particular way to stimulus selected by some other person. The
selected stimulus would not, under ordinary circumstances, evoke the response achieved.
However, as a result of conditioning, the response comes from an association with the
stimulus that is formed in the mind.
There are two types of conditioning: classical conditioning and operant conditioning.
a) Classical conditioning
Classical conditioning or respondent conditioning is sometimes referred to as Pavlovian
conditioning because if was discovered by Ivan Pavlov (1849 to 1936), a Russian
physiologist.
Classical conditioning is where behavior becomes a reflex response to stimulus as in the
case of Pavlov dogs. Pavlov used a bell and food. If the bell sounded in close association
with the meal, the dogs learnt to associate the sound of the bell with food. Later at the
mere sound of the bell the dogs salivated/drooled. The dogs had learned to respond
(conditioned stimulus) to the bell (conditioned response).
Classical conditioning, involves the following sequence:
 The unconditioned stimulus (UCS), such as food, elicits an unconditioned
response (UCR), such as salivation.
 The unconditioned response (UCR) is automatically elicited by the UCS.
 The pairing of a conditioned stimulus (CS), such as a bell, with a UCS such as
food, elicits a conditioned response (CR), such as salivation.
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 The presentation of the Cs alone elicits a UCR, that is, the bell presented alone
elicits the response of salivation.
Before conditioning
UCS UCR
(meat) (salivation)
CS (no salivation)
(bell
During Conditioning
CS + UCS – UCR
(bell) (meat) (salivation)
After conditioning
CS CR
(bell) (salivation)
b) Operant conditioning
Operant conditioning, also called instrumental conditioning, is the process
whereby a behavior usually a voluntary one, becomes associated with the consequences
of performing that behavior. There is reinforcement of the behavior by either reward or
punishment. Rewards increase likelihood or repeated of action while punishment reduce
likelihood or repeat of action. It requires:
 The existence of a stimulus,
 A response,
 The consequence,
This approach was first intensively investigated by B.F. Skinner. In what has come to be
popularly referred to as the ‘Skinner Box’, a hungry rat was put into a box with a bar
pedal on one wall. The rat had to learn to press the bar which released food pellets into
the cage. The rat explored until it happened to press the bar and a food pellet dropped
into the cage. It ate the pellet and continued to explore until it hit the bar again. After
several trials, the rat learnt that it could get food by pressing the bar. The food reinforced
the bar pressing response and the rat pressed the bar again and again.
In operant conditioning, therefore, it is the organism’s behavior that brings about the
occurrence of the stimulus. The term ‘operant’ implies that we operate within our
environments. As opposed to classical conditioning, in operant conditioning, a response
followed by reinforcement will most likely recur when the organism finds itself in a
situation similar to that which surrounded the behavior during the first occurrence.
Schedules of reinforcement and extinction

A schedule of reinforcement determines how often a behavior is going to result in
reward. There are five kinds of schedule;
i. Fixed interval schedule: means that a reward will occur after a fixed amount of
time e.g every five minutes.
ii. A variable interval schedule; means that reinforces will be distributed after a
varied amount of time. Sometimes a few minutes, sometimes hours or days.
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iii. A fixed ratio schedule: means that if a behavior is performed X number of times,
there will be one reinforcement on the xth time. e.g for a fixed ration of 1: 3 every
third performance will be rewarded. This tends to lead to lousy performance by
the individuals as they know that the first two performances will not be rewarded
but the third one will.
iv. A variable ratio schedule: means that reinforces are distributed based on the
average number of correct behavior. A variable ratio of 1: 3 means that on
average, one out of every three behaviors will be rewarded. It might be the first,
or the second or even the third.
v. A random schedule: there is no correlation between the animals’ behavior and the
consequences. It works like fate.
Thorndike’s Connectionism
This theory was proposed by Thorndike and argues that learning means establishing links
or bonds between two or more events, for example, pressing a lever to get food. the
theory has several laws of learning these include:
 the law of effect
A satisfying state of affairs leads to repetition of a given behaviour, while an annoying
state of affairs weakens the response but does not lead to extinction
 the law of readiness
When a person is ready or prepared to engage in a task, and is provide with the
opportunity to do so, the experience is pleasing and satisfying. However, when one is
prepared for a task but is denied opportunity, leads to frustration and annoyance.
Conversely, when one is not prepared or ready to engage in a task, but is forced to do so,
the end result will be annoying and frustrating
 The law of exercise
A strong connection or bond is established between stimulus and response as a result of
practice. Practice makes the connection perfect
 The law of use
This law states that a connection between a stimulus and response is strengthened by
frequent use. Conversely, the law of disuse states that infrequent use for a connection
between a stimulus and a response weakens and is likely to make the connection extinct.
Advantages of behaviourism
Behavioral theory has application to classroom management. By being clear about
expectations and providing consequences for misbehaviour, students are taught which
behaviours are acceptable.
It is effective for students who need more direction and supervision from an adult
Limitations of Behavioral theory

1. Criticized for the simplistic approach to teaching new skills. Critics argue that
most learning requires higher order thinking such as analyses, synthesis and
evaluation. Higher order thinkers must be acquired in context and not in
isolation. Consequently, learning reduced to simple stimulus response action
overlooks that process of learning.
2. Another limitation is that it treats symptoms of misbehavior and not the causes,
therefore results are usually short term. Real changes in a child’s behavior
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demands an examination of the underlying causes that must be identified and
dealt with before permanent change can occur of an individual.
3. A teacher who uses reinforces to entice students learning may inadvently decrease
student motivation by rewarding a student for doing something that is intrinsically
satisfying. Also students who as externally motivated may become depended on
reinforcers and refuse to work unless there is a known reward (Tokens, grades).
4.2 Cognitive Field Theories

a. Social Learning Theory
This theory was proposed by Albert Bandura.
 Resulted from dissatisfaction with the behaviourism theory. Argued that learning
includes cognitive processes that cannot be observed directly such as expectations,
thoughts and beliefs.
 Bandura believes that the traditional behavioural views, though accurate, are
incomplete. They give only part of the explanation and overlook social influences on
learning
 Bandura distinguishes between acquisition of knowledge (learning) and observable
performance on that knowledge (behavior).
 He suggests that people normally know more than they can show. For example,
students may have learned how to simplify fractions, but they may perform badly in a
test because of anxiety or illness or misreading. While learning may have occurred, it
may not be demonstrated until the situation is right.
 In social cognition theory therefore, both the internal and external factors are
important.
 Another factor overlooked by the behaviorists is the effect of modeling and imitation
on learning. If people imitate, it means they are focusing their attention, constructing
images remembering, which involve cognitive processes yet behaviorists believe that
cognitive factors are unnecessary in learning.
 Bandura notes that there are 4 important elements to be considered in
observational/imitation learning. These are:
 Paying attention
 Retaining information or images
 Producing behavior
 Motivation to repeat the behavior
Social learning is also referred to as observational/modeling/imitation learning. Proposed

by Albert Bandura and is called the social learning theory because it is mainly based on
what the learner learns in their environment as they observe and interact with others. The
theory assumes that people learn social behaviors mainly through observation, mental
processing of information and modeling what they observe.
Observational learning is is of two kinds
 vicarious conditioning
 modeling
Vicarious learning is through observing the consequences that others receive for
behaviour. Learners behaviour will increase or decrease in relation to reward or
punishment that someone else receive for similar behaviour. The learner will adopt or
29
avoid behaviour depending on whether they saw it rewarded or punished in another
person.
Modeling
This is learning through imitation. Bandura believed that children acquire moist for their
social concepts through observing ‘models’ around them, who may be parents, teachers
or other learners. The learners copies what they see the ‘model’ doing. The process of
acquiring behaviour through modeling involves:
 reinforcement and motivation to repeat the behavior
b. Cognitive Constructivism theories

Constructionists view learning as a result of mental construction. That it takes
place when information is built into and added onto individual’s structure of knowledge
understanding & skills.
Divided into three
1. Cognitive constructivism e.g. Piaget’s theory & Brunner’s
2. Social constructivism e.g. Vygosky
Based on the principle that learners construct knowledge
Basic principles
 People actively construct or create their own subjective representations of reality
 New information is linked to prior knowledge therefore interpretation is
subjective
 The learner is not tabula rasa (blank) but brings to past experiences & knowledge
to any learning situation
 Provision should be made for social interaction
 Meaningful contexts of learning are important
 Children’s awareness of their own thought process should be promoted
Piaget’s Cognitive Constructivism Theory

States that children learn by actively constructing knowledge using their schema
Schema is a framework that exists in individuals minds to organize and interpret
information. Schema’s range from simple (e.g. schema of a car) to most the complex
(e.g. schema of what constitutes the universe, what is justice)
There are two ways by which children adapt their schemas
a) Assimilation
b) Accommodation
Assimilation occurs when a child incorporates new knowledge into existing knowledge
schema. It fits, and there is no dilemma.
Accommodation occurs when a child adjusts to new information. The child adjusts
his/her schema to the environment/new knowledge. This happens when new knowledge
does not fit in with the schema but has to be put in to be used later as a schema.
Piaget relates a child’s cognitive development to learning. He came up with age
related stages. The closer the level of content to be learnt matches the level of cognitive
30
development, the better. Only after a certain level of development has been reached can
a child comprehend a concept.
The stages of cognitive development are
a) Sensory –motor: 0-2 year
b) Pre-operational – 2-7 years
c) Intuitive thought – sub stage 4-7
d) Concrete operational 7-11
e) Formal operational stage 11-15
1. Sensory motor stage (pre-conceptual stage)

 Characterized by assimilation and use of the five senses. He constructs
understanding of the world by coordinating his sensory experiences.
Classroom application
 Use a lot of objects that the learners can hear, see and touch.
2. Pre-operational (2-7 years)
 Represents the world with images and words.
 The child is ego-centric and is not able to see events from another point of
view
 Intuitive thought is common especially at sub-stage 4-7
 This is a stage of use primitive reasoning and asking a lot of questions
(inquisitive).
 They get to know things but without rational thinking. They cannot explain.
3. Concrete Operational
 Logical thinking begins and replaces intuition
 Do things mentally
 Children are able to describe actions rather than explain
 Reasoning is however limited to concrete situations
 Use visual aids
 Ask questions on what you have taught
4. Formal operational (11- 15years)

 Reasoning moves from only concrete situations to abstract thinking.
 Can apply knowledge they learnt in a different situation
 Give project work & experimentation
 Encourage data analysis
c. Social constructivism
Vygosky’s social development theory.
Adds three important dimensions:
1. Social interaction: it emphasizes upon interaction between the learner and others
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2. It gives high priority to use of language in the process of intellectual development
and involves dialogue with a more knowledgeable other (MKO). The teacher is
the more knowledgeable other or peers, or older adult or even computer. The
teacher engages learners in dialogue and supports the development of learning.
This role is called scaffolding.
3. The zone of Proximal Development (ZPD). This is the distance between a
student’s ability to solve problem independently and the level to which the same
student can achieve with the help of an MKO. The process of learning & teaching
involves moving from the level of independent achievement to the level of
assisted achievement. The theoretical space between these two levels is the zone
of proximal development (ZPD). The role of the MKO is to help (scaffold) the
learner to move across this zone. Scaffolding is the process of giving support to
the learner at an appropriate level through discussion, provision of materials,
explanation e.t.c.
The level of support should suit the learner current level of understanding.
Comparison of Vygosky and Riagets theories of learning

Vygosky Piaget’s
 Children learn how being active  Children learn how being active
 Learning is socially mediated activity  children operate as lone discoverers of
 Emphasis on teacher as more key
knowledgeable and as scaffolder.  Children should discover for
 Teacher is a facilitator who provides themselves and not be taught.
the challenges that the child needs to  Teacher is only a provider of material
achieve. needed for children to work with and
 Cognitive development is fostered by learn.
collaboration and not related to age.  Cognitive development is age related
 Cognitive development is an
internalization of social experiences.  Children are unable to extend their
What a child can do with an adult cognitive abilities beyond their stage of
today, they can do it alone tomorrow. development.
Whereas Piaget described the child as a little scientist, constructing understanding

of the world largely alone, Vygosky suggests that cognitive development depended much
on the people in the child’s world. Children’s knowledge ideas, attitudes and values
develop through interaction with others.
Vygosky also believed that language play a very important role in cognitive
development. Piaget called children’s self-directed talk ego centric speech, indicating
that young children can’t see the world through the eyes of others. They talk about what
matters to them without considering the listeners. Vygosky had different ideas about
private speech, and suggests that these mutterings to one self play an important role in
cognitive development. The children are communicating with themselves to guide
behavior & thinking. He identified the transition from audible private speech to silent
inner speech as a fundamental (key) process in cognitive development
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N.B - Because private speech helps students to regulate their thinking, it makes sense to
allow and even encourage private speech in class. Insisting on total silence when young
students are working interferes.
d. Brunner’s theory of constructivism

Basic principles
1. Learners are out tabula rasa. They use existing knowledge to build new
knowledge. The past knowledge will determine how they build new knowledge.
2. Knowledge is constructed by the individuals from within therefore different from
one to another
3. Emphasizes discovery learning.
4. The main focus is on how knowledge is constructed and not on how much
knowledge has been acquired.
5. Has stages:
 Enactive stage-characterized by motor responses. Learners are able to perform a
physical task better than describe it
 Iconic stage- learning is largely by visual images. Children visualize concepts being
taught.
 Symbolic stage- learning is by symbolic representation e.g. math symbol words.
The stages however are to related to developmental age. We can teach anything to a
child so long as we present it in an appropriate form.
The stages mean that for learners to understand, they have to see (iconic), do (enactive)
and talk about it (symbolic).
Implications for classroom teaching

1. The teachers should facilitate learning by providing materials for children to work
with and make discoveries as they construct knowledge.
2. The teacher needs to use a variety of teaching materials as children in a classroom
are in different stages i.e iconic, symbolic and enactive present same material in
different ways.

i. Identify 3 basics assumptions of behaviorism
ii. What is a schedule of reinforcement?
iii. Discuss any 4 schedules of reinforcement
iv. Analyze Albert bandura social learning theory.
v. Write brief notes on classical conditioning

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CHAPTER 5
Conditions of Learning
Objectives
 Identify the condition of learning with specific emphasis on: Classical
conditioning, Operant conditioning, Multiple Response learning, Cognitive
learning, Social learning
5.0 Introduction
For effective learning to take place, some conditions need to be fulfilled. This chapter
examines the conditions of learning with specific emphasis on: Classical conditioning,
Operant conditioning, Multiple Response learning, Cognitive learning, Social learning
5.1 S-R theories i.e. Operant and Classical Conditioning

5.1.1 Classical Conditioning
Classical conditioning or respondent conditioning is sometimes referred to as Pavlovian
conditioning because if was discovered by Ivan Pavlov (1849 to 1936), a Russian
physiologist.
Classical conditioning is where behavior becomes a reflex response to stimulus as in the
case of Pavlov dogs.
Features/Characteristics of classical conditioning

Reinforcement
It a conditional response is reinforced using the UCS, it will remain strong, but if the
UCS is withdrawn, the CR will weaken. To strengthen salivation in the dog, we must
keep pairing the meat powder and the bell. When pairing stops, the response weakens.
Extinction
It is the process through which the conditioned response is eliminated through repeated
presentation of the conditioned stimulus without the presence of the unconditioned
stimulus. For example, presenting the bell without the meat powder will weaken the
salivating which will gradually fade away.
Spontaneous recovery
This the process by which the conditioned stimulus will again elicit the conditioned
response long after extinction has occurred and without much training. If the animals is
let to rest from the influence of the bell for some time and is presented with the bell
alone, the response of salivation comes back.
Stimulus generalization
This is the tendency for the conditioned response to be elicited by neutral stimuli that are
similar, but not identical, to the conditioned stimulus. In the early periods of
conditioning for example, the dog tends to respond not just to the bell (CS) but also to
other similar stimuli such as a buzzer.
Stimulus discrimination
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This is the ability to distinguish between similar conditioned stimuli and to respond only
to actual conditioned stimuli. As time goes by, for example, an animal funds itself able
to identify its real mother from many others who look like the mother and will confine
responses to those stimuli that it is sure of.
5.1.2 Operant conditioning

Operant conditioning, also called instrumental conditioning, is the process
whereby a behavior usually a voluntary one, becomes associated with the consequences
of performing that behavior. There is reinforcement of the behavior by either reward or
punishment. Rewards increase likelihood or repeated of action while punishment reduce
likelihood or repeat of action. It requires:
 The existence of a stimulus,
 A response,
 The consequence,
.
Features /Characteristics of operant conditioning

Reinforcement
Positive reinforcement: Something pleasant follows a desired behavior. For example, a
child might learn to master specific content in order to receive praise.
Negative reinforcement: An unpleasant event or circumstance is removed following a
desired behavior. This increases the probability of the behavior occurring again. For
example, the same child may learn to master the content in discussion just to avoid being
scolded for not mastering it.
A reinforce is not necessarily a reward but any consequence that strengthens behavior
that it follows. Reinforcement is the process of using reinforcers to strengthen behavior.
The reinforcement process can be illustrated as follows:
Consequences Effect
Behavior reinforce strengthen behavior
Repeated behavior
There are two types of reinforcement:
 Positive reinforcement
 Negative reinforcement
Punishment
Often confused with negative reinforcement. The process of reinforcement, (positive or
negative) always involves strengthening behavior. Punishment on the other hand,
involves decreasing or suppressing behavior. A behavior followed by a punisher is less
likely to be repeated I similar situations. The process of punishment can be illustrated as
follows:
Consequences Effect
Behavior punisher weaken behavior
Repeated behavior
Primary reinforcers
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These are events or objects that are inherently reinforcing in themselves, such as food,
water or relief from pain. They work without any association to anything else. They are
basically innate and seek to satisfy the basic needs.
Secondary reinforcers
These are those reinforcers that are learnt through association with other reinforces. They
are less important than primary reinforcers. For example, a rat learns to get good by
pressing a bar, then a buzzer is sounded every time the rat presses the bar and gets food.
Even if the rat stops getting the food, it will continue to press to the rat, it has become a
secondary reinforce. Attention, praise, money, good grades or promotion are secondary
reinforcers that do not inherently satisfy a physical need.
Extinction
Extinction is the fading away of a response after the withdrawal of reinforcement.
Extinction and reinforcement go hand in hand. Operant conditioning will work best
when these two are combined. Once the reward is withdrawn, the animal will be
conditioned towards the behavior that is rewarding, avoiding the unrewarding one.
Spontaneous recovery
Chances of recovery after a period of extinction are high. After all, complex behavior is
often built on previously learnt behavior.
Stimulus generalization
In operant conditioning, generalization is the ability to apply broadly, knowledge from
the desired response to a similar response. When a child has a runny nose, for example,
she is taught to use a handkerchief to blow her nose. She could possibly generalize this
response by blowing her nose using any available soft surface such as her sleeve, her
parent’s shirt or her pillow.
Stimulus discrimination
This depends on the ability to distinguish between the different situations in which a
stimulus is likely to occur. In the case above, it is the ability to distinguish between the
desired response (blowing the nose using a handkerchief) and a similar but undesirable
one (blowing the nose using a shirt sleeve). The child’s parents could help her make the
proper discrimination by reinforcing her whenever she blows her nose using a
handkerchief and not reinforcing her for blowing her nose using the shirt sleeve.
Operant conditioning can be applied to animal training, behavior modification and
programmed instruction.
5.2 Cognitive Field Theories

5.2.1 Social cognitive learning theory
Social learning is also referred to as observational/modeling/imitation learning. Proposed
by Albert Bandura and is called the social learning theory because it is mainly based on
what the learner learns in their environment as they observe and interact with others. The
theory assumes that people learn social behaviors mainly through observation, mental
processing of information and modeling what they observe.
Observational learning is is of two kinds
36
 vicarious conditioning
 modeling
Vicarious learning is through observing the consequences that others receive for
behaviour. Learners behaviour will increase or decrease in relation to reward or
punishment that someone else receive for similar behaviour. The learner will adopt or
avoid behaviour depending on whether they saw it rewarded or punished in another
person.
Modeling
This is learning through imitation. Bandura believed that children acquire moist for their
social concepts through observing ‘models’ around them, who may be parents, teachers
or other learners. The learners copies what they see the ‘model’ doing. The process of
acquiring behaviour through modeling involves:
 reinforcement and motivation to repeat the behavior
Factors that facilitate social learning

 Attention; The learner needs to observe the model behaving in exactly the same
way he or she is expected to behave. The more attention paid to the modeling
agent, the more effective the learning is likely to be.
 memory: the learner must be able to keep in memory store what they observed the
model do and be able to retrieve it at will
 Reinforcement: The learner should be reinforced for correctly imitating the
behavior expected for a more productive effect.
 Identification with the role model: The characteristics of the models must be such
that they make observation effective i.e the model should be a significant person
who the learner respects and identifies with. In class, the teacher is the model for
effective learning.
 status of the role model: models of high standing and who have the power to
reward and punish serve as better models to learners that those who are uncaring
and indifferent
5.2.2 Piaget’s Cognitive Constructivism Theory

States that children learn by actively constructing knowledge using their schema
Schema is a framework that exists in individuals minds to organize and interpret
information. Schema’s range from simple (e.g. schema of a car) to most the complex
(e.g. schema of what constitutes the universe, what is justice)
Development is defined by four principle factors:
i. Maturation: refers to the unfolding of the genetic plan of life. Maturation
is important in learning.
ii. Experience: development is facilitated by the active interaction of the
learner with his/her environment
iii. Social transmission: refers to the information and customs that are
transmitted from parent and other people in the child’s environment t
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iv. Equilibration; this is the process by which learners seek a balance between
what they know and what they experiencing. Ehen children are faced with
new information which calls for different analysis or activity, they enter a
state of disequilibrium. . when this occurs, they must change the way the
way they deal with the information to establish anew state of equilibrium.

i. List 4 principles of development according to Piaget.
ii. Discuss the factors that facilitate social learning
iii. Differentiate between negative reinforcement and punishment
iv. State and explain the main features of operant conditioning
v. Distinguish between primary and secondary rein forcers

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CHAPTER 6
Teaching
Objectives
 Define terms used in teaching
 Synthesize different viewpoints on teaching
6.0 Introduction
In chapter one, teaching was defined as a process of facilitating changes in learners and
entails the demonstration, guiding and directing of learner efforts. It is therefore a way of
helping one to learn. It can be defined as the process of one (teacher) intentionally
passing on specific content/knowledge to another (student). This chapter defines terms
used in understanding teaching and then synthesizes different viewpoints on teaching
6.1 Definition of Terms

Expository teaching
This are methods of teaching that are characterized by:
 The teacher dominating content impartation
 The teachers provide learners with information, examples, application, definitions
and explanations, notes and evaluation.
 Students passively learn by playing the role of receivers
Heuristic teaching approaches

These are teaching approaches that are:
 Learners centered, with learners as the focus
 Student involvement in seeking and finding information, discovering meaning,
definitions and thinking of examples and applications, making notes and judging
critically.
 Student actively involved in learning by searching for information
Deductive and Inductive Teaching

Deductive teaching is defined as an approach to teaching where generalizations are
stated first and then applied to a number of examples. It is a process which begins with a
learner’s identification of there a concept or generalization, defining it and then
clarifying particular examples ion the basis of the definition framed.
Takes less time. It is teacher controlled therefore expository.
Inductive teaching is where one starts with examples and makes an inference or
generalization upon the basis of these examples. It is an approach to teaching where one
starts with identification of a number of particular examples analysis or generalizations
based on the steps used. It is associated with heuristic teaching methods.
39
Perception of
Generalizations
examples
Identification of Classification of
examples examples
Classification of Generalizations
examples to
specifics
6.2 Different Viewpoints of Teaching
There are several teaching models that have been put forth. Among these are
 Herbartian moral and intellectual learning model,
 Bruner’s discovery learning,
 Ausubel’s expository learning and
 Gagne’s instructional events model
6.2.1 The Herbatian moral and intellectual development theory

John Herbert is known for contributions to moral development in education and
for his creation of methodology of instruction designed to establish a highly structured
mode of teaching.
He developed Herbart’s formal steps of instruction:
 Clearness: careful analysis and comprehension of each element of the lesson.
 Association: the relating with facts with each other and with previously acquired
information.
 System: the ordering of ideas into a coherent system
 Method: the development of projects by students to apply learning acquired in the
earlier steps.
Herbart’s followers revised the original four steps and developed the well known five
phases of the Herbartian method. The phases are :
 Preparation: By which the teacher stimulates the readiness of the students for the
new lessons by referring to materials learned earlier.
 Presentation: in which the teacher presents the new content to students
 Association: in which the new content is deliberately related to materials or ideas
learned earlier.
 Systematization: in which the teacher uses examples to illustrate the principles or
generalizations to be mastered by the learners
 Application: in which student test new ideas or materials of the new lessons or
demonstrate their mastery of them.
Implications to teaching and learning
 It emphasizes the value of systematic planning of lessons. Teachers need to
ensure that lessons are systematically planned
40
 Emphasizes the need for teachers to relate current knowledge to previous
knowledge in the lesson so as to make learning more meaningful and
wholesome.
 Teachers need to plan lessons in such a way as to give learners opportunities to
apply learnt knowledge or practice learnt knowledge within the lesson. this helps
to reinforce learning and thus retention.
6.2.2 Cognitive Models of Teaching

Many instructional models are consistent with cognitive theories of learning
These include:
 Jerome Brunets discovery learning
 David Ausubets Explository
 Rober Gagne’s instructional events model
6.2.2 1 Discovery Learning Model

This was put forward by Jerome Brunner
 He emphasizes the importance of
(i)Understanding the structure of a subject being studied,
(ii) The need for active learning to make personal discoveries as the basis
for true understanding and
(iii)The value of inductive reasoning in learning
Discovery & structure
 Subject structure refers to the fundamental ideas, relationships or patterns of a
field. Structure does not include details or specific facts therefore can be
represented by a diagram, a set of principles or a formula.
 According to Brunner, learning will be more meaningful, useful and memorable
for students, if they focus on understanding the structure of the subject being
studied
 The teacher should allow students to discover principles, patterns for themselves.
The teacher should only provide examples and allow learners to work with those
examples to discover patterns or relationships
Discovery and action
Brunner suggests that teachers should nurture intuitive thinking by encouraging
students to make guesses based on incomplete evidence, and them to confirm or
disapprove the guesses systematically.
The teacher organizes the class so that students learn from their own active involvement
Advantages
 It is very motivating to he learners
 It arouses curioisity
 Makes learning a challenge
 Forces students to develop and use independent learning skills.
 Students Have to use information rather than just storing it.
Criticism of Bruner’s discovery learning
Critics find that discovery learnig a lot of time and careful planning for it to work
thus is difficult to use. As a result, it is used mire as a supplement to more traditional
methods, rather than as a supplement.
41
6.2.2.2 David Ausubel’s Expository learning model (Reception learning)
 Ausubel views of learning are a contrast to that of Brunner. According to
Ausubel, people acquire knowledge mainly through reception, rather than through
discovery. Concepts, principles and ideas are presented to them are received by
them & not discovered. The more organized and focused the presentation, the
more thoroughly the person will learn
 He stresses ‘meaningful verbal learning’-verbal information, ideas and
relationships among ideas. He proposes expository teaching model to encourage
meaningful rather than rote reception learning. Expository means explaining or
setting forth the facts and ideas. In this approach, teachers present materials in a
carefully organized, sequenced and somewhat complete form and students receive
the material in the most efficient way.
 Ausubel believes that learning should progress not inductively as Bruner, but
deductively i.e from general to specific or from rule or principle to examples.
(The deductive reasoning is sometimes called the rule e.g. method).
Ausubels expository teaching has four major characteristics:
 Calls for a great deal of interaction between teacher and students. Although
teacher makes initial presentation, students are not passive recipients
 Makes great use of examples- Examples may include drawings, pictures,
diagrams or verbal example
 Is deductive in nature- The most general concepts are presented first.
 Expository learning is sequential. Certain steps must be followed:
 Presentation of the advance organizer :beginning with an advance organizer.
An advance organizer is an introductory statement of a relationship or a broad
concept that will encompass all the information that will follow. The purpose
of the advance organizer is to provide support or scaffolding for new
information.
 Presentation of material or learning task: The next step is to present the
information to the students in a structured lesson. The learners are presented
with similarities & differences using examples. Students may be asked to give
examples
 Strengthening of cognitive (mental) organization: the lesson is then related to
the advance organizer. Students are questioned about relationships and are
encouraged to ask and answer extending questions
However, to use expository teaching, the students must have some knowledge about the
actual concepts first.
6.2.2.3 The instructional Events model- Robert Gagne

 Robert Gagne has proposed a well-developed theory of instruction based on the
information processing model of learning. He is less concerned with learning by
discovery or reception, but in the quality, permanence and usefulness of their
learning.
 He developed phases of learning and the instructional events associated with each
phase.
Step 1- Gain student’s attention
Step 2- Set expectancy for learning by letting the students know the goals and
arousing their curiosity
42
Step 3 – When students are attentive and have the right expectation, they need to
be reminded of what they already know that is related to what they are going to
learn. With prior knowledge in their working memories
Step 4- Present new material, highlighting the important factor or key features.
This is STM
Step 5- Provide learning guidance such as explaining examples & guided
discovery to help move new material to LTM
Step 6- The students should respond in some way to demonstrate learning.
Step 7- These responses allow the teacher to assess & check students
understanding
Step 9- Practice to ensure they can retrieve it easily
The figure below illustrates the elements of instruction that support learning at each
phase in Gagne’s model of learning
LEARNING PROCESS INSTRUCTIONAL EVENT
ATTENTION: 1. Gaining attention
ALERTNESS 2. Informing learners of the
objective, activating
EXPECTANCY motivation
3. Stimulating recall of prior
knowledge
RETRIEVAL OF WORKING
MEMORY
4. Presenting the stimulus
material
SELECTIVE
PERCEPTION
5. Providing learning guidance
ENCODING: ENTRY
TO LONG TERM
6. Eliciting performance
MEMORY STORAGE
7. Providing feedback
RESPONDING
8. Assessing performance
43
REINFORCEMENT
9. Enhancing retention and
transfer
CUEING
i. Differentiate between heuristic and expository teaching approaches
ii. Evaluate the contributions of Jerome Brunner to teaching
iii. Distinguish between inductive and deductive teaching
iv. Discuss gagnes instructional events teaching model
v. Outline David Ausbels expository teaching model

i) Charles E Skinner (2007); Educational Psychology 4e; Prentice-hall Of India t
Ltd
London
44
CHAPTER 7
Phases and Operations of Teaching
Objectives
 Explain teaching and learning for memory, understanding.
 Explain reflective levels of learning
7.0 Introduction
Teaching is an integral part of the process of education. It is a system of actions intended
to induce learning. Its special function is to impart knowledge, develop understanding
and skill. In teaching an interaction occurs between the teacher and the students, by
which the students are diverted towards the goal. Thus the sole element of teaching is the
mutual relationship or the interaction between the teacher and the students which
advances the students towards the goal.
Teaching can be considered as the art of assisting another to learn by providing the
information and appropriate situations, conditions or activities .It is an intimate contact
between a more mature personality and a less mature one which is designed to further the
education of the later.
7.1 Anatomy /Structure of Teaching:

Teaching consists of three variables , which operate in the phases of teaching and
determines the nature and format of learning conditions or situations.
These are classified as under:

1. Teacher as an independent variable.
The teacher plans the role of independent variables. Students are dependent on him in the
teaching process. The teacher does the planning, organizing, leading and controlling of
teaching for bringing about behavioural changes in the students. He is free to perform
various activities for providing learning experiences to students.
2. Students as dependent variable.The student is required to act according to the
planning and organization of the teacher. Teaching activities of the teacher influence the
learning of the students.
45
3. Content and methodology of presentation as intervening variables: The
intervening variables lead to interaction between the teachers and the students. The
content determines the mode of presentation-telling, showing and doing etc.
7.2 Phases of Teaching

Teaching is a complex task. For performing this task, a systematic planning is needed.
Teaching is to be considered in terms of various steps and the different steps constituting
the process are called the phases of teaching.
The teaching can be divided into three phases:
7.2.1 Pre – Active Phase of Teaching

In the pre-active phase of teaching, the planning of teaching is carried over. This phase
includes all those activities which a teacher performs before class-room teaching or
before entering the classroom.
Pre-teaching consists essentially of the planning of a lesson. The planning of lesson needs
to be seen in broader terms, not merely the designing of a lesson plan.
Planning includes identifying the objectives to be achieved in
terms of students learning, the strategies and
methods to be adopted, use of teaching aids and so on.
It is the planning phase of instructional act. The foundation of this phase is set through
the establishment of some kind of goals or objectives, and discovering ways and means to
achieve those objectives.
Planning is done for taking decision about the following aspects-
1) Selection of the content to be taught
2) organization of the content
3) Justification of the principles and maxims of teaching to be used
4) Selection of the appropriate of methods of teaching
5) Decision about the preparation and usage of evaluation tools.
Suggested activities in the Pre-active phase of teaching-
1. Determining goals / objectives: First of all, the teacher determines the teaching
objectives which are then defined in terms of expected behavioral changes. Thus, he
ascertains the teaching objectives and what changes he expects in the students by
achieving those objectives. These objectives are determined according to the psychology
of the pupils and needs of the school and society , In the form of entering behaviours of
the pupils and in the form of terminal behaviours of the students.
46
2. Selection of the content to be taught: After fixing the teaching objectives, the
teacher makes decisions about that content which is to be presented before the pupils and
as a result he wants to bring the changes in their behaviours. This decision is taken by the
teacher by considering o the following points-
• Level need and importance of the curriculum proposed by the teacher for the
students.
• The expected terminal behaviour of the students
• Level and mode of motivation be used for the students
• Selection of appropriate instrument and methods the teacher should use to evaluate
the knowledge related to the contant.
3. Sequencing the elements of content for presentation: After making selections
regarding the contents to be presented to the students, the teacher arranges the elements
of content in a logical and psychological manner, so that this arrangement of content may
assist in transfer of learning.
4. Selection about the instructional methodology : After sequencing the contents,
the teacher makes decisions regarding the proper methods and strategies by keeping in
view the contents , entering behaviour and the level of the students.
5. How and when of teaching strategies: Decision-making regarding the teaching
methods and strategies for presenting the sequenced contents to the students is not
sufficient. So the teacher should also decide how and when he will make use of the
previously selected method and strategy during the class-room teaching.
7.2.2 Interactive Phase of Teaching

The second phase includes the execution of the plan, where learning experiences are
provided to students through suitable modes.
As instruction is the complex process by which learners are provided with a deliberately
designed environment to interact with, keeping in focus pre-specified objective of
bringing about specific desirable changes. Whether
instruction goes in a classroom, laboratory, outdoors or library, this environment is
specifically designed by a teacher so that students interact with certain specific
environmental stimuli, like natural components (outdoor), information from books,
certain equipment (laboratory) etc. Learning is directed in pre-determined directions to
achieie certain pre-specific goals. This does not, however, mean that, in the pre-
determined environment no learning other than what a teacher has decided upon as
instructiohal objectives does not take place. The variety of experiences that students go
through with a teacher, among themselves provide learning opportunities.
All those activities which are performed by a teacher after entering in a class are clubbed
(to combine together) under inter-active phase of teaching. Generally these activities are
concerned with the presentation and delivery of the content in a class. The teacher
provides pupil verbal stimulation of various kinds, makes explanations, ask questions,
listen to the student’s response and provide guidance.
The following activities are suggested for the inclusion in the inter-active phase of
teaching-
1. Sizing up of the class: As the teacher enters the classroom, first of all he perceives the
size of the class. He throws his eyes on all the pupils of the class in a few moments. He
comes to know the pupils who can help him in his teaching and the pupils who can create
a problem for him as a result of this perception.
47
In the same way, the studrnts can feel the personality of the teacher . Hence, at this stage,
the teacher should look like a teacher. He should exhibit of course in a veiled manner all
those characteristic which are supposed to be present in a good teacher. In nut-shell the
teacher should appears as an efficient and impressive personality.
2. Knowing the learners: After having a feeling of class-size, the teacher makes efforts
to know how much the new comers or pupils have previous knowledge. He tries to know
the abilities , Interests and attitudes and academic background of learners.
The teacher starts teaching activities after diagnosing, by questioning regarding action
and reaction: two types of activities are involved here in the teaching-
a. Initiation,
b. Response.
Both these activities are known as verbal interaction. Both these activities occur between
the teacher and the students. In other words, when a teacher performs some activities, the
student reacts or when students perform some activities, the teacher reacts .This way
the inter-action in the teaching take place.
The teachers performs the following activities in order to analyze the nature of verbal and
non-verbal inter-action of teaching activities-
a. Selection and presentation of stimuli.
b. Feedback and reinforcement.
c. Deployment of strategies.
a. Selection and presentation of stimuli: The motive or new knowledge is a process of
teaching. It can be verbal or non-verbal. The teacher should be aware of the motive which
would prove effective and which would not be so for a particular teaching situation.
The teacher should select the appropriate stimulus as soon as the situation arises and an
effort should be made to control the undesired activities to create the situation and for
desired activities.
After selecting the stimuli, the teacher should present them before the students. The
teacher should present that form of the stimulus which can motivate the students for
learning. During such presentation of stimuli, the teacher should keep in mind the form
context and order of the stimuli.
b. Feedback and reinforcement: Feedback or reinforcement is that condition which
increases the possibility for accepting a particular response in future. In other words those
conditions which increase the possibility of occurrence of a particular response are
termed as feedback or reinforcement. These conditions may be of two types which are as
follows-
• Positive reinforcement: These are the conditions which increase the possibility of
recurrence of desired behavior or response.
• Negative response: These are the conditions in which the possibility of recurrence
of the undesired behavior or response is decreased, such as punishment or reprimanding
etc.
Reinforcement is used for three purposes. These are –
• For strengthening the response.
• For changing the response, and
• Modifying or correcting the response.
c. Deployment of strategies: The teaching activities are directly related to the learning
conditions. Therefore, at the time of interaction the teacher produces such activities and
conditions by the reinforcement strategies which effect the activities of the pupils.
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The development of the teaching strategies turns the pupil-teacher interaction impressive.
From the very moment, the teacher starts the teaching task and till the movement, the
teacher starts the teaching task and till the movement that task goes on, the verbal and
non-verbal behaviours of the pupils are controlled by the reinforcement strategies and
cooperates in presenting the contents in an impressive way.
In the deployment of the teaching strategies, three areas should be considered. These are
–
• Presentation of subject-matter,
• Levels of learning.
• Level or context of learners, their background, needs, motivation, attitudes,
cooperation and opposition.
In the interactive stage, these activities are carried on not only by the teacher, but also
carried on by the students. The students also feel about the teacher and diagnose his
personality as a teacher. In order to be impressed themselves and to improve the teaching,
they deploy the various strategies by selecting the different stimuli.
Operations at the interactive phase
We can present the activities of the interaction through the following chart-
Teacher Student
P———D——–A P———D——–A
(Perceptual)(Diagnostic)(Achievement) (Perceptual)(Diagnostic)(Achieve
ment)
This second phase of teaching is concerned with the implementation and carrying out
what has been planned or decided at the planning stage.It is the stage for actual teaching.
Major operations in the phase are-
1) Perception-
Interaction process demands an appropriate perception on the part of teacher as well as
the studennts. When a teacher enters the class, his first activity is concerned with a
parceptionof classroom climate. He tries to weigh himself ,his abilitiesfor teaching
against the class group.Similarly students also tries to have perception of the abilities,
behaviour and personality characteristics of the teacher.
2) Diagnosis-
A teacher tries to access the achievement level of his students with regards to their
abilities, interest and aptitude. The teacher can asks several questions to know how far
students know about the topic.
3) Reaction Process-
49
Under this stage teacher observes the students that how they response to the teacher’s
questions. The student has to learn the proper way of reacting and responding to the
various stimuli and teaching techniques presented to it. This phase is responsible for
establishing appropriate verbal and non verbal class room interaction between teacher
and pupils.
7.2.3 Post-Active Phase of Teaching:
Post-teaching phase, , is the one that involves teacher’s activities such as analysing
evaluation results to determine students’ learning, especially their problems in
understanding specific areas, to reflect on the teaching by self, and to decide on the
necessary changes to be brought in the system in the next instructional period.
The Post-active Phase this phase concerns with the evaluation activities. This can be done
in number of ways including tests or quizzes or by observing student’s reaction of
questions, comments ,structures and instructured situations.
In this phase, as the teaching task sums up, the teacher asks the questions from the pupils,
verbally or in written form, to measure the behaviours of the pupils so that their
achievements may be evaluated correctly.
Therefore, evaluation aspect includes all those activities which can evaluate the
achievements of the pupils and attainment of the objectives. Without evaluation teaching
is an incomplete process. It is related with both teaching and learning. The following
activities are suggested in the post-active of teaching-
1. Defining the exact dimensions of the changes caused by teaching.
2. Selecting appropriate testing devices and techniques.
3. Changing the strategies in terms of evidences gathered.
Defining the exact dimensions of the changes caused by teaching: At the end of the
teaching,the teacher defines the exact dimensions of changes in the behaviours as a result
of teaching, this is termed as criterion behaviour. For this the teacher compares the actual
behavioural changes in the students with their expected behavioural changes. If he
observes the desired behavioural changes in the maximum numbers of pupils, he
concludes that his teaching strategies and tactics worked effectively with the help of
which teaching objectives have been achieved.
Selecting appropriate testing devices and techniques: The teacher selects those testing
devices and techniques to compare the actual behavioural changes with the desired
behavioural change which are reliable and valid and which can evaluate the cognitive and
non-cognitive aspects of the pupils. Therefore, criterion tests are more preferred than the
performance tests.
Changing the strategies in terms of evidences gathered: While, by using the reliable and
valid testing devices, the teacher gets the knowledge regarding the performances of
pupils and attainment of objectives on one hand, and on the other hand he also gets
clarity regarding his instruction, teaching strategies and tactics. He also comes to know
about the required modification in the teaching strategies and situations along with the
drawbacks of his teaching in order to achieve the teaching objectives. In this way,
through evaluation, the teaching activities are diagnosed and these can be made effective
by necessary modifications and changes in them.
Teaching is a complex activity. It is a process in which students are provided with a
controlled environment for interaction with the purpose to. promote a definite learning
in them. The environment provided to students is constituted by the content, the teacher
who organizes and provides specific learning experiences,
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different ways and means of providing learning experiences and the school setting.
All these components, called instructional components, interact in an interdependent and
coordinated manner, in order to bring about the pre-specified desirable changes in the
students. It is this interaction between human and non-human components that makes
the process of teaching-learning a highly complex activity.
Teaching is viewed as a comprehensive process, and there has been a tremendous change
in the way of understanding teaching and a teacher’s roles. Teaching is conceptualized as
an active interactive process that goes on between the consciously designed environment
and the student, (where teachers may or may not be present), with a definite purpose.
It includes all the activities organized by a teacher to bring about learning, be it inside or
outside a classroom, with or without the presence of the teacher.
7.3 Teaching Abstract Concepts

A concept is an idea around which knowledge is built.
Abstract is something not tangible, difficult to conceptualize, not concrete i.e no physical
form. Has no physical or practical existence. It only exists in the mind.
Abstract concepts are therefore knowledge that is not concrete but imaginary e.g the
latitudes and the longitudes, boundaries.
Problems when teaching abstract concepts.

For learners
• They find it difficult to conceptualize. Cannot make it real therefore do not make
sense or cannot relate with it.
• They commonly take abstract concepts to short term memory and therefore are
not remembered.
• Cannot apply abstract concepts in higher levels of blooms taxonomy. The
knowledge becomes difficult to process and use.
For teachers:
• Find it hard to explain to learners
• Find it hard to prepare appropriate resources and strategies.
• Find it hard to determine objectives and competencies to be developed in the
learners.
Strategies used to teach abstract concepts

i. Use of simulations
a. The term simulation refers to a model of reality, either simplified model or
a complex one. Simulations may be social or physical. Social simulations
tend to mirror the realities in the society while physical simulation are
often more complex and mirror physical processes such as stream erosion,
ocean currents, and solar system movements.
ii. Create analogies.
a. Creating analogies helps students to link the unfamiliar with the familiar.
For example the teacher may help learners to understand the concept of
……
iii. Use of KWL charts.
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a. This makes use of activation of prior linked knowledge, by having the
learners jot down what they know about a concept, what they would like
to know and after teaching, what they have learnt.
7.4 Teaching Critical Thinking Skills

(See Garcia and Michaelis chapter 11 in aku506 reading pack). Critical thinking
always involves judgments based on informed opinion. These judgments are supported
by defensible criteria. Critical thinking encourages generation of new ideas. During
critical thinking, learners are required to make judgments about ideas.
Critical thinking requires certain skills, among these are:
 Logical reasoning
 Value judgment
 Real life application
 Ability to think independently
 Ability to judge logically.
Dispositions for critical thinking (what is required)

 Thoughtful examination of issues.
 Analysis of both sides
 Arriving at the most reasonable side.
How to teach critical thinking in the classroom

 Debate
 Inquiry
 Discussion
 Reflective journal keeping
Effective teaching of critical thinking skills

a) The process
 Promoting interaction among learners as they learn
 Asking open ended questions that do not assume one right answer.A
 Allowing sufficient time for students to reflect on the questions asked or
problems posed.
 Teaching for transfer of learning- how newly acquired knowledge can
aply to other situations and to students own experiences.
b) Strategies
 Building categories
 This means finding analogies and other kinds of relationships
between pieces of information.
 Involves inductive reasoning which helps students categorize
information by discovering the rules rather than merely
memorizing them.
 Involves active learning which results in better understanding and
better retention of concepts.
 Finding problems
 This deals with knowing how to identify a problem
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 Involves framing tasks which enable students to use skills similar
to those needed for the ill-defined problem that they will
encounter.
 It needs students to define for themselves exactly what the problem
is and how their knowledge of the subject can be used to solve it.
 The teacher may provide guiding questions like how are the
objects similar to the ones discussed in geography.
 Enhancing the environment
 Means providing a physical and intellectual environment that
encourages a spirit of discovery
 Seating arrangement should allow for active particvipatory mode
rather than passive receptive mode
 Visual aids in the class should encourage on going attention to
critical thought processes.
7.5 Teaching meta-cognition in geography (teaching students to monitor their

thinking)
Students need assistance when they begin to engage and think about content in
geography. They need help to develop skills associated with meta-cognition.
Metacognition is a term that psychologists use to refer to conscious thought about how
we think about a problem. Learners need to be taught how to monitor their own thinking.
Two approaches to helping student to monitor their own thinking are:
 Thinking aloud
 Visualizing thinking
Thinking aloud
The thinking aloud approach is based on modeling, which research has shown to
be a powerful instructional tool. As applied to thinking aloud, modeling requires you to
verbalize the thought processes that you follow as you demonstrate to students how they
should approach a task. For example; when teaching form ones how to find the actual
distance from two cities on a map, you may use thinking aloud as you do it practically on
the wall map.
Thinking aloud provides your student with a model they can follow as they
attempt a new task. Further, it points out to them the importance of thinking about how
they are going to approach a task before they actually begin on it.
Visualizing thinking
Visualizing thinking helps learners to focus on the essential features of a learning
task. You begin the approach buy asking learner to prepare diagrams that will
demonstrate their understanding of the task and the kind of information they will need.
Students will ten use the diagrams to record notes about what they learn and read.

i. What does the term ‘phases of teaching’ mean
ii. Discuss the pre active phase of teaching
iii. Analyze the interactive phase of teaching
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iv. Identify the major operations in the interactive phase
v. Why is the teaching of abstract concepts a challenge.

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v) Woolfolk, A.E. (1993) . Educational Psychology (5th ed). Boston: Allyn &
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CHAPTER 8
Importance of Studying Learning and Teaching

Objectives
 discuss the implications of learning theories in teaching and learning
8.0 Introduction
In this chapter, we will examine the implications of different learning theories on the
teaching and learning process
8.1 Of what use is the psychology of teaching and learning to a teacher?
 It helps in the understanding of how the learning process can be effectively
guided
 It helps in the solution of learning problems
 It helps the teacher to understand the nature of the learner and various aspects of
his/her growth and environment and their implications to the learning process.
 It helps one understand motives, needs and abilities of learner so as to relate
learning materials to desirable goals and challenging opportunities for learning.
 It assists in the understanding of the nature of individual differences among
learners and devises learning situations that take this into account.
 It helps in understanding of emotional feelings of the learners and how to deal
with them.
 It helps the teacher in ways of creating and maintaining a conducive learning
atmosphere
 It helps the teacher in selecting relevant simple tests, constructing tests and
gaining other techniques to improve performance of learners in particular settings.
8.2 Implications of Learning Theories in Teaching/ Learning
Application of operant conditioning to classroom learning

The following are aspects of operant conditioning that can be applied in classroom
teaching:
 Emphasis should be laid on the use of strategies that are likely to bring about
intrinsic motivation in learners. Evaluation is seen as the most practical way of
ensuring this. Results of evaluation should be used to reward or to guide learners
towards improvement.
 Variation of stimuli within the learners’ environments is seen as a possible way of
provoking learning. Teachers should vary their methods of content delivery use
instructional resources generously and enrich their classrooms through the use of
wall displays and other relevant learning resources.
 Teachers are encouraged to link learning to the previous experiences and
immediate environments of the learners by delivering content from the known to
the unknown and from simple to complex. The use of mother tongue as a
medium of instruction in lower primary classes in Kenya is based on this
principle.
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 Spontaneous recovery strategies should be used in the teaching and learning
process. Teachers should consistently link what is being taught to what was
taught previously, use practice and enrich their classrooms using visual aids to
constantly remind learners about content learnt.
 Active involvement of learners in the process of learning should be encouraged by
selecting activities that are relevant to the attainment of set objectives and which
can be tackled by the learners in view of their mental age and level of ability.
Experimentation, class discussions and practical exercises are seen as some ways
of ensuring practice and subsequent mastery of content.
 The use of discovery learning techniques should be encouraged as opposed to rote
learning. Project work, trial and error learning, use of assignments and question
and answer method, should therefore, be explored for use by teachers as strategies
likely to equip learners with more permanent skills and knowledge.
 Individualized attention should be emphasized in catering for the needs and
interests in catering for the needs and interests of learners. Instructional resources
such as computers and calculators, and class arrangements that allow for
maximum interaction between learners and the learning environment are
encouraged.
Application of classical conditioning to classroom learning
The following are aspects of classical conditioning that can be applied by teachers in
classroom learning.
.
 Content should be carefully sequenced to ensure high correlation and integration

of all learning tasks so that there is continuity in curriculum content. This way,
learning of skills and concepts is easily reinforced.
 Rewarding of behavior can be used by teachers to stimulate learners to attend to
learning tasks. Emphasis should be given to the use of extrinsic motivation. Use
of positive reinforcement in the modification of learner behavior is encouraged.
For example, teachers could use nodding, smiling at learners approvingly,
clapping and thanking learners for responses given as a way of sustaining the
elicited behavior so as to avoid extinction.
 Teachers could also use withdrawal of privileges to get learners to complete their
work, thereby maintaining learning.
 Carefully selected content and accompanying learning experiences should be used
to facilitate and maximize learning. Only those experiences likely to provoke and
enhance learning should be presented to the learners
 Teachers are encouraged to employ techniques that are likely to lead to
spontaneous recovery. These include the use of propping and prompting
techniques in questioning, and visual and material aids that are likely to provoke
the learner’s memory.
Application of behaviorism
1. Positive reinforcement- provides a pleasant response after desired student
behavior has occurred. By associating pleasant outcomes with certain behavior a
student will more likely repeat that action.
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2. Negative reinforcement- Remove an unpleasant stimulus after a desired behavior
has been exhibited. A student will most likely increase desirable response to
escape a negative reinforcer. (withhold a pleasant reinforcement)
3. Punishment-Provide negative consequences for undesirable behavior by either

presenting or removing a stimulus in order to decrease the frequency of the
unwanted behavior.
4. Shaping. Reinforce any student response or effort that comes close to the desired
behavior. In doing this, a student is rewarded for effort expended towards the
desired goals. Encourages the student to keep trying.
Application of social learning theory to classroom learning

The following are factors to consider when applying imitation to classroom learning:
 Teachers should strive to present factual information that is correct and accurate
because the content they present is likely to be adopted for life.
 Answers provided by teachers to questions asked by learners should reflect the
truth. A teacher who is unsure about the response to give should postpone
answering the question to a later date or throw the question back to the learners
while he or she seeks out the correct response.
 Demonstration lessons should be well planned. Sequence and procedure should
be as correct as possible to ensure the desired outcome for effective future
reference by learners.
 Chalkboard work and wall displays should bear the correct information. Teachers
should use chalkboard accessories correctly.
 Learnt behavior should be appropriately reinforced, either positively or
negatively. Positive cues should be used to appreciate correct responses.
 Learners tend to copy role models that are friendly and warm. teachers therefore
need to be caring and warm in the classroom
Implications of Piaget’s theory to teaching and learning

 A focus thinking process and not just its products
 Understanding students thinking. The students in any class will vary greatly both
in their level cognitive development & academic knowledge. Understand the kind
of thinking behind their repeated mistakes
 Another important implication is on matching instructional strategies to learner
abilities and stage of development. Students get bored by work that is too simple
or too advanced that they cannot understand. Disequilibrium must be kept just
right to encourage growth
 Students should have the ability to apply the principles learnt in one situation to
new situations. Teachers should constantly be asking students to apply recently
learnt principles in different situations
 The teacher’s job is to introduce problems or information that questions what
students already know, forcing them to adapt by either expanding or changing
existing schema.
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 Children can only understand through active involvement and participation. They
need activity & not passivity.
 Concrete experiences help focus the children to see the problem in terms they can
understand. Lessons should therefore involve concrete (real) not abstract things.
Application of Piaget’s theory in classroom

1. Take a constructivist approach. Children have to be actively involved as they
learn best when they make discoveries rather than imitating teachers or rote
learning
2. Facilitate rather than direct learning. Design situations/lessons that allow
students to learn by doing. These situations promote students thinking and
discovery. Teachers should ask relevant questions.
3. Plan teaching by considering the children’s level of knowledge & thinking.
Students are not tabula rasa. The teacher needs to interpret student’s
responses and give feedback in a mode not too far from the students’ level (in
a level of language that the learner has used).
4. Progress the teaching according to learners’ development. Do not speed up
intellectual development. Do not push or pressure students to learn things that
their minds are not yet ready for
5. Base lessons on existing knowledge and challenge students’ understanding
progressively
Limitations of Piaget’s theory (criticism)
 The trouble with stages- some scientists have questioned the existence of four
separate stages of thinking, even though they agree that children do go through
the changes that Piaget describes.
 Underestimating children’s abilities- Some argue that Piaget’s theory
underestimates the cognitive abilities of children. Some young children have
been found to think at higher levels than Piaget state.
 Another criticism of Piaget’s theory is that it overlooks the important effects of
the child’s cultural and social grouping. Children in advanced western cultures
may master scientific thinking and formal operations because this is what is
required in school.
 A final criticism relates to egocentricity of children. Research has shown that
children are able to consider others views
Application of Vygosky’s theory in the classroom

1. Use the zone of proximal development. Teaching should begin from the
zone’s lower limit and move towards the upper limit. This means lessons
should be planned in such a way that they aim to move the pupils forward
across the ZPD.
2. Plan lessons to include social interaction and activity. Teacher & students
should work together rather than as individuals (collaborative).
3. Use scaffolding at appropriate levels. Give assistance depending on the level
of understanding that the learner has reached. This means that the amount of
scaffolding (support) should be differentiated from one student to another.
4. Use more skilled peers as teachers. Students benefit from support offered by
more skilled students.
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5. Assess the ZPD and not the IQ Piaget and Vygosky did not believe in use of
standardized test to assess learning. Reward and recognize students ability to
progress through the ZPD and not their IQ.
i. Specify five applications of each of the following learning approaches to guide
classroom learning
 Operant conditioning
 Classical conditioning
ii. Evaluate the contributions of vygosky to teaching and learning
iii. Of what use is the psychology of teaching and learning to a teacher?
iv. Discuss the implications iof Piaget’s theory to teaching

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CHAPTER 9
Factors Influencing Learning
Objectives
 Identify and explain the factors that influence learning
9.0 Introduction
Various factors influence learning. Key among these are the teacher competence and
characteristics, learner characteristics, the learning environment, the subject matter to be
learnt
9.1 The Teacher; Teacher’s Competence

Aspects of the teacher that can influence the teaching & learning process include:
 The teachers personality-
 The academic competence of the teacher-
 The teacher’s qualification & training –
 The experience a teacher
 The social & economic status of the teacher.
 Teachers’ leadership style
 Teachers attitudes and expectations of students
Aspects of the teacher that can influence the teaching & learning process
include:
 The teachers personality-This refers to whether one is likeable or not, warm
of cold, sympathetic or unsympathetic e.t.c. The personality of the teacher
determines the relationship and models of interaction that develops in class
which motivates or fails to motivate learners
 The academic competence of the teacher- A teacher who is knowledgeable
and of high academic competence is usually confident and able to enrich the
learning environment.
 The teacher’s qualification & training –The skills equipped in training make
one effective in preparation and teaching
 The experience a teacher has, influence his/her techniques and ability to
develop insight among learners. The richer the experience the better.
The social & economic status of the teacher. A teacher will have high morals to
work if he/she is respected by parents and the community and when he/she is seen
to enjoy privileges in addition.

9.2 The Learners’ Characteristics

9.2.1Personality dispositions
Personality is defined as a persons unique and enduring behavior patterns. Personality is
determined by several environmental and biological factors.
 Biological determinants of personality include physique, intelligence, and
temperament.
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 Environmental determinants include unconditional acceptance, love, affection and
tolerance. Two important social institutions shape our personality greatly; the
family and the school.
 The family: is an important personality shaper. A favorable family environment
leads to healthy personality development
 The school is also significant in molding personality. In the school the child gets
to learn values, shape attitudes and interests acquire social skills and develop their
self-esteem. Some of the factors influencing personality development in the
school include: the teacher, nature of the subjects taught, peer influence,
9.2.2 Intellectual abilities
Mental development is influenced by both heredity and environment. Although very little
can be done to change the influence of heredity, teacher and the school can provide a
healthy and motivating intellectual environment for the child. The child should be
exposed to opportunities for narrating, observing, imagining, thinking, reasoning and
questioning, doing independent work, etc.
9.2.3 Motivation and incentives

 Motivation and incentives refer to the internal condition or state that serves to
activate or energize behaviour and to give it direction.
 Motives are energizing conditions that direct an organism’s behaviour usually
towards a certain need.
 Motivation and incentives refer to the internal condition or state that serves to
activate or energize behaviour and to give it direction.
 Motives are energizing conditions that direct an organism’s behaviour usually
towards a certain need.
 Needs are internal imbalances that occur when we are deprived of something. We
experience needs all the time they vary in intensity. When they are not met, they
are more compelling.
Types of motives
Motives can be divided into two main groups
(i) Primary motives

Primary motives are also referred to as physiological needs because they are
accompanied by some imbalance in the body of the animal. The activity of the animal is,
thus, presumed to be aimed at restoring balance (homeostasis). Primary motives are
unlearned and are aimed at satisfying the basic survival needs of the animal. They
include hunger, thirst, sex,rest and warmth.
(ii) Secondary motives
Secondary motives are learnt or acquired. They are not directly necessary for
survival and are not usually accompanied by underlying physiological change. Since
they are learnt, they vary with different individual and cultures. It is, therefore,, not
possible to catalogue all such motives, examples are curiosity, ambition and competition.
Factors that influence motivation include:

 The physiological needs of the individual
 Emotions which can act as drives and can reinforce the motives in progress, hence
increasing the desire
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 Habits- Those that instigate and regulate action in a dynamic act as motivators.
 The individual’s maturation and readiness to learn. Learning is most effective
when the individual is ready to learn, that is, when one wants to know something.
Sometimes, the learner’s readiness to learn comes with time and the teacher’s
readiness to learn comes with time and the teacher’s role is to encourage its
development. If the desired change in behavior is urgent, the teacher may need to
supervise the learner directly to ensure that this happens.
 Incentives- In a general learning situation, self-motivation without rewards can
rarely succeed. Incentives include privileges and praise from the teacher.
Learners should, in time, find satisfaction in learning based on the understanding
that the goals of the learning process are useful to them or the pure enjoyment of
exploring new situations.
 Mental assets which include values and attitudes of the individual.
 Environmental factors- Teachers who create warm and accepting, yet
businesslike, atmospheres in class tend to promote persistent effort and favorable
attitudes towards learning. Interesting visual aids such as posters, booklets or
various forms of equipment motivate learners and capture their attention and
curiosity.
Effects of motivation on learning

There is no single way to motivate all learners at all times. Teachers should,
therefore, apply a variety of motivational principles and techniques with the factors
mentioned. The effects of motivation may be categorized into three broad levels
(i) Energizing
 Learners demonstrate high levels of activity which are maintained until the
relevant goals are achieved
 Learners are more alert and interested in their work and voluntarily participate
actively in learning.
 Learners set their own attainable goals and struggle to achieve them without being
supervised
 Learners demonstrate more certainty about their ability to perform well. They do
better than those who do not expect to succeed because of esteem
 The level of motivation is directly related to the level of achievement, that is the
higher the motivation, the more the learning achievement.
(ii) Directing
 Motivation provides learners with cues, directing. Motivated learners will, for
example, undertake their private study more seriously, ask questions, seek for
additional explanation from the teacher, undertake projects and involve
themselves in problem-solving in order to establish what has been learnt in class.
(iii) Selecting
 Motivation assists individuals to choose goals or actions within their means and to
map out strategies of achieving the set targets
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9.2.4 Socio economic background
 Learners from upper and middle class families benefit immensely from
parental encouragement, in particular from the guidance that parents are able
to offer about careers, courses and educational alternatives. The social
backgrounds of some learners deprive them of this guidance as their parents
may have no experience of higher education or career opportunities.
 Learners from upper and middle class families have access to books and other
materials. Sometimes, they have facilities for quiet private study and even
private lessons. Since basic amenities such as electricity and piped water are
accessible to them, they have very little to distract them from their goal of
academic achievement. The opposite is true for those learners whose families
have limited financial resources. They have to involve themselves in
domestic chores, sometimes at the expense of school work.
 Learners from upper and middle social class stay in school longer as their
families are able to bear the educational costs. They may outperform their
low social class peers who might spend periods of time out of school due to
lack of school fees.
 The likelihood of travel and educational visits provides a greater possibility
for upper and middle social class learners to further their studies.
 Expectations by guardians are bound to influence learner motivation to excel
in school work. As such, learners are encouraged to defer immediate
gratification in favor of long-term goals. Learners from upper and middle
class familes are more likely to pursue higher education than their peers from
low class families who may have more interest in family life and working.
Role models from the social environment have profound influence on the career
choice and academic achievements of learners. The background of guardians,
siblings and other people who play a significant role in the learner’s life is,
therefore, important. The learners often emulate these people
9.3 The Learning Environment

Social and Physical environment
Social environment relates to the culture of a given society which is acquired
through the process of enculturation. Ideas and habits are learnt and transmitted from
one generation to another. Norms, status and values are learnt by every member of
the society and these are then enforced through positive and negative a sanction,
which is reward and punishment.
The physical environment is the framework of learning. It provides the location and
the conditions within which learning takes place. It can either promote or impede
learning.
The social and physical environment influence learning in the following ways:
 Choice of peer group has a distinct and profound bearing on the achievement
of learners as peer groups influence the motivation, personality and career
plans of their members. Approval or disapproval by peers becomes
increasingly important in adolescence as young people seek independence
from home.
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 Effects of different forms of media tend to be vividly expressed in the
achievement of learners.
 People in communities affected by armed conflict, including school children,
seek refuge away from their established homes in temporary settlements
where there may be no schools. This causes a disruption to learning.
 Cultural factors affect learning. The participation rate of girls in education
has reached near parity with that of boys. However, the rate remains
comparatively low for girls from the traditionally disadvantaged pastoralist,
semi-pastoralist and other communities because of prevailing cultural norms.
Some age-old traditions are still maintained, for example, the view that the
woman’s place is in the kitchen and that women should eternally remain
subservient to men.
 The school social climate affects learning. Extremely harsh rules and
regulations and an overly demanding curriculum that is examination oriented
are some issues that impact negatively on learning. Harsh and inconsiderate
teachers and administrators can cause learners to see learning as a burden.
Emphasis on examinations as tools for gauging the ability of learners and
subsequently selecting those to proceed to higher classes affects some learners
negatively. These learner’s may repeat classes or even drop out of school.
 Resources and materials for learning, including qualified personnel, materials
and physical resources, must be adequate so as to motivate both teachers and
learners.
 The physical facilities such as classrooms must be adequate and appropriate
according the climatic conditions of the area. Many schools still do not have
access to infrastructure, and adequate and safe sanitation.
 Peer factor- peer interest, needs & engagement. A bad peer may result in
poor performance.
 The official language used with peers, teachers and visitors. If the language in
common use is the one used as medium of instruction, then classroom
learning is supported.
 The seating plan in the classroom – if a pupil is grouped together with the dull
pupils, it may be even more dull while the bright pupils become brighter
 A classroom that is poorly ventilated, poorly lit and subject to the influence of
harsh weather conditions may have negative influence on learners
 The socio-cultural beliefs & myths influence our understanding of what we
learn
What role should a teacher play towards improvement of social & physical
classroom environment?
 Establishing learning centres such as charts, a farm model, our shop to
stimulate learning.
 Allowing for flexibility in grouping of pupils to suit the learning needs and
group participation
 Encouraging pupils to ask questions and participate freely in the learning
activities.
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 Developing and encouraging various forms of interaction e.g. teacher to pupil,
pupil to pupil , pupil to group
 Discouraging bad peer formation which is not supportive of school values
 Encouraging pupils to share their experiences in relevant areas of learning and
by various small groups discussions & pair interactions

i. Explain five ways in which each of the following factors influence learning
 Social environment
 The teacher factor
ii. How does the learning environment influence teaching and learning
iii. What role should a teacher play towards improvement of social & physical
classroom environment?
iv. Identify and discuss characteristics of the learner that can influence teaching and
learning

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CHAPTER 10
Classroom Management
Objectives
 Explain behavior modification techniques used in the classroom.
 Describe how to identify behavior problems in the classroom
 Explain practical methods of behavior change
10.0 Introduction
Behavior modification assumes that observable and measurable behaviors are good
targets for change. All behavior follows a set of consistent rules. Methods can be
developed for defining, observing, and measuring behaviors, as well as designing
effective interventions. Behavior modification techniques never fail. Rather, they are
either applied inefficiently or inconsistently, which leads to less than desired change. All
behavior is maintained, changed, or shaped by the consequences of that behavior.
Although there are certain limits, such as temperamental or emotional influences related
to depression, all children function more effectively under the right set of consequences.
Reinforcers are consequences that strengthen behavior. Punishments are consequences
that weaken behavior. Students' behaviors are managed and changed by the consequences
of classroom behavior. To manage behavior through consequences, use this multi-step
process:
1. The problem must be defined, usually by count or description.

2. Design a way to change the behavior.
3. Identify an effective reinforcer.
4. Apply the reinforcer consistently to shape or change behavior.
10.1 Behavior Modification Techniques

Reinforcement
Although reinforcement and punishment can be equally effective in reducing specific

target behaviors in the classroom, reinforcement is by far more effective in helping
children develop alternative, more functional behaviors. When Jeremy was in third grade,
his teacher instituted a procedure in which he would receive a tally mark if she looked
over and saw that he was tipping back in his chair. She placed 4 Xs under each chair leg
to remind him not to lean back. A more positive approach would be to let Jeremy earn a
tally mark each time she looked over and saw that all four legs were down. This would
reinforce the desired behavior. It is important to always begin with a number of
reinforcing strategies before resorting to punishment as a means of reducing unwanted or
aversive classroom behaviors.
Schedules
Schedules define and identify the amount of work required or the time that must elapse
between reinforcers. Some schedules are continuous, providing a reinforcement or
punishment every time the target behavior occurs. Fixed or variable interval schedules
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are time related, and fixed or variable ratio schedules are related to how much work is
completed. Fixed schedules result in higher rates of performance than continuous
schedules. In classroom settings, most teachers use fixed ratio interval schedules. They
are effective because the child knows exactly what is expected and the requirements of
performance are clearly spelled out. Keep in mind that variable schedules are not as good
for shaping new behaviors but are excellent for maintaining well-learned behaviors.
A simple system to evaluate the most common classroom problems (e.g. talking out,
being out of the seat, not focusing or paying attention, disruptive behavior) appears in
Figure 4.4. Information obtained is usually observed at 15-second intervals. If any of the
behaviors occur, whether once or more than once, a single notation is made for that
interval.
Positive reinforcement
The appropriate application of positive reinforcement has repeatedly been demonstrated

to increase both on-task behavior and work completion (for reviews, see Barkley, 1990;
DuPaul & Stoner, 1994; Goldstein, 1995; and Walker & Walker, 1991). In the early
elementary school grades, teachers exhibit a significant degree of positive reinforcement
for desired behaviors (White, 1975). That is, when a desired behavior is exhibited,
teachers frequently respond with a consequence that is likely to increase the reoccurrence
of that behavior. Jeremy's first-grade teacher offered frequent praise when he was sitting
quietly in his seat.
By middle elementary school and through secondary school, however, teachers begin
paying increasingly greater attention to undesirable behaviors and less attention to
appropriate behaviors. Unfortunately, paying attention to the undesirable behavior causes
it to cease in the short run but occur more frequently in the long run.
Positive reinforcement programs should begin at the level at which children can succeed
and be positively reinforced. All too often, teachers set up wonderful behavioral
programs but set initial criteria for success too high. Problem behavior must be defined
operationally and then a level of baseline occurrence must be obtained. At first, provide
reinforcement when the child is at or slightly better than baseline. For example, in first
grade, Jeremy was out of his seat 10 times during a work period, so his teacher provided
reinforcement when he was out of his seat no more than eight times. As the child
succeeds, the necessary criteria for reinforcement can be gradually increased, requiring
fewer out-of-seat behaviors during a given time period.
Response discrepancy observation method
You may also want to determine the amount of time a student exhibits on- and off-task
behavior. One simple behavioral observation method is called response discrepancy
because it allows you to record a discrepancy between the target student and a typical
class peer (Rhode, Jenson, & Reavis, 1992). To begin, match the target student with a
same-sex peer who exhibits typical classroom behavior. Next, check off the type of
activity: class, small-group activity or independent activity. The observation period lasts
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15 minutes, and behavior is recorded at 10-second intervals (for a total of 90 intervals).
The left side of the box is used for the target student and the right side is used for the
classroom peer. At the end of each 10-second interval, record a + for on-task activities or
- for off-task activities for each student. Ignore behaviors between the recording points.
At the end of the 15-minute observation period, compute the percentage of on-task
behavior for each student (Rhode et al., 1992).
As a general rule, observe a student in two different settings or two different types of
activities. Some students are only off task and distractible when presented with tasks they
find uninteresting. Other students are distractible only during specific subjects, such as in
a math class. Keep in mind that students' attention varies depending on the type of task,
the difficulty of the material, the type of activity, the setting, and the classroom
management skills of the teacher.
Positive reinforcement should follow immediately after good behavior. It should be

specific and initially continuous, slowly moving to an intermittent schedule. Material
reinforcers provide the child with something tangible. Social reinforcers are more
versatile, and, even if material reinforcers are used, a kind word from the teacher should
always accompany them. It is also easier to increase behavior than decrease it. Thus,
when choosing a target behavior, it is preferable to focus on behaviors to be increased
rather than on those to be decreased. Shea and Bauer (1987) described the following
process to apply positive reinforcement effectively:
 Select a target behavior to increase, define the behavior, and choose a reinforcer.
 Observe the child and watch for the behavior.
 Reinforce the target behavior every time it is exhibited.
 Comment in a positive way about the behavior when providing reinforcement.
 Be enthusiastic -and interested.
 Offer assistance.
 Vary the reinforcer.
Rhode, Jenson, and Reavis (1992) provided a well-defined model for reinforcement in the
classroom.
Be certain to select reinforcers that are age appropriate and not necessarily time-limited.
Most important, do not deny students their basic rights (e.g. lunch, bathroom use,
playground time) and then define these rights as positive reinforcers. At times, the use of
a reinforcement list or menu can facilitate choosing a reinforcer that is meaningful to the
child. You can provide a list of enjoyable or free time activities and ask the child to rank
them by preference. You can ask the child what he or she might do with free time, where
he or she might like to sit, what he or she might like to learn about, and also what kinds
of activities make him or her feel needed, proud, and important in the classroom. Finally,
one question to consider inquiring of every student is "'What is the very best reward in
this class that you could get for good work and behavior?"
Selection of Reinforcements
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Some consequences that teachers provide for children are irrelevant and neither
strengthen nor weaken the behavior they follow (Bushell, 1973). Many teachers believe
that placing stars on a chart as a reward or providing a prize are consequences that work
with all children. Some children are motivated by these consequences; others are not.
Furthermore, children may find these consequences salient one day but lose interest in
them quickly the next day. Therefore, the fact that certain consequences follow a child's
behavior may neither strengthen nor weaken the chances for that behavior to reoccur.
Bushell (1973) referred to consequences that are irrelevant as noise, neutral consequences
that have no effect on the behavior. Teachers must evaluate whether chosen
consequences are positively reinforcing or simply noise. A reinforcement menu or
inventory completed jointly by you and the child ensures that the former rather than the
latter will occur. Sample reinforcement menus across grade levels appear in Figure 4.7.
Paine, Radicchi, Rosellini, Deutchman, and Darch (1983) found that the five most
frequent reinforcement ideas suggested by elementary school students were additional
recess, free time in class, material reinforcers, field trips, and games in class. Intermediate
grade students more frequently favored activities that involved interaction with teachers,
including acting as an assistant in grading papers, carrying on a discussion, or playing a
game on a one-to-one basis. As previously discussed, reinforcers take on different values
for different individuals.
You must develop a hierarchy of the behaviors that you would like to see the child
exhibit. For example, in response to out-of-seat behavior, many teachers may initiate a
reinforcement system to increase in-seat behavior. Although the child may earn multiple
reinforcers for remaining in his seat, this does not guarantee that he will engage in
constructive or appropriate behavior while remaining seated. Often, multiple reinforcers
and multiple levels of reinforcement must be initiated. For example, in first grade, Jeremy
was provided with one reinforcer for sitting and a second reinforcer for working while
sitting.
IFEED-AV rules
Immediately
The I stands for reinforcing the student immediately. The longer the teacher waits to
reinforce a student, the less effective the reinforcer will be. This is particularly true of
younger students or students with severe disabilities. For example, reinforcer
effectiveness is limited if the student has to wait until the end of the week to receive it.
Frequently
The F stands for frequently reinforcing a student. It is especially important to frequently
reinforce when a student is learning a new behavior or skill. If reinforcers are not given
frequently enough, the student may not produce enough of a new behavior for it to
become well-established. The standard rule is three or four positive reinforcers for every
one negative consequence (including negative verbal comments) that the teacher delivers.
If, in the beginning, there is a great deal of inappropriate behavior to which the teacher
must attend, positive reinforcement and recognition of appropriate behavior must be
increased accordingly to maintain the desired three or four positives to each negative. The
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reinforcer can be a simple social reinforcer such as, "Good job. You finished your math
assignment."
Enthusiasm
The first E stands for enthusiasm in the delivery of the reinforcer. It is easy to simply
hand an edible reinforcer to a student; it takes more effort to pair it with an enthusiastic
comment. Modulation in the voice and excitement with a congratulatory air convey that
the student has done something important. For most teachers, this seems artificial at first.
However, with practice, enthusiasm makes the difference between a reinforcer delivered
in a drab, uninteresting way and one that indicates that something important has taken
place in which the teacher is interested. Eye contact It is also important for the teacher to
look the student in the eyes when giving a reinforcer, even if the student is not looking at
him or her. Like enthusiasm, eye contact suggests that a student is special and has the
teacher's undivided attention. Over time, eye contact may become reinforcing in and of
itself.
Describe the behavior
D stands for describing the behavior that is being reinforced. The younger the student or
the more severe the disability, the more important it is to describe the appropriate
behavior that is being reinforced. Teachers often assume that students know what it is
they are doing right that has resulted in the delivery of reinforcement. However, this is
often not the case. The student may not know why reinforcement is being delivered or
may think that it is being delivered for some behavior other than what the teacher
intended to reinforce.
Even if the student does know what behavior is being reinforced, describing it is
important. First, describing the behavior highlights and emphasizes the behavior the
teacher wishes to reinforce. Second, if the behavior has several steps, describing it helps
to review the specific expectations for the student. An example is, "Wow, you got
yourself dressed - look at you! You have your socks on, your shoes are laced, your pants
are on with a belt, and your shirt has all the buttons fastened and is tucked in." This is
much more effective than saying, "Good job dressing."
Anticipation
Building excitement and anticipation for the earning of a reinforcer can motivate students
to do their very best. The more "hype" the teacher uses, the more excited students become
to earn the reinforcer. Presenting the potential reinforcer in a mysterious way also builds
anticipation.
Variety
Just like adults, students get tired of the same things. A certain reinforcer may be highly
desired, but, after repeated exposure, it loses its effectiveness. It is easy to get caught up
in giving students the same old reinforcers time and time again. However, variety is the
spice of life for everyone. Generally, when teachers are asked why they do not vary their
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reinforcers, they indicate that it worked very well once. It is necessary to change
reinforce
Negative reinforcement
Negative reinforcement requires the child to work for the removal of an in-place,
unpleasant consequence. The child's goal is to get rid of something that is unpleasant
rather than to earn something that is desirable. In a negative reinforcement model, instead
of working to earn a positive consequence, the child works to distance him- or herself
from an aversive consequence. Negative reinforcement is often used in the classroom to
manage problem behaviors. Teachers inadvertently pay attention to a child who may not
be complying and withdraw their attention contingent on the child's compliance.
Surprisingly, this strengthens rather than weakens the noncompliant behavior. The next
time a similar situation occurs, the child again will not comply until confronted with the
aversive consequence (i.e. the teacher's attention). Negative reinforcement is often
seductive and coercive for teachers. It works in the short run but in the long run is likely
to strengthen rather than weaken the undesirable behavior.
Many of the same variables that affect positive reinforcement-immediacy, frequency,

consistency---affect negative reinforcement. Behaviors that in and of themselves may not
be negative become negative reinforcers when paired with certain events. For example, a
teacher approaching a child who is not working quickly becomes a negative reinforcer,
even though the action itself, the teacher walking up to the child, does not have a negative
connotation (Favell, 1977). Clark and Elliott (1988) found that negative reinforcement
was rated by teachers as the most frequently used classroom intervention. A number of
simple, effective ways exist to deal with this problem. If you are using negative
reinforcement, pay attention to the student until the assignment is completed. Although
this too is negative reinforcement, it teaches the child that the only way to get rid of the
aversive consequence (i.e. your attention) is not just to start but to complete the task at
hand. As an example, you may move the student's desk next to your desk until that
particular piece of work is completed.
A second alternative involves the use of differential attention or ignoring. The term
differential attention applies when ignoring is used as the negative consequence for
exhibiting the undesirable behavior, and attention is used as a positive consequence for
exhibiting the competing desirable behavior. This is an active process in which the
teacher ignores the child engaged in an off-task activity but pays attention immediately
when the child begins working. Many teachers avoid interaction with the child when he
or she is on task for fear of interrupting the child's train of thought. It is important,
however, to reinforce the child when working so that a pattern of working to earn positive
reinforcement rather than working to avoid negative reinforcement is developed.
Secondary school teachers at times complain that if they ignore the adolescent during an
hour-long class, they never have the opportunity to pay positive attention as the student
may never exhibit positive behavior. Waiting, however, even if one has to wait until the
next day, is more effective in the long run than paying attention to off-task behavior.
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You need to make a distinction between off-task behavior that disrupts and off-task
behavior that does not disrupt. Differential attention works effectively for the latter.
However, when a child is off task and disturbing his or her neighbor, you may find that
being a negative reinforcer holds an advantage in stemming the tide of an off-task
behavior that involves other students as well. Differential attention alone has been
demonstrated to be ineffective in maintaining high rates of on-task behavior and work
productivity for students.(Rosen, O'Leary, Joyce, Conway, & Pfiffner, 1984). In part, we
suggest that many factors other than teacher attention maintain and influence student
behavior.
Differential attention is a powerful intervention when used appropriately. Once the

strategy of ignoring inappropriate behavior is employed, it must be continued despite
escalation . If not, you run the risk of intermittently reinforcing the negative behavior,
thereby strengthening its occurrence. For example, if you decide to use differential
attention for a child's out-of-seat behavior but become sufficiently frustrated after the
child is out of his or her seat for 10 minutes and respond by directing attention to the
child, the behavior will be reinforced rather than extinguished. The 10 minutes of
ignoring will quickly be lost in the one incident of negative attention. If the teacher yells,
"Sit down," the child has received the desired attention by persisting in a negative
behavior.
Madsen, Becker, and Thomas (1968) evaluated rules, praise, and ignoring for
inappropriate behavior in two children in a typical second-grade classroom and in one
child in a kindergarten class. The results indicated that in the absence of praise, rules and
ignoring were ineffective. Inappropriate behavior decreased only after praise was added.
Others have demonstrated the importance of praise in a general education classroom
(Thomas, Becker, & Armstrong, 1968). Specifically, whenever teacher approval was
withdrawn, disruptive behaviors increased.
Modeling
Through modeling, observation, and then imitation, children develop new behaviors.
Modeling can be as simple as having a child watch another child sharpen a pencil. By
watching the model, a child can learn a new behavior, inhibit another behavior, or
strengthen previously learned behavior (e.g. saying "thank you"). To use modeling
effectively, you must determine whether a child has the capacity to observe and then
imitate the model. In classroom settings, a student's response to modeling is influenced
by three factors: 1) the characteristics of the model (e.g. is this a student whom the other
students like and respect?), 2) the characteristics of the observer (e.g. is this child capable
of observing and imitating the behavior), and 3) the positive or negative consequences
associated with the behavior. Children are more likely to respond to teacher modeling
when they view their teachers as competent, nurturing, supportive, fun, and interesting.
Children are also more likely to imitate behavior that results in a positive consequence.
Younger children have been reported as more frequently imitating others than older
children. Children consistently model someone whom they value or look up to. They also
imitate the behavior of a same-sex child more often than that of a different-sex child.
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They model someone whom they perceive as successful and socially valued regardless of
whether the teacher perceives that child as successful and socially valued. Finally, if a
child observes a model being reinforced or punished for certain behavior, this influences
the likelihood that the child will then model that behavior.
Modeling is a powerful tool, often underutilized by teachers. When teachers are cheerful
and enthusiastic, their attitudes are contagious. When they are respectful of students,
students respect each other. When teachers are patient, fair, consistent, and optimistic,
their students exhibit these traits as well. Teacher behavior sets the tone for the classroom
environment.
In 1970, Kaplan described a ripple effect in transactions between teachers and

misbehaving students that affected not only those students but also the entire classroom.
Teachers who were firm reduced the problem behaviors both from the first child who
misbehaved and from those students who saw the initial problem behavior. When
teachers enforced rules, the ripple effect worked in their favor. When they failed to
follow through with rules, the ripple effect worked against them. Furthermore, the
misbehaving student's social standing in the classroom was also an issue. When teachers
successfully managed the behavior of high-status troublemakers, their control tended to
benefit the entire classroom. Likewise, the ripple effect when high-status offenders were
not managed increased negative behaviors among others. Finally, when managing a
disruptive behavior, it is important to focus on tasks and behaviors rather than on
approval. In the latter situation, teachers may focus on their relationship with the
disruptive student when trying to get that student to behave. This strategy, unfortunately,
is usually ineffective over the long term.
Shaping
Waiting for the appropriate target behavior or something close to that behavior to occur
before reinforcing the behavior is referred to as shaping. Shaping can be used to establish
behaviors that are not routinely exhibited. Walker and Shea (1991) described the steps to
effective shaping:
1. Select a target behavior and define it.

2. Observe how often the behavior is exhibited.
3. Select reinforcers.
4. Decide on close approximations and reinforce successive approximations to the
target behavior each time it occurs.
5. Reinforce the newly established behavior.
6. Reinforce the old behavior on a variable schedule, and begin reinforcing the new
behavior on an every-time or continuous schedule. The key to successful shaping
is to reinforce closer approximations and not reinforce lesser approximations.
Any behavior that remotely resembles the target behavior should initially be reinforced.
Prompts can be used and then faded. Shaping can be used for all kinds of behavior in the
classroom, including academics. Steps toward successive approximation, however, must
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be carefully thought out; otherwise, behaviors that are not working toward the desired
goal may inadvertently be reinforced.
Punishment
Punishment suppresses undesirable behavior but may not necessarily eliminate it

(McDaniel, 1980). In some cases, suppression may be of short duration, and when the
punishment is removed, the behavior may reoccur. Punishment can involve presentation
of an unpleasant consequence or the loss of a pleasurable consequence following the
occurrence of the undesirable behavior. Punishment is designed to reduce the probability
that the behavior that precedes it will reoccur. Although punishment is an efficient way of
changing behavior, it can become seductive and reinforcing for classroom teachers and
can be overused. The greatest problem with punishment is that it does not provide an
appropriate model of acceptable behavior. Furthermore, in many classrooms, punishment
is accompanied by an emotional response from the teacher. Although most teachers
consider punishment as involving a reprimand, time-out, or loss of an activity such as
recess, in many classrooms, physical punishment designed to embarrass children into
submission is still used, even though it has a high emotional cost. Shea and Bauer (1987)
made a strong case for minimizing the use of punishment, especially more severe
punishment, such as embarrassment or spanking, because these interventions are likely to
erode self-esteem and further impair an already strained teacher-student relationship.
When punishments are used, these guidelines should be followed:
1. All students are aware of which behaviors are punished and how they are
punished.
2. Appropriate models for acceptable behavior are provided.
3. Punishments are offered immediately, consistently, and fairly.
4. Punishments are offered impersonally.
5. A natural or logical consequence should be used as often as possible.
6. The student being punished must understand the relationship between his or her
behavior and the punishment.
Loss of the privilege during which the inappropriate behavior is exhibited is fair.
Warning, nagging, threatening, and debating, however, should be avoided. In other
words, act, don't yak. Punishment can exert a complex, negative effect in the classroom
and on teacher-student relationships. Furthermore, when less punishing interventions are
combined with positive reinforcers, they tend to be effective in the long run. In 1946,
Anderson and Brewer reported that teachers using dominating behaviors of force, threat,
shame, and blame had classrooms in which children displayed nonconforming behavior
at rates higher than in classrooms in which teachers were more positive and supportive.
Personal hostility from teachers and punishments in an atmosphere containing minimal
positive reinforcement and emotional warmth are unproductive. To be effective,
punishment must be related in form to the misbehavior. It must be consistent, fair, and
just; must be delivered impersonally; and must not involve the assignment of extra work
that is unrelated to the act for which the student is being punished. Opportunities must
also be offered for the student to exhibit and receive reinforcement for more appropriate
behavior.
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Reprimands are the most frequent punishment used by teachers. Contacting parents,
losing privileges, and time-outs come next in frequency. Reprimands include a statement
of appropriate alternative behavior. Students respond well to short reprimands followed
by clear, directed statements. Effective reprimands are specific, do not humiliate the
child, are provided immediately, and are given with a firm voice and controlled physical
demeanor. They are often backed up with a loss of privilege, including a statement
encouraging more appropriate behavior. Attempt to describe the behavior that you
observe, rather than how you feel about the certain behavior. Instead of telling a student
that he or she is rude for interrupting, make a statement such as, "You have interrupted
me three times. I will answer your question as soon as I finish the explanation."' This
should be delivered in a calm way and in a way that does not embarrass the child in the
presence of others.
Abramowitz, O'Leary, and Futtersak (1988) compared the effects of short and long
reprimands in an alternating treatment design. Over the course of the study, short
reprimands resulted in significantly lower off-task rates than long reprimands. Prudent
reprimands that are immediate, unemotional, brief, and consistently backed up with
consequences are clearly preferred to lengthy reprimands that are delayed, loud,
emotional, and not matched to consequences. Abramowitz and O'Leary (1991) suggested
that immediate reprimands result in much lower rates of off-task interactions with peers
but do not change rates of off-task behaviors that do not involve peers. The authors
hypothesized that non-interactive, off-task behavior may be an avoidance response to
difficult schoolwork. Interactive, off-task behaviors may be reinforced by peer attention
and modified more effectively by the timing of feedback. Consistent reprimands are
clearly superior to inconsistent reprimands for minimizing calling out and other
disruptive behaviors (Acker & O'Leary, 1988). When misbehaviors followed with
reprimands versus ignoring are evaluated, however, reprimands are not particularly
effective in managing off-task behavior. Reprimanding every incident of off-task
behavior did not prove to be any more effective than reprimanding one quarter of
misbehavior incidents. Increasing consistency in these low-rate situations does not appear
to lead to significant differences (Pfiffner, O'Leary, Rosen, & Sanderson, 1985).
Furthermore, the intensity or aversiveness of the initial delivery of the reprimand may be
critical for children (Futtersak, OLeary, & Abramowitz, 1989). In this study, children
were exposed to teachers who delivered either consistently strong reprimands from the
outset with immediate brief and firm close proximity to the child or reprimands that
increased in severity over time. Results supported the hypothesis that gradually
strengthening initially weak reprimands was less effective for suppressing off-task
behavior than the immediate introduction and maintenance of full-strength reprimands. In
addition, reprimands are more effective when delivered with eye contact and in close
proximity to the child (Van Hauten, Nau, MacKenzie-Keating, Sameoto, & Colavecchia,
1982).
Response cost
Response cost is a punishing technique that translates to the equivalent of losing what
you possess or have earned. Earned consequences are considered reinforcers. When they
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are lost, this is response cost. The child places in jeopardy what he or she has earned as
the result of inappropriate behavior. In many situations, response cost in the form of a
penalty or fine is combined with positive reinforcement. To be effective, more reinforcers
must be earned than lost. Response cost is often used to reduce off-task behavior and
improve compliance with directions.
Response cost may be the most powerful means of managing consequences for children
or other disruptive behavior problems (Rapport, Murphy, & Bailey, 1982). In a traditional
model of response cost, many children may immediately go bankrupt. Alternative
systems have included adjusting the ratio of the number of reinforcers provided for each
positive behavior versus those lost for negative behavior as well as increasing the number
of opportunities to exhibit positive behavior and receive reinforcement. In the former
case, six points might be provided for the appropriate behavior but only one point lost for
the negative behavior. In the latter case, increased opportunities are provided, making it
easier for children to earn a greater number of points, thereby decreasing their chances of
going bankrupt when they exhibit negative behavior. A slightly altered form of response
cost has been found to be quite effective with children (Rapport, Murphy, & Bailey,
1982). Under this system, the child is initially provided with a maximum number of
points or tokens to be earned during a school day and must work throughout the school
day to retain those reinforcers. Some impulsive children seem to work harder to keep
their plates full rather than attempt to fill an empty plate. Possibly because they have a
long history of not working well for positive reinforcement, a system in which they are
provided with all of their reinforcement initially and must work to keep, a response cost
system may appear more motivating or attractive to them.
A substantial body of research documents the effectiveness of response cost in the

classroom (Kazdin, 1982). One of the earliest studies (Rapport, Murphy, & Bailey, 1982)
compared response cost and stimulant medication for task-related behavior in a group of
hyperactive boys. The response cost procedure resulted in significant increases in on-task
behavior and academic performance. Stimulant medication was notably less effective.
Pfiffner and colleagues (1985) found that response cost in the form of lost recess was
more effective than reprimands in maintaining on-task behavior. Response cost has also
been compared with reward alone. Both conditions resulted in a twofold increase in
academic output or reduction in inappropriate classroom behavior and a corresponding
increase in on-task behavior. Children often do not show a differential preference for
either reward or response cost procedures (Hundert, 1976; Iwata & Bailey, 1974), but
they appear to maintain treatment gains better during fading and withdrawal of response
cost than they do in response to traditional rewards (Sullivan & O'Leary, 1990).
A response cost system can be as simple as chips in a cup, marks on a chart, or marbles in
a jar. A more complex means of managing response cost includes electronic devices such
as the Attention Training System (Gordon & Davidson, 1981; Rapport, 1987). The
Attention Training System is a remote-controlled counter that sits on the student's desk.
This device provides the student with a digital readout showing the number of points he
or she has earned. Using a remote control device, points can be added or removed from
anywhere in the classroom, contingent on the child's on- and off-task behavior. By not
having to move within physical proximity of the child, the teacher avoids becoming a
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negative reinforcer when the child is off task. DuPaul, Guevremont, and Barkley (1992)
demonstrated the efficacy of response cost contingencies for managing classroom
behavior and academic productivity using the Attention Training System.
For response cost to be effective, the procedure must be used for most, if not, all, of the
classroom day (Morgan & Jenson, 1988). The number of students in the program must be
manageable, and highly motivating rewards must be provided. If not thought out well and
managed effectively, response cost can backfire and increase classroom problem
behaviors (Burchard & Barrera, 1972).
Response cost can be difficult to implement. Though it may be as simple as chips in a cup
placed on the student's desk, many teachers inadvertently become negative reinforcers
when they approach the child to remove a consequence, thereby building failure into a
potentially useful model. When students who become bankrupt quickly or who are
oppositional from the start are placed in a group contingency situation with built-in
failure (e.g. everyone must earn the reinforcer or no one has access to it), the result is
often greater rather than fewer classroom problems. Morgan and Jenson (1988) suggested
the following guide-lines for using response cost in the classroom:
1. Use the procedure for most, if not all, of the classroom day for the target behavior.
2. Make certain the number of students with whom you are using the program is
manageable.
3. Make certain there are more opportunities for success than for failure.
4. Build in additional incentives, including additional reinforcers that can be earned
at the end of the week, by retaining a minimum number of reinforcers through the
week.
5. Consider incorporating self-monitoring techniques in which students can
administer response cost independently when they recognize a rule violation.
Time-out
Time-out from reinforcement excludes children from the opportunity to participate with
others and receive any kind of positive reinforcement. Time-out is by far the best known
disciplinary technique among teachers. It is also the most likely to be overused and
misused in the classroom. Although a brief time-out of a few minutes duration can exert a
positive influence on classroom behavior when applied appropriately, many teachers
apply time-out ineffectively as often as effectively (Walker & Walker, 1991).
The least restrictive form of time-out consists of removal of certain reinforcing activities
or objects from the misbehaving child for a short period. Time-out, in a restricted
environment outside of the classroom is the most extreme form of this type of discipline.
The child cannot see the classroom nor interact with others.
The effectiveness of time-out is well established; however, additional research is needed

to identify specific situations, parameters, and procedures associated with the success of
time-out for children. Time-out can be quite effective for noncompliant children,
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In general, for time-out to be effective:
1. students should be separated from reinforcement,

2. the time should be short,
3. confrontation should be avoided,
4. verbal interaction should be limited, and
5. a time-contingent release should be provided (Bean & Roberts, 1981). Time-
contingent release refers to the amount of time and the contingencies (e.g. sitting
quietly) required to earn release. These contingencies should be explained and
provided to the child prior to entering time-out. Children warned less in time-out
also respond better (Roberts, 1982).
The length of time-out is also critical in determining effectiveness. A 4-minute time-out

was found to be significantly better than a 10-second or 1-minute timeout among a group
of elementary school students (Hobbs, Forehand, & Murray, 1978). Long periods of time-
out constitute seclusion and lose their punishing value. It is also important for the time-
out activity to be less reinforcing than the setting or activity from which the child is being
removed. If a particular activity the child is leaving is non-reinforcing, this child may in
fact learn to misbehave as a means of going to time-out to do something else. Work
should not be missed due to time-out. Time-out should be boring, uninteresting, and
something the child places last on his or her list of chosen school activities. The
effectiveness of time-out depends on a number of factors, including the child, your ability
to apply the intervention consistently, the child's understanding of the intervention, the
rules governing the intervention, characteristics of the time-out area, duration of timeout,
and the ability to evaluate the effectiveness of time-out quickly. If time-out does not work
in the first few interventions, an alternative strategy should be considered. Eight
parameters should define the use of time-out (Scarboro, & Forehand, 1975):
1. A warning that time-out may come should be offered.

2. The child should be consistently removed and placed in time-out when the
behavior reoccurs.
3. A specific location should be defined for time-out.
4. A specific duration for time-out should be set.
5. The consistent schedule for time-out use should be defined.
6. A defined behavior should lead to time-out.
7. Clear contingencies should be defined for the child to be released from time-out.
Time-out can be effective in typical classroom settings because it restores order by

removing the child who is disrupting class, by reducing the opportunity for peer approval
that maintains some children who disrupt, by reducing the opportunity for students to
manipulate situations, and by allowing the student to demonstrate appropriate behavior
before exiting time-out. In elementary classroom settings, time-out should be from 2 to 5
minutes. If a student is not in control, an additional minute should be added. Teachers
should not force resistant students into time-out but should seek help from the principal
or other school personnel. Finally, as soon as possible after time-out is over, something
positive in the student's behavior should be reinforced. Table 4.4 contains a list of dos
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and don'ts for time-out. Table 4.5 contains a thorough list of procedures for implementing
seclusionary time-out.
There are many things you can do to minimize the need to use time-out. Make sure that
classroom activities are more reinforcing than time-out. Provide students with ample but
not excessive opportunities to comply. Provide disruptive students with additional
positive consequences for not requiring time-out in a given time span.
Three Keys to Using Punishment Effectively Timing, intensity, and consistency are the
three keys to using punishment effectively and appropriately in the classroom. The
punishing procedures should be initiated as soon as possible after the aversive behavior is
exhibited and should be as closely related to the misbehavior as possible. Furthermore, if
punishments are too mild, they will not be effective and may slowly habituate the child to
tolerate or adapt to more intensive or lengthy punishments. If too intense, however,
punishments are not only abusive but likely create other problems. Be conservative when
using punishing techniques but make certain their intensity is appropriate. To be
effective, punishments must be consistent and predictable. Following punishment, you
should return the child to the situation without expecting overt guilt, making efforts to
reassure or reinforce the child. A consistent schedule of punishments should also be used.
A continuous schedule of punishment for a specific targeted behavior is best. Finally, it is
valuable to attempt to find out what drives the misbehavior and work toward managing
the environment to minimize causative factors. As noted previously in this chapter,
children who are experiencing LD may misbehave out of frustration. This may also be
the case for children who are experiencing anxiety or depression. By identifying the
child's goals and misbehavior, you can present more appropriate opportunities and
methods to reach the child's goals. When used appropriately, punishment can make a
positive difference; however, punishing interventions should always follow efforts at
using reinforcing interventions to model and shape appropriate classroom behavior.
10.2 Methods of behavior change

Antecedent Methods--used prior to the "target" behavior:
o Change the environment to change your behavior
o Learn new behavior (using models, self-instructions)
o Using controlling or conditioned response
o Relapse prevention
o Motivation training--increasing our drive level
o Meet basic needs (so they won't get in the way)
o Recognize your motives and defense mechanisms
Techniques Used During-the-Behavior:

 Record antecedents & consequences; behavioral analysis
 Disrupt the unwanted habit; thought stopping
 Substitute new behavior to break a bad habit
 Satiate behavior or flooding; paradoxical intention
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 Develop positive expectations; building self-efficacy
 Increase intrinsic satisfaction in the activity
Consequence Methods--applied after the "target" behavior has

occurred:
 Reward the desired behavior--a powerful method
 Extinction (no reinforcement
Antecedent Methods--used prior to the "target" behavior:

1. Change the environment to change your behavior
The environment has a powerful influence on subsequent behavior. Many of our

responses are automatic: we drive with effortless attention to the road and lights, we take
notes in class without thinking about how to write (or what was said, sometimes). In the
long run the frequency of these behaviors may depend on the consequences (the payoffs
for driving or writing), but at any one moment it is primarily the stimuli in the
environment that control our behavior. Thus, within the change-the-environment method
there are two basic techniques for self-control: (1) avoiding situations that lead to
unwanted behavior and (2) providing stimuli that prompt desired behavior.
2. Learn new behavior (using models, self-instructions)
Self-observation and self-evaluation may result in our feeling a need to change. One way
to change our behavior is to change the environment, as we have just discussed. Another
way is to learn some new and better way to respond in the old situation. The focus is on
three major learning techniques: learning from observing others, the use of self-
instructions, and practicing new behaviors. These approaches to learning new behavior
are generally useful in many situations to replace many different kinds of unwanted
behaviors. All three are among the most commonly used approaches to changing.
3. Using controlling or conditioned response
Some of our actions are easy to control and, indeed, some desired responses are
conditioned to occur automatically. For instance, if we brush our teeth after every meal or
buckle our seat belts every time we get in a car, it becomes automatic. It is reasonable to
use easy-to-control behaviors to control harderto- control behaviors. "Controlling
behavior" is Skinner's term (1953) and is really another form of changing the
environment. In other situations, if an activity can be gotten under stimulus control (via
conditioning), and the stimulus can be maintained, then self-control
is easy. This is called a "conditioned response."
4. Relapse prevention
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One of the hardest parts of self-control is stopping some unwanted, but compelling
behavior. Once stopped, then there is the problem of staying in control. The basic
approach is to avoid the stimuli that produce the unwanted response or, the opposite, to
confront the tempting situation repeatedly without responding in the undesired way thus,
reducing the habit's control over you.
5. Motivation training--increasing our drive level
Our motivation, self-concept, attributions, and other cognitions (thoughts) have an

enormous influence on our behavior...and on our emotions, perceptions, bodies, etc.
Frankly, I believe motivation is our psychological "black hole"—an important, powerful
force which we scientifically know very little about thus far. We don't know what makes
one person become highly motivated, driven to become an Olympic athlete or an
outstanding scholar, while another similar person in their mid-twenties has no goals,
wants only to be supported by his/her parents and avoid work.
.
6. Meet basic needs (so they won't get in the way)
A major contribution of Humanistic Psychology is the idea that basic needs must be
satisfied before we can proceed on to other more advanced tasks. Otherwise, unsatisfied
needs will demand our attention and energy. This is a possible explanation for many of
our failures in self-improvement. And the implications of these failures are: (l) find out
what unmet need is interfering with your progress, (2) satisfy that need, and (3) go back
and try again to achieve the original self-improvement.
7. Recognize your motives and defense mechanisms
Actions are rational and intentional. Sometimes we avoid reality, we deny the truth, we
fool ourselves. We may see the world the way we want to, not the way it is (example: a
person falling in love or going through divorce). We may use excuses or rationalizations
for avoiding an unpleasant but important task (example: procrastination instead of
studying or self-indulgence instead of thinking of others). We may seek hidden payoffs
through some action (example: fat helps us avoid sex or putdown games build our ego).
The purpose of these distortions and self-cons is to make us feel better about our
behavior, to defend ourselves against anxiety, and/or to conceal an unworthy purpose.
The self-evident solution to this self-deception is to be honest and realistic with
ourselves. But how do we do this? There are powerful reasons for our distortion of
reality; how can they be overridden? How can we deal with our own unconscious?
Techniques Used During-the-Behavior:

7. Record antecedents & consequences; behavioral analysis
If we can understand what causes a particular behavior, we are more likely to be able to
change that behavior. One way to better understand some specific behavior is to carefully
observe its antecedents and consequences, i.e. what occurs just before and right after the
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behavior. By using knowledge of learning we should be able to analyze the situation and
explain the behavior.
8. Disrupt the unwanted habit; thought stopping
A habit flows along smoothly. Once interrupted, however, it is easier to stop or alter its
course. Likewise, an unwanted response, like an outburst of anger, can be reconsidered if
there is a pause in the process before any action occurs; thus, the wisdom of the old
adage, "Count to 10 before getting mad." Furthermore, it is easier to avoid temptations if
there is a delay of gratification and attention is directed away from the temptation. Walk
away and get your mind involved in something else.
Unwanted worries or fantasies can sometimes be delayed or ordered to stop, which is a
form of disruption. However, in other cases, attempts to suppress an obsession make it
worse. In order to develop a new behavior, we may have to weaken the old habit,
especially if it is a strong habit. In order to study, we have to break our habit of watching
TV all the time. In order to eat more healthy food, we have to break our habit of eating
lots of red meat. Sometimes the old habit can be broken instantly, "cold turkey," but often
some technique is needed.
9. Substitute new behavior to break a bad habit
An old habit can be broken by replacing it with a new, more desirable habit. Azrin and
Nunn (1977) use this approach to controlling habits (see chapter 4). A similar concept is
used in two other situations: (l) more acceptable responses can replace unwanted habits,
e.g. one could listen instead of give advice or chew gum instead of smoking, and (2) a
better way of meeting one's needs could be found, e.g. one could handle loneliness by
learning social skills rather than by watching TV or by joining a support group rather
than merely complaining to relatives about having nothing to do.
10. Satiate behavior or flooding; paradoxical intention
Many unwanted habits become unpleasant when they are continued for a long time, i.e.
satiated. Example: if one smokes too much it may become nauseating, even to the
addicted smoker (especially in a very small room). Being required to bite your nails or to
worry continuously for 5 minutes every hour may become unpleasant. Thus, these
behaviors should occur less frequently.
In some instances, paradoxical behaviors result in the person saying "enough is enough"
and learning a new behavior. In other instances, the continuation of the unwanted
behavior becomes punishing and so we drop it. In other situations, an unwanted behavior
that seems determined to occur in spite of your opposition will go away as soon as you
start demanding paradoxically that the behavior occur more frequently (like a crying
child, who hopes he/she is bothering you, stops when asked to cry harder and longer). In
the opposite direction, Wegner (1989) contends that obsessions develop because we try to
suppress them, which causes the thought to come on even stronger. Therefore, the
solution is to "stop the stopping" and, instead, just let the thought occur or perhaps
encourage it.
11. Develop positive expectations; building self-efficacy

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Self-efficacy is a very old notion (self-confidence or belief in oneself) but a popular new
psychology term (Bandura, 1977b, 1980a). It influences what we try to do and for how
long. Where does a belief in our ability to control or change a certain situation come
from? (1) From relevant success experiences. (2) From observing others handle the
situation successfully. (3) From being persuaded that we can do it. (4) From perceiving
our physiological state as being prepared for the task at hand. Bandura contends that self-
efficacy is a major underlying factor explaining the effectiveness of all therapies. That is,
behavior or cognitive therapy (or a self-help method) works to the extent you believe you
can use it to change. There is, in fact, a high correlation between expectations and one's
performance.
15. Increase intrinsic satisfaction in the activity
Consequence Methods--applied after the "target" behavior has occurred:

16. Reward the desired behavior--a powerful method
A response followed promptly by an effective reward (reinforcement) will be more likely

to occur again. This is called the "law of effect;" it is the basis of operant conditioning
and the major means of changing voluntary behavior. These learning principles can be
viewed from two perspectives: (1) the motivated learner—who might ask, "What do I
have to do to get the rewards I want?" and (2) the behavior modifier--who asks, "What
rewards (or punishment) do I have to offer to encourage the desired behaviors (in others
or oneself)?"
20. Extinction (no reinforcement
It is sometimes better to disregard an unwanted response than to punish it. Extinction and
punishment lead to the same results: stopping some behavior. However, in extinction the
unwanted response is allowed to occur freely. The person learns "this behavior just
doesn't work; it gets no results at all.

 How may a teacher identify behaviuor problems in the classroom
 Discuss any 5 behaviour modification techniques covered in this unit
 Illustrate ways in a teacher may change students behavior in the ckassrom

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CHAPTER 11
Remembering and Forgetting
Objectives
 Explain why students forget what they learn
 Discuss ways of improving memory amongst learners
11.0 Introduction
Memory is part and parcel of learning. This is because unles past experiences can be
remembered, it is not possible to conclude that learning took place. This chapter
discusses memory and forgetting, analyzing why students forget what thbey learn ansd
ways of improving memory.
11.1 Why Students Forget What They Learn

Memory
Memory is the process by which information is acquired, stored in the brain and later
retrieved.
The brain takes in information, transforms it to give it meaning (encoding), stores it
(retention), and locates it and generates the necessary responses (retrieval). This entire
process is referred to as remembering. Memory is the mental capacity to store and later
recall or recognize events that were previously experienced.
The memory store house incorporates three systems of memory.
(i) Sensory memory, which is also referred to as the Sensory Information Store
(SIS). Uses the five senses common to human nature, sight, taste, hearing,
touch and smell, to collect experiences from the environment. Memory, here,
involves the registration of a particular stimulus depending on the attention
given to it by an individual. Our sensory organs have the ability to retain that
which impinges on them but only for a very short time(a fraction of a second)
Each information received in the sensory memory is available to be selected
for attention and for processing into a more permanent type of memory; STM
or LTM.
(ii) Short-Term Memory (STM) is termed as the working memory. It consists of
what is in our consciousness at any given time. New information entering the
short term memory is retained for about 20 seconds while the information is
categorized on the basis of how important it is. This process is known as
coding. Meaningful information in transferred to the long term memory. In
the STM, new materials are evaluated, organized and combined with new
information and previous one taken from storage. STM has a limited capacity.
According to Miller, (1956) most of us can retain seven separate items at any
given time. Our immediate consciousness is limited to this capacity and as
additional information come in, they push out some that are already there.
Unless the new information is very vivid and simple, we need to rehearse it to
keep it in the STM.
(iii) Long-Term Memory (LTM) is a permanent storage facility that can store
unlimited amounts of information. The transfer of information to LTM
requires a process known as encoding which involves the preparation or
organization of information in a useful and meaningful way so that it can be
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easily remembered. The information needs to be organized so as to be easily
available for future reference and can be updated by new information. During
the transfer of information from the STM to the LTM, incoming information
is coded to be filed in appropriate places. If it is not properly encoded and
stored, it may not be accessible later. Information registration to the LTM
takes longer than STM and is retained on the basis of rehearsal and repetition.
However, information from the LTM is not easily accessible. Cues are
required to retrieve it. It is also never forgotten; individuals only lose the
ability to find it.
Figure 11.1 shows how information is processed for retention purposes.
Environment Sensory Short term Long term

stimuli (input) register memory (STM) memory
(LTM)
Discarded Forgotten
information information
Factors influencing memory

 Intelligence: the higher the intelligence, the better ones memory
 Age; memory grows with age upto some level then begins to decline with age
 Health and emotional status: severe malnutrition, prolonged illness and emotional
instability can lead to a decline in memory
 Lack of attention: when attention is focused, memory is higher
 Low motivation; we tend to remember things that are of interest us.
Memory retrieval
Memory retrieval is the process of returning LTM contents to STM for analysis or
awareness. Sometimes cues are required for retrieval. A cue is a stimulus or hint that can
trigger a retrieval process from LTM.
Remembering
This is the ability to have or keep in memory something that was said, or done the ability
to remember is influenced by:
 intelligence
 nature of what is learnt
 value attached to what is learnt
 the environmental conditions under which learning tales place
 methods of learning
Teachers can measure retention or memory in the following ways:
Recall
This is when a learner is required to produce material they have learnt earlier without
external cues.
Recognition
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In this situation, the learner learns what they had learnt earlier on again. The period
required to ensure full understanding of the information is an indication of how well the
subject matter was learnt at the first attempt.
Learning again/ relearning

In this situation a leaner learns what why had learnt earlier on again. The period required
to ensure full understanding of the information is an indication of how well the subject
matter was learnt at the first attempt.
Restructuring
Here a learner is provided with material in jumbled form and is required to rearrange it.
(b) Forgetting
Forgetting refers to failure to retrieve information from memory. It does not
necessarily mean that the mind has got rid of the information. It could mean that the said
information is unavailable.
Theories of forgetting
Forgetting can be caused by:
(i) neural decay theory
This theory assumes that information disappears or deteriorates with the
passing of time and continuous metabolic processes of the brain. The traces of
information learned slowly disintegrate and become extinct as time passes.
Rehearsal can prevent decay.
(ii) Interference theory: This occurs when new memories interfere with old ones
or old ones interfere with new ones. There are two types of interference effect;
retroactive inhibition and proactive inhibition. Retroactive inhibition occurs
something is forgotten because of information learnt later interferes with it.
For example when a child goes to school and begins to learn a second new
language, they may have difficulties remembering their first language.
Proactive inhibition involves forgetting something because something learned
earlier interferes with it. For example, the learning of the second language is
greatly interfered with by the first language.
(iii) Rejection and repression: This occurs when the brain rejects input that is
unimportant. Stimulus input that is threatening or disturbing to the emotional
centres in the brain may be repressed.
(iv) Cataloguing, filing and retrieval of errors: These occur when the memory
catalogues information wrongly or misfiles things. It becomes difficult to
retrieve information from the memory bank.
(v) Brain damage: It may result from accidents and illnesses. It may result in
amnesia and the inability to file new items into the LTM.
11.2 Ways of Improving Memory among Learners

Teachers can employ the following strategies to enhance retention in the classroom:
(i) Arousal and sustaining of learners’ attention. This may be done in several
ways. They include:
 Tonal variation and modulation of speech,
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 Spelling out and emphasizing the lesson objectives at the start of the lesson,
 Referring to learners by their names,
 Using the right questioning technique and posing questions that the learners
can answer
(ii) Use of part learning/chunking- This involves breaking down the material to
be learnt into manageable portions, planning each portion according to
sequence and linking the portions together as they are mastered. For example,
in English, it would pay to begin with parts of speech before teaching learners
how to construct sentences correctly.
(iii) Organization of material before presentation- This can be done by proper
sequencing, noting key points, and using diagrams, maps and flow charts.
(iv) Immediate testing of the material- This increases learning and recall by
encouraging learners to read over material that has been learnt. It leads to
mastery.
(v) Reduction of memorization- Concepts learnt should be made clear in order to
promote learner understanding and comprehension and minimize cramming,
Equally, information learnt should be meaningful relevant and practical to the
lives of the learners as this is likely to enhance understanding
(vi) Preview and overview of lesson material – information taught at the beginning
and end of a lesson stands higher chances of being retained that what is
covered midway in the lesson. An effort should be made to provide a
stimulating introduction to learning tasks and to consolidate what is covered at
the end.
(vii) Enactment – This involves the use of a hands-on approach in teaching by
making the lesson as learner oriented as possible.
(viii) Consolidation- This means strengthening one’s capacity to remember by
joining together bits and pieces of what has been learnt in a specific area so
that it becomes one continuous whole. Once the sections become connected,
remembering one aspect is likely to provoke remembering the other related
sections.
(ix) Increasing the depth and breadth of processing information- This means
increasing the number and complexity of operations involved in processing
information, from shallow to deep. The more you think through something,
the more you stand to remember its meaning.
(x) Cueing: cues such as highlighting the key concepts can aid recall.
(xi) Sleep/rest: sleeping or resting after learnig reduces interference and enhances
memory consolidation.. it is important to have breaks in between study.
(xii) Overlearning: this involves practicing beyond the point of mastery.it is
beneficial with materials that must be remembered for alon time.more and
more practice makes the learning become automatice.g driving and riding.
(xiii) Use of mnemonic devices to create association- This is done be blending ideas
in the mind such that recall of one idea could possibly lead to the recall of
another.
Variations in using this strategy include:

 Loci method: Here, one creates a mental picture of what is to be learnt.
For example, to learn parts of speech, the learner may create a mental
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picture of a fruit tree with eight fruits hanging from the branches. Each
fruit accounts for a part of speech, for example, nouns and verbs
 Use of acronyms: For example, ROYGBIV is an acronym for the different
colours of the rainbow: red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo, violet
 Use of peg words: learning new lists of items by associating them with
numbers connected to the image, for example, one, two, buckle my shoe;
three, four, knock on the door; five, six, pick up the sticks…. Emphasis-
This can be achieved through rehearsals, giving further explanation of
concepts, practice for enhancement of skills and concepts learnt, use of
many examples, review and reading again.

i. What factors are likely to lead to forgetting of learnt material? (Give five
factors)
ii. Identify and discuss 3 systems of memory
iii. List the factors that influence memory
iv. How can teachers measure retention or memory
v. Discuss 4 theories of forgetting
vi. Analyze ways of improving memory among learners.

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CHAPTER 12
Individual Differences in Learning
Objectives
 Discuss factors responsible for individual differences
 Discuss how to cater for individual differences in the classroom
12.0 Introduction
Individual differences refer to the term in which there are demarcations between or
among individuals. Individuals differ in physical dimension; they differ in strength and in
the pattern of their needs. Individuals also differ in keenness with which their senses
function and the way in which their intellectual and physical functions are integrated.
Virtually, all measures of individuals, whether physical, mental, and emotional or some
other, show characteristics involved to be distributed according to the normal probability
curve. The term individual differences answers such questions as; why are some people
tall while some are short. Why are some people fat while some others are thin? Why are
some people black while some are white? Why are some people introverts while some are
extroverts? Why are some people strong while others are weak? Such questions are in
fact endless. They constitute the parameters of measuring the individuals
12.1 Factors Responsible for Individual Differences

Individual differences are caused by the following factors
a) Genetics or Heredity: this refers to inheritance of traits. Learner A is different from
learner B, because they are not of the same parents. Even siblings of the same parents
differ in some traits likewise are twins. Heredity refers to the transmission of
potentialities or abilities from parents to the child. Also referred to as nature. Heredity
affects learning because children inherit their intellectual potentials or abilities from their
parents, which influences how they learn. The higher the child’s intellectual potential, the
higher his learning capacity
Heredity influences the learning of children because:
 it is the foundation for the intellectual ability of the child
 It creates limits beyond which any environmental influence can surpass.
 every child is born with an intellectual capacity which cannot be extended
 The combination of genes during fertilization results in every child’s uniqueness.
Teachers need to recognize that children are unique.
 children inherit different intellectual abilities from parents
 children also inherit different talents and gifts
b) Social Background: the social activities one is involved in, the religion he practices,
the tradition he believes in, the family class he belongs to, the tribe he is identified with
and the level and type of education he is exposed to, all determine the differences that
may exist between the individuals. The primary investigation, that must precede the
introduction of a technology, must therefore put all these elements into consideration as
they can mar or make the success of the adoption of such technology.
c) Economic Background: this is in terms of material wealth, which includes possessing
of houses or not, high or low income. It has been found that individuals with higher
economic background adopt innovations earlier than individuals with lower economic
89
background. This may be because they are better placed to afford the required inputs. The
extension worker, if capable of identifying such in that category, could become more
effective in his assignment since such individuals could be used as models for others. It is
also from this category, that the selection of contact farmers can be more recording.
d) Political Background: some individuals have their orientations directed towards some
particular focus different from those of some others, who belong to different political
camps. For instance, while free education was introduced in the western part of Nigeria in
1955, it was in much later years that it took place in some other parts of the country.
Products of this circumstance could vary in their disposition towards some things. The
extension work must therefore be very cautious when dealing with programmes that have
political connotation, since even in a community people may have different political
views. Many a times too no matter how seemingly effective a technology may appear, if
F originates from C political field different from the one some people believe in or
belong to, they may reject hypothesis.
e) Readiness and maturation

Readiness implies the level of preparedness to undertake learning tasks. Maturation
refers to the process of gradual development of inherited behavior potential. Readiness
is dependent almost entirely on the level of maturation. Maturation, on the other hand,
depends on the degree of advancement as it relates to the development of the relevant
mental and physical components of the system of an individual. These subsequently
prepare the individual to undertake specific learning tasks.
Maturation affects learning. It makes it possible for desired behavior to occur. For
example, for a learner to be able to sing the required musical notes appropriately, these
must be adequate maturation of the vocal cords. This then facilitates the production of
the said notes.
12.2 How to Cater for Individual Differences in Class
The implication of the knowledge of the reality of individual differences to the teacher is
that, he/she must be aware that just as there are personality differences so are cultural,
social and ecological differences. The teacher needs not be disturbed because learner A
can do one thing while learner B cannot, neither must he be too worried over why some
learners adopted a particular technology while some others did not. He must also bear it
in mind that, because a particular method of teaching was effective with some group of
people, does not mean that it will be effective for all other groups.
Implications of individual differences for classroom learning

The following are implications of individual differences on learning
 For effective learning to be promoted, it is important for teachers to identify the
individual differences of the learners and to organize the learning environment to
cater adequately for these differences. This may involve, for example, changing
the seating arrangement by moving learners who are visually impaired either
nearer or further away from the chalkboard.
 Group work can be used as an approach to learning in order to cater for the
strengths and weaknesses of individual groups of learners. Group work also
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assists learners to share, and learn values and virtues not emphasized in the formal
curriculum
 Content can be adapted to suit individual differences by using strategies useful in
capturing and sustaining the attention span and interests of the learners. This
involves careful selection of learning experiences and variation of instructional
procedures to ensure the practical involvement of all the learners.
 The classroom environment can be organized through the use of a variety of
visual and non visual instructional aids in order to cater for the diverse
backgrounds of the learners.
Implications of maturation and readiness for classroom learning
The teacher should consider the following aspects of readiness and maturation when
teaching
 Teachers should identify the level of maturation of the learners. This should be
used as a basis to determine appropriate content and learning experiences.
 Teachers should vary classroom stimuli to enhance mastery of learning.
 Evaluation should be used positively to measure mastery of skills and concepts.
Teachers should not place excessive emphasis on the outcome of evaluation as
this could easily result in frustration of the affected learners
 Curriculum materials should suit the learning needs of individual learners since
learners may have different levels of maturation.
 Informative feedback on progress towards specified goals should be provided to
learners as a form of motivation. Such motivation can easily lead to conformity,
healthy competition and reinforcement of learning.
 Teachers should assist individual learners to set goals. Setting a goal demonstrates
an intention to achieve and enables learning to proceed from one level to the next.
It also directs the learner’s activities towards the goal so that the learner can
experience success.
 Classroom learning should be related to the immediate environment and
experiences of learners in order to make learning more meaningful.

i. What are individual differences?
ii. State and explain any 5 factors responsible for individual differences
iii. How can the teacher cater for individual differences in the classroom?
iv. What are the implications of maturation and readiness to classroom teaching?

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London
Bacon
91
CHAPTER 13
Attitude Change and Learning
Objectives
 Define attitude
 Discuss the importance of attitude in learning
 Explain ways in which to change attitude for positive learning
13.0 Introduction
Attitudes influence our behavior and the way we learn and interact with other people.
This section defines attitude, and its components. It also examines the factors that shape
attitudes and how attitude influences learning and behavior.
13.1 Definition of Attitude

Attitudes are a mental disposition to act that is expressed towards something with favor
or disfavor. Attitudes are also defined as beliefs and opinions that can tend to make
individuals to behave in certain ways. Attitudes focus on objects, people, events or
institutions. They are likes or dislikes. They are favorable or unfavorable evaluations of
and reactions to objects, people and situations. Attitudes can be expressed as feelings as
well as cognitions and actions. Attitudes have considerable influence on our behavior and
the way we treat others.
13.2 Importance of Attitude in Learning Situations

Positive attitudes to the learning environment, teacher, topic and methods enhance
learning. Teachers should create positive learning environments by using child centered
methods, providing appropriate materials, and establishing a friendly atmosphere.
A learner who does not like the teacher will not like the subject. Teachers should be
friendly and create a pleasant atmosphere for interaction.
Pupils will earn subjects they think are easy with greater motivation than they do those
that they think are difficult.
Learners with positive attitudes tend to be more successful than those with negative
attitudes. Learners should be encouraged to cultivate a positive attitude.
Once formed, attitudes are very resistant to change. Learners who have negative attitudes
towards school, specific subject as and teachers may remain with this attitude for long.
Parents should talk positively about the schools and the teachers.
Parents and teacher should be aware of their attitudes towards learners as they affect how
they interact in the learning process.
13.3 Factors Influencing the Development of Attitudes

a) How practical and useful an attitude is e.g. to get approval of reward. Or avoid
punishment.
b) The values we hold influence our attitudes e.g a child whose family values giving
alms, may have positive attitude s towards sharing
c) Child rearing practices. Children brought up in warm and responsive care are
likely to have a warm accepting attitude towards others.
92
d) Models in our lives. Children will often imitate the behavior and attitude of
significant care givers or other models. From within us. These are prompted by
motivation to defend our egos from anxiety and threats.
e) The need to conform; sometimes we hold certain attitudes so as to feel part of a
community.
f) Reinforcement and association. In reinforcement, a child who is praised for good
performance in a subject may like the teacher and the subject.

i. Define the concept of attitude
ii. Discuss the importance of attitude in the learning process
iii. How do attitudes develop?
iv. Explain the factors that influence the development of attitudes

i) Ngaroga, J. M. (2003). Revision Professional Studies For PTE. East African
Publishers, Nairobi
London
Bacon
93
MODEL EXAMINATION PAPERS
Model paper1
MOUNT KENYA UNIVERSITY
COURSE CODE: BEP3201
COURSE NAME: PSYCHOLOGY OF TEACHING AND LEARNING
Attempt question 1 and any other 2 questions from section B

SECTION A
SECTION A (compulsory)
1. a) Of what use is the psychology of teaching and learning to a teacher? (5mks)
b) Briefly discuss David Ausubel’s Expository learning model (5mks)
c) Explain 2main directions in which learning is transferred (4mks)
d) Explain the 6 level of learning in the affective domain according to Benjamin
Bloom. (6mks)
e) Briefly discuss any 3 aspects of the teacher can influence learning in the
classroom. (6mks)
f) Differentiate between the two types of conditioning: classical conditioning and
operant conditioning. (4mks)
SECTION B
2. Discuss various Emotional/Behavioural Disorders and Communication disorders
that may be found among learners in a normal classroom and how to deal with them as a
teacher. (20mks)
3. a) Outline the factors that determine successful learning through imitation
(8mks)
b) How may learning by imitation be applied to the classroom learning (4mks)
c) What are the implications Bloom’s taxonomy to classroom Learning (8mks)
4. a) Examine Vygosky’s social development theory, stating its three basic

principles and how the theory can be applied to classroom learning (12mks)
b) Assess critically Piaget’s cognitive development theory (8mks)
5. a) Outline The instructional Events model as put forth by Robert Gagne (12mks)
b) How can individual differences affect learning and what are the implications
to the teacher in the classroom? (8mks)
94
MODEL PAPER 2
MOUNT KENYA UNIVERSITY:
COURSE TITLE: PSYCHOLOGY OF TEACHING AND LEARNING
CODE: ECT 321
Attempt question 1 and any other two questions from section B

SECTION A (compulsory)
1. a) Identify any 4 factors determine successful memorization? (4mks)
b). Differentiate between sensory memory, long term memory and working
memory in storage of information in the brain (6mks)
b) Explain the following terms as used by behaviorists (8mks)
 Extinction
 Spontaneous recovery
 Stimulus generalization
 Stimulus discrimination
c) Outline the levels of learning in the psychomotor domain (8mks)
d) a) Discuss Jerome Bruner’s Discovery Learning Model (4mks)
SECTION B
2. a) Analyze the stages in the process of learning based on Gesell’s theory of
learning. (20mks)
3. a). Discuss how the learners Social and Physical environment can affect their
learning. (14mks)
b) What role should a teacher play towards improvement of social & physical
classroom environment? (6mks)
4. a) Discuss Piaget’s Cognitive Constructivism Theory 12mks)
b) What are the implications of Piaget’s theory to teaching and learning (8mks)
5. Discuss various Emotional/Behavioral Disorders and Communication disorders
that may be found among learners in a normal classroom and how to deal with
them as a teacher. (20mks)
95

Psychology of Teaching and Learning

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SCHOOL OF EDUCATION

DEPARTMENT OF CURRICULUM AND INSTRUCTION

P.O. Box 342-01000

UNIT CODE: BEP3201

UNIT NAME: PSYCHOLOGY OF TEACHING AND LEARNING

PURPOSE OF THE COURSE

Expected Learning Outcomes

Teaching / Learning Methodologies

Instructional Materials and Equipment

Recommended Text Books

Text Books for further Reading

PURPOSE OF THE COURSE ........................................................................................................... 2

1.1 Definition of Terms

Learning: Learning may be defined as a relatively permanent change changes in

c) Teaching and learning resources

Is teaching more difficult today?

Books for further reading

2.1 The Process of Learning

Stages in the process of learning

2. Gaining interest in what is to be learned.

 Self-imposed motivation goes deep down onto our personality. We do things

3. Developing skills and understanding

2.2 Ways in which learning takes place

Certain steps involved in the modeling process:

Factors that determine successful learning through imitation include:

2. Repetition and practice

Characteristics of repetition and practice

3. Play and drama

6. Investigation and discovery

10. Transfer of learning

Learning is transferred in two main directions:

Factors influencing transfer of learning

Similarity between the learning situations

Variety of learning experiences

Application of transfer of learning to classroom learning

Application of experience to classroom learning

12. Latent learning

Application of latent learning to classroom learning

3.1 Gagne’s Hierarchy of Learning

ii. Stimulus-response learning

vii. Rule Learning

viii. Problem solving

3.2 Domains of Learning

Psychologist Benjamin Bloom and his colleagues identified three domains or

The cognitive domain

The affective domain

The psychomotor domain

3.3 Review Questions

Books for further reading

4.1 S-R theories i.e. Operant and Classical Conditioning

Schedules of reinforcement and extinction

Limitations of Behavioral theory

4.2 Cognitive Field Theories

Social learning is also referred to as observational/modeling/imitation learning. Proposed

b. Cognitive Constructivism theories

Piaget’s Cognitive Constructivism Theory

1. Sensory motor stage (pre-conceptual stage)

4. Formal operational (11- 15years)

Comparison of Vygosky and Riagets theories of learning

Whereas Piaget described the child as a little scientist, constructing understanding

d. Brunner’s theory of constructivism

Implications for classroom teaching