Space syntax

The term space syntax encompasses a set of theories and techniques for the analysis
of spatial configurations. It was conceived by Bill Hillier, Julienne Hanson and
colleagues at The Bartlett, University College London in the late 1970s to early 1980s
as a tool to help urban planners simulate the likely social effects of their designs.

The general idea is that spaces can be broken down into components, analyzed as
networks of choices, then represented as maps and graphs that describe the relative
connectivity and integration of those spaces. It rests on three basic conceptions of
space:

 an isovist (popularised by Michael Benedikt at University of Texas),

or viewed or visibility polygon, the field of view from any particular point
 axial space (idea popularized by Bill Hillier at UCL), a straight sight-line and
possible path
 convex space (popularized by John Peponis, and his collaborators at Georgia
Tech), an occupiable void where, if imagined as a wireframe diagram, no line
between two of its points goes outside its perimeter: all points within the polygon are
visible to all other points within the polygon.

The three most popular ways of analyzing a street network

are Integration, Choice and Depth Distance.

 Integration measures how many turns have to be made from a street segment to
reach all other street segments in the network, using shortest paths. If the number of
turns required for reaching all segments in the graph is analyzed, the analysis is
said to measure integration at radius 'n'. The first intersecting segment requires only
one turn, the second two turns and so on. The street segments that require the
fewest turns to reach all other streets are called 'most integrated' and are usually
represented with hotter colors, such as red or yellow. Integration can also be
analyzed in local scale instead of the scale of the whole network. In the case of
radius 4, for instance, only four turns are counted departing from each street
segment.
Theoretically, the integration measure shows the cognitive complexity of reaching a
street, and is often argued to 'predict' the pedestrian use of a street: the easier it is to
reach a street, the more popular it should be. While there is some evidence of this being
true, the method is biased towards long, straight streets that intersect with lots of other
streets. Such streets, as Oxford Street in London, come out as especially strongly
integrated. However, a slightly curvy street of the same length would typically be
segmented into individual straight segments, not counted as a single line, which makes
curvy streets appear less integrated in the analysis.

 The Choice measure is easiest to understand as a 'water-flow' in the street network.

Imagine that each street segment is given an initial load of one unit of water, which
 then starts pours from the starting street segment to all segments that successively
connect to it. Each time an intersection appears, the remaining value of flow is
divided equally amongst the splitting streets, until all the other street segments in the
graph are reached. For instance, at the first intersection with a single other street,
the initial value of one is split into two remaining values of one half, and allocated to
the two intersecting street segments. Moving further down, the remaining one half
value is again split among the intersecting streets and so on. When the same
procedure has been conducted using each segment as a starting point for the initial
value of one, a graph of final values appears. The streets with the highest total
values of accumulated flow are said to have the highest choice values.
Like Integration, Choice analysis can be restricted to limited local radii, for instance
400m, 800m, 1600m. Interpreting Choice analysis is trickier than Integration. Space
syntax argues that these values often predict the car traffic flow of streets, but, strictly
speaking, Choice analysis can also be thought to represent the number of intersections
that need to be crossed to reach a street. However, since flow values are divided (not
subtracted) at each intersection, the output shows an exponential distribution. It is
considered best to take a log of base two of the final values in order to get a more
accurate picture.

 Depth Distance is the most intuitive of the analysis methods. It explains the linear
distance from the center point of each street segment to the center points of all the
other segments. If every segment is successively chosen as a starting point, a graph
of cumulative final values is achieved. The streets with lowest Depth Distance
values are said to be nearest to all the other streets. Again, the search radius can be
limited to any distance.

Applications
From these components it is thought to be possible to quantify and describe how easily
navigable any space is, useful for the design of museums, airports, hospitals, and other
settings where wayfinding is a significant issue. Space syntax has also been applied to
predict the correlation between spatial layouts and social effects such as crime, traffic
flow, and sales per unit area.
History
Space syntax originated as a programme research in the early 1970's when Bill Hillier,
Adrian Leaman and Alan Beattie came together at the School of Environmental Studies
at UCL (now known as the Bartlett). Bill Hillier had been appointed Director of the Unit
for Architectural Studies (UAS) as successor to John Musgrove. They established a
new MSc programme in Advanced Architectural Studies and embarked on a
programme of research aimed at developing a theoretical basis for architecture.
Previously Bill Hillier had written papers with others as secretary to the RIBA, notably
'Knowledge and Design' and 'How is Design Possible'. These laid the theoretical
foundation for a series of studies that sought to clarify how the built environment relates
to society. One of the first cohort of students on the MScAAS was Julienne Hanson who
went on to co-author The Social Logic of Space (SLS) with Bill Hillier (CUP,
1984).[1] This brought together in one place a comprehensive review of the programme
of research up to that point, but also developed a full theoretical account for how the
buildings and settlements we construct an not merely the product of social processes,
but also play a role in producing social forms. SLS also developed an analytic approach
to representation and quantification of spatial configuration at the building and the
settlement scale, making possible both comparative studies as well as analysis of the
relationship between spatial configuration and aspect of social function in the built
environment. These methods coupled to the social theories have turned out to have a
good deal of explanatory power. Space syntax has grown to become a tool used around
the world in a variety of research areas and design applications in architecture, urban
design, urban planning, transport and interior design. Many prominent design
applications have been made by the architectural and urban planning practice Space
Syntax Limited, which was founded at The Bartlett, University College London in 1989.
These include the redesign of Trafalgar Square with Foster and Partners and the
Pedestrian Movement Model for the City of London.
Over the past decade, Space syntax techniques have been used for research
in archaeology, information technology, urban and human geography,
and anthropology. Since 1997, the Space syntax community has held biennial
conferences, and many journal papers have been published on the subject, chiefly
in Environment and Planning B.

SPACE SYNTAX is a method for describing and analysing the relationships between
spaces of urban areas and buildings.

Architects normally refer to these relationships as “the layout”. In Space Syntax, the
spaces are understood as voids (streets, squares, rooms, fields, etc.) between walls,
fences and other impediments or obstructions that restrain (pedestrian) traffic and/or the
visual field.

There are three basic conceptions in Space Syntax Analysis:

• Convex space is a space where no line between any two of its points crosses the
perimeter.
A concave space has to be divided into the least possible number of convex spaces.
• Axial space or an axial line is a straight line (“sight line”), possible to follow on foot.
• Isovist space is the total area that can be viewed from a point. The spatial structure of
a layout can be represented using three types of syntactic maps:
• Convex map depicts the least number of convex spaces that fully cover a layout and
the connections between them. The interface map is a special kind of convex map
showing the permeable relations between the outdoor convex spaces to the adjacent
building entrances.
• Axial map depicts the least number of axial lines covering all convex spaces of a
layout and their connections.
• Isovist map depicts the areas that are visible from convex spaces or axial lines. All
three types of maps can be transformed into graphs for purpose of analysis:

• Graph is a figure representing the relationships of permeability between all the

convex spaces or axial spaces of a layout. The spaces are represented by circles
or dots (called nodes) and the links with lines. It is possible to also use links in
order to represent relationships of visibility between spaces.

• Syntactic step is defined as the direct connection or permeable relation

between a space and its immediate neighbours or between overlapping isovists.
In an axial map a syntactic step may be understood as the change of direction
from one line to another.

• Depth between two spaces is defined as the least number of syntactic steps in
a graph that are needed to reach one from the other.

• Justified graph is a graph restructured so that a specific space is placed at the

bottom, “the root space”. All spaces one syntactic step away from root space are
put on the first level above, all spaces two spaces away on the second level, etc.
Justified graphs offer a visual picture of the overall depth of a lay-out seen from
one of its points. A tree-like justified graph has most of the nodes many steps
(levels) away from the bottom node. In such a system the mean depth is high
and described as deep. A bush-like justified graph has most of the nodes near
the bottom and the system is described as shallow.

There are four syntactic measures that can be calculated. They are used in quantitative
representations of building and urban layouts:
• Connectivity measures the number of immediate neighbours that are directly
connected to a space. This is a static local measure.
• Integration is a static global measure. It describes the average depth of a space to all
other spaces in the system. The spaces of a system can be ranked from the most
integrated to the most segregated.
• Control value is a dynamic local measure. It measures the degree to which a space
controls access to its immediate neighbours taking into account the number of
alternative connections that each of these neighbours has.

• Global choice is a dynamic global measure of the “flow” through a space. A space
has a strong choice value when many of the shortest paths, connecting all spaces to all
spaces of a system, passes through it. It is also possible to develop second order
measures by correlating these four first order measures. Intelligibility, for example, is the
correlation between connectivity and integration and describes how far the depth of a
space from the layout as a whole can be inferred from the number of its direct
connections, i. e. what can be understood of the global relation of a space from what
can be observed within that space. The spaces of a layout can be ranked according to
each of the measures. Mapping the rank order back onto the syntactic map offers a
picture of syntactic structure.

• Core is the set of the most integrating (controlling, etc.) spaces of a system. For
example, the 10% most integrated spaces are normally referred as the integration core.
The configuration of that core, whether it is fully connected or split, whether it assumes
a shape of a spine or a wheel, whether it penetrates into all parts or remains clustered
in one area, is an important property of layouts.

The spatial measures can be related to social indicators, to test socio-spatial

hypotheses or to develop predictive models the “social effects” of spatial layout. Such
indicators can be the rate of crime, traffic flow, satisfaction, turnover, etc. The relation
between the “socio-spatial” factors can be calculated using statistics such as linear
correlation.

• Encounter rate is a measure that indexes the use density, i. e. the number of people
observed in a space. We use a standardised technique to tally moving and static people
on a route consisting of a stratified sample of spaces passed twenty times. The unit of
axial analysis can be “number of persons/100 metres”.

In traditional grid street patterns the encounter rate of moving people mostly has a high
correlation to integration; i. e. integration is here a good predictor of pedestrian flow. On
this fact an interesting debate has started, whether it is the spatial structure or if it is the
attraction of shops and other functions that creates movement. We claim that shops
locate to streets with high encounter rate or they are located where the plan designers
can foresee a high rate. Space precedes function! Another question raised is whether a
spatial pattern “creates” crime or if it just “attracts” crime; crime is in fact normally highly
correlated to spatial measures.
THE SOCIAL LOGIC OF SPACE

Space syntax is best described as a research program that investigates the relationship
between human societies and space from the perspective of a general theory of the
structure of inhabited space in all its diverse forms: buildings, settlements, cities, or
even landscapes. The point of departure for space syntax is that human societies use
space as a key and necessary resource in organizing themselves. In doing so, the
space of inhabitation is configured—a term that space syntax recognizes as an act of
turning the continuous space into a connected set of discrete units. Converting the
space to a discrete configuration is useful because different labels can be applied to its
individual parts; these parts then can be assigned to different groups, people, or
activities; different rules of behavior an conventions can be associated with different
parts of the space; and individual parts of space can be recognized as carrying a
specific symbolic or cultural charge.

Representations of space

How is the street network represented?

The street network is a continuous spatial network as shown by the figure-ground plan
of Barnsbury in London (A). Space syntax seeks to provide an objective way of
representing it. Many urban spaces are linear (e.g. streets, boulevards and alleys) and
can be represented as axial lines and segments.

A. Figure-ground plan of Barnsbury

1. Axial map
An axial line is defined as the longest line representing the maximum axial extension of
any point in a straight line. An axial map (B) is the least set of the axial lines which pass
through each convex space (Hillier & Hanson, 1984: p91-92; Turner, A., Penn, A., &
Hillier, B. ,2005: 432-7). The key principle of drawing an axial map is to minimize the
number of lines and the angular change between any pairs of lines.

B. An axial map

2. Segment map
Segment maps enable us to represent the continuous open space in a finer scale. It can
be generated by breaking axial lines into segments at the intersections of the axial
lines. It can be generated from a road centre line map. Road centre line map is
recommended to be simplified before it is converted into a road centre line segment
map.
3. Other methods
These include convex maps, visibility graphs, isovists, agents.

Space syntax
Space syntax, which is based on graph theory, is mainly used to analyze spatial
configurations (Jeong et al., 2014). This theory was developed by Hillier and Hanson in
1984 in London. In this year, Hillier and Hanson published The Social Logic of Space, in
which they outlined a syntactic theory for the organization of spaces in buildings and
settlements. In the book, they argued that buildings, towns, and cities exhibit particular
spatial properties that translate to sociological rules, which affect how people relate to
one another. Within this framework, the spatial configuration of a dwelling or settlement
is believed to present a fairly precise map of the economic, social, and ideological
relations of its inhabitants (Hanson, 1998, Dawson, 2002).
This theory assumes that space is the primary core of sociocultural events. However, as
space is in turn shaped throughout social, cultural, and economic processes, it is
usually regarded as invisible, and its form is not taken into account (Makri and
Folkesson, 2000). In the theory of space syntax, spatial and social forms are in such a
close relationship that a certain spatial configuration may define a number of social
patterns, including the distribution pattern of land use, movement, urban crimes, and
location of immigrants (Hillier, 2007).
Previous methodologies based on space syntax initially neglected all design traditions,
and by providing quantitative solutions, these methodologies restricted the applications
of the theory. However, scholars such as Kasemook illuminated various methodological
aspects of this theory and proposed qualitative approaches to society, human beings,
and to the relationship between humans and the physique of a city (Kasemook, 2003).
A considerable number of research and publications have indeed shown that previous
space syntax studies focused on real environments and identified the intrinsic nature of
man-made environments (Mustafa and Sanusi Hassan, 2013). A prominent showcase
of the use of space syntax for buildings is the evaluation of design proposals for the
Tate Britain in London in 2002 (Dursum, 2007).

Space Syntax
Space Syntax explores the science of human behaviour for cities, urban places and
buildings. Director Bill Hillier and managing director Tim Stonor tell Katie Buckley and
Alice Davis how their approach works

Bill Hillier and Tim Stonor

The social housing of 1960s London gets a bad rap these days, but when the structures
were being built, a student named Bill Hillier found them exciting. Fascinated, he’d find
and explore them, buoyed by the notion that great things were happening in the city’s
architecture. But, after 10 minutes inside, he’d get the feeling that “life wasn’t worth
living.”

“There was something wrong,” Hillier says, “something had disappeared.” The sense of
organisation and connectedness he associated with the city were not present in these
developments. “These places seemed to be quite different; they seemed to separate
people and create empty spaces,” he says.

Hillier wanted to know why, and that marked the start of his life’s work: understanding
the way people behave in space. He discovered that this not only informs the way we
move, but can also affect our psychological wellbeing and wider societal behaviours.
Throughout the next decades, ‘space syntax’ came into being, an evolving family of
theories pioneered and developed by Hillier and Julienne Hanson at University College
London (UCL) to analyse spatial configurations.

Hillier established the company Space Syntax as a consultancy whose “science-based,

human-focused” methods determine the optimum planning direction for buildings, urban
spaces and cities. Space Syntax aims to help urban planners and architects achieve the
best possible performance for their project and the surrounding community, in terms of
social, environmental and economic benefits.

SYNTAX STEPS

When a new project lands on a desk at Space Syntax, there’s a process of research,
analysis, discussion and evaluation to go through.

1 Diagnosis
A thorough investigation of the existing situation. The firm builds a spatial analysis
model of the site and a detailed set of pedestrian movement surveys. This helps them to
understand the wider context of the project.

2 Report
The findings are presented to the team and the client, and the constraints and
opportunities of the development are discussed. The findings inform the architect’s
creative process.

3 Design Development
Based on space syntax principles and expertise, design concepts are tested. Proposals
are simulated to help clients understand different options. These are then explored and
evaluated in an iterative process between the design team, the client team and Space
Syntax.

4 Impact Assessment
A detailed impact assessment investigates the plan within a variety of socio-economic
parameters, from a pedestrian movement forecast to projected rental incomes or
property values to assessing risk of burglary.

5 Planning Support
The reports generated are used to various ends; for example, to communicate likely
impacts to stakeholders and investors.
BEIJING, CHAOYANG CBD

In 2009, the China Academy of Urban Planning & Design (CAUPD) and Space Syntax
created a low carbon masterplan for the extension of Beijing’s Central Business District
(CBD). The design union developed a vision for Chaoyang with five guiding principles:
to celebrate the history of the district; to integrate new development with the existing
CBD and the surrounding urban neighbourhoods; to promote a total energy solution for
the new CBD incorporating resource-efficient consumption and renewable energy
generation; to establish a civic identity for the new CBD based on human-scale streets
and public spaces; and to balance historic preservation with redevelopment to create a
harmonious historic continuity.

The Social Logic of Space

Developed by Bill Hillier and Julienne Hanson in the mid-80s, space syntax is an all
encompassing method of analysing how people react in and to a space. Using a
combination of angular movement analysis and multi-scale activity analysis while
integrating an existing layout enables Space Syntax to understand how a site is used
and deliver environments that enhance mobility, economic activity, safety and social
conviviality.
The modelling that Space Syntax uses takes all of this data and transforms it into a
network graph. Each section of the site is divided up from a centre point, designating
individual areas into ‘segments’. For a building, these segments become designated
tiles, allowing a micro approach to analysing space.

The segments are then assessed using integration depths and mathematical algorithms
to further understand their accessibility; for example, how easy it is to reach the
specified segment. Once this is established, clear patterns begin to appear about how
the space is used, and how to improve the space.

Space Syntax’s method of understanding space gives architects, developers and

investors the chance to use their spaces to their full potential.
JEDDAH UNPLANNED SETTLEMENTS

Space Syntax completed a Strategic Planning Framework for Jeddah in 2006.

The redevelopment strategy creates smooth transitions from city-wide access to local
routes within Jeddah’s unplanned settlements, thus reconnecting the settlements to the
larger city.

Jeddah Central Area Masterplan

Jeddah Pedestrian movement and public realm strategy
DUBAI

In 2008, Space Syntax carried out an assessment of spatial structure and density
distribution proposed by the strategic growth plan for Dubai. The work was carried out
for Aecom.
DUBAI
THREE WAYS SPACE SYNTAX ADDS VALUE

Space Syntax can strengthen its clients’ offering and help increase future returns in a
number of ways:

• Revealing unseen opportunities

Using pioneering technology, Space Syntax identifies the aspects of a site that influence
human behaviour. The data is used to manipulate the site’s economic and social
activity.

• Measuring the likelihood of success

Space Syntax predicts the effects and outcomes of proposed strategies and designs,
specifically focusing on criteria such as land value, rental income, footfall and safety.

• Facilitating communication
The language of Space Syntax is understood across disciplines and unites the aims of
planners, architects, engineers, economists, developers, investors and the public.